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PHRASE STRUCTURE AS CLAUSE ELEMENTS
AILTON PEREIRA ROCHA
INTRODUCTION
 
 The present English Course, ESP (English for Specific/Special Purposes) aims at enabling students to decode written texts, which are formed by coherently connected sentences, according to the knowledge shared by a given community. To attain this goal, the students should be aware that:
 (a) A sentence is one or more clauses. 
 (b) A clause (=subject + predicate) is one or more phrases;
 (c) A phrase is one or more words;
 (d) A word is one or more morphemes;
 (e) A morpheme is one or more phonemes;
 (f) A phoneme is the smallest sound unit in a language.
 Understanding a text therefore involves phonology, morphology and syntax, as seen from (f) to (a) above. As a starting point, the basic clause types will be presented to explain the syntactic functions performed by their elements as well as to point out that our primary aim is teaching phrase structure as clause elements.
 
 1 The Basic Clause Types 
 A clause usually consists of a subject (the theme talked about) and of a predicate (what is said about the subject), forming a simple sentence (containing one clause) or part of a complex sentence (containing more than one clause).
 The clause elements are subject, verb, complement, object (the main elements) and adverbials (modifying elements). Adverbials are usually optional, because they may be omitted without making the clause unacceptable, as in
 (Sometimes) Paul helps Mary (at the library) (all day).
 These syntactic functions are performed by five types of phrase: noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase and prepositional phrase.
 There are seven basic clause types, so considered because their elements are obligatory; even the adverbials in types (2) SVA and (6) SVOA below. The clause types in their simple declarative form are:
1 SVC: SUBJECT + Linking VERB (Intensive) + Subject COMPLEMENT
 (The subject complement is a phrase which describes the subject.) 
 (a) Noun phrase + Verb Phrase + Noun Phrase
 That girl is Mary.
 Mary 	 is	 a librarian.		
 (b) Noun Phrase + Verb Phrase + Adjective Phrase
 The librarian is (very) tired.
 She has been (too) busy. 
2 SVA: SUBJECT + Linking VERB (Intensive) + ADVERBIAL
 (a) Noun Phrase + Verb Phrase + Adverb Phrase
 The library is there.
 It is upstairs. 
 Our classroom is (right) here.
 (b) Noun Phrase + Verb Phrase + Prepositional Phrase
 Mary is at the library.
 The bookshop is on the corner.
3 SV: SUBJECT + Intransitive Event VERB (Extensive)
 Noun Phrase + Verb Phrase
 Mary works.
 The librarian is working.
 She will be working.
4 SVO: Subject + Monotransitive VERB + Direct OBJET
 (The direct object is the entity which something has been done to.) 
 Noun Phrase + Verb Phrase + Noun Phrase
 Mary is classifying (some) books.
 Paul is helping her.
 They liked the books.
5 SVOC: SUBJECT + Complex-transitive VERB + Direct OBJECT + Object COMPLEMENT 
 (The object complement is a phrase which describes the object.)
 (a) Noun Phrase + Verb Phrase + Noun Phrase + Adjective Phrase
 We consider Mary (very) efficient.
 She thought the books	 (rather) interesting.
 (b) Noun Phrase + Verb Phrase + Noun Phrase + Noun Phrase
 We consider her an excellent librarian.
 She thought them very good books.
6 SVOA: SUBJECT + Complex-transitive VERB + Direct OBJECT + ADVERBIAL
 (a) Noun Phrase + Verb Phrase + Noun Phrase + Adverb Phrase
 She put the books (right) here.
 (b) Noun Phrase + Verb Phrase + Noun Phrase + Prepositional Phrase 
 She put them on the shelf. 
7 SVOO: SUBJECT + Ditransitive VERB + Direct OBJECT + Indirect OBJECT 
 (The indirect object is the entity which the direct object is given to, made for, etc.) 
 (a) Noun Phrase + Verb Phrase + Noun Phrase + Prepositional Phrase
 She gave a book to that boy.
 She gave it to him. 
NOTE: If the order of the objects is changed, the prepositional phrase functioning as indirect object becomes a noun phrase:
 (b) Noun Phrase + Verb Phrase + Noun Phrase + Noun Phrase
 She gave that boy a book.
 She gave him a book.
 As seen above, there are five clause elements: subject, verb, complement, object and adverbial. These syntactic functions are performed by phrases: NP, VP, Adj. P, Adv. P and PP. 
 A clause may have more than one adverbial, but only one of the other elements. Of course,
there can be one or two objects, direct and indirect, in a clause.
 The normal order of the clause elements is: S + V + O + C + A (M + P + T)
 Ex.: She wanted to eat her breakfast quietly in her room this morning.
 S V O C Manner Place Time 
 NP VP VP NP Adv. P Adv. P Adv. P
 1.1 Formal classification of the clauses 
 Clauses may be divided into four major syntactic types differentiated by their form. Their use correlates largely with different discourse functions:
 1.1.1 Declaratives: the subject is present and generally precedes the verb¹.
 1.1.1.1 Affirmative: positive statement: She is happy. He gave her a diamond ring.
 1.1.1.2 Negative: negative statement: She is not happy. He did not give her a diamond ring. 
 1.1.2 Interrogatives: formally marked in one of two ways: 
 1.1.2.1 Yes-no questions: the operator is placed in front of the subject:
 1.1.2.1.1 Positive yes-no questions: Is she happy? Did he give her a diamond ring?
 1.1.2.1.2 Negative yes-no questions: Isn`t she happy? Didn`t he give her a diamond ring?
¹ Note that the subject, and even the verb, may be ellipted in some clauses as, for example: 
 ‘Beg your pardon’ or ‘Sorry’, corresponding to ‘I beg your pardon’ and ‘I am sorry’. 
 1.1.2.1.3 Tag questions:
 1.1.2.1.3.1 Positive tag question: 
 She isn`t happy, is she? He didn`t give her a diamond , did he?
 1.1.2.1.3.2 Negative tag question: 
 She is happy, isn`t she? He gave her a diamond ring, didn`t he?
 1.1.2.2 Wh-questions (information questions): with initial interrogative wh-element:
 1.1.2.2.1 with the interrogative pronouns who, whom; whose; what, which (See 2.3.5)
 1.1.2.2.2 with when, where, why, how, how + adjective, how + adverb; and in questions 
 with what + SUBJECT + BE + like 
 Compare: How is she? What is she? What does she like?What is she like?
 1.1.3 Imperatives: Directives normally have no overt grammatical subject, and the verb has
 the base form: Be happy. Give her a diamond ring.
 1.1.4 Exclamatives: exclamations have an initial phrase introduced by what or how:
 How happy she is! What a fine ring he gave her!
 
 1.2 Discourse functions
 Associated with these four clause types are four classes of discourse functions:
 (a) Statements are primarily used to convey information.
 (b) Questions are primarily used to seek information on a specific point.
 (c) Directives are primarily used to instruct someone to do something.
 (d) Exclamations are primarily used for expressing the extent to which the speaker is 
 impressed by something.
 
 Direct association between syntactic class and semantic class is the norm, but the two classes do not always match, as the following clauses illustrate:
(1) He gave her a diamond ring?
(2) What do I care?
(3) I`d love a cup of tea.
(4) Isn`t she lucky! 
 
 The clause in (1) is a declarative question. It is syntactically declarative but semantically a question. The rhetorical question in (2) is syntactically an interrogative but semantically a statement: (‘I certainly don`t care.’). In (3) the declarative is semantically a directive suggesting that the hearer bring the speaker a cup of tea. And (4) is syntactically interrogative but semantically an exclamation.
 
 2 NOUN PHRASES
 A noun phrase is a word or group words that can act as:
(1) Subject: Mary is a librarian.
(2) Direct object: She is helping Jane.
(3) Indirect object: She is giving her a hand.
(4) Subject complement: Mary is a librarian.
(5) Object complement: We consider her a good librarian.
(6) Prepositional complement: She is working with the chief librarian.
(7) Adverbial: They are classifying books this morning.
 
 2.1 The basic noun phrase
 The basic noun phrase is a determiner + head:
 Singular: the book, a book, this book, that book, my book
 Plural: the books, some books, these books those books, our books
 2.1.1 The head
 The head of a noun phrase is typically a noun, but it can also be an adjective denoting
(a) a class of people (plural): the young (= those who are young), the old, the noble, etc.
(b) an abstract quality (singular): the unknown (= that which is unknown), the absurd, etc.
 The adjective takes plural concord in (a), singular concord in (b) and has generic reference in both: The unemployed are worried. The worst is to come.
 The head of a noun phrase can be a noun or pronoun without any determiners. The types of nouns that can act as noun phrases are:
proper nouns:		 Paul is helping Mary.
plural count nouns: Libraries contain books.
mass nouns: Butter is made from milk.
verbal nouns in –ing: I like swimming and fishing.
NOTE: Pronouns cannot generally occur with a determiner: They told us everything.
 BUT: The same old someone that I knew. (specific reference)
 
 2.1.2 Determiners and cooccurrence
 There are several classes of words that can function as determiners to specify the range of reference of a noun or to indicate quantity. The most important category of determiners is that of central determiners, which may be preceded by predeterminers (All these people knew each other.) and followed by postdeterminers (Their several plans failed.).
 Some words used as determiners (This book is mine.) can be used as pronouns (This is my book.), and some words can only be determiners (This is my book.) while others can only be pronouns (This book is mine.) (See 2.1.2.3)
 The determiners which occur with count nouns (singular or plural) and mass nouns, as well as those that can be used as pronouns are shown in the following table:
DETERMINERS AND COOCCURRENCE
Central determiners |Count nouns singular | plural |Mass nouns |Pronouns __ 
the	 + + + - 
a, an + - - one
0 (zero) - + - -
this, that + - + +
these, those - + - +
my, your, his, etc. - + + mine, etc.
every, each + - - - +¹
some, any + + + +¹ +¹ 
no + + + none¹
much - - + +¹
enough - + + +¹
either, neither + - - +¹ +¹
what, whatever + + + +¹ +¹
which, whichever				 + + + +¹ +¹ 
_____________________________________________________________________________
Predeterminers ______________________________________________________________________ 
all + + + +¹
both - + - +¹
half + + + +¹
double + + + - 
one-third, two-fifths, etc. + + + +¹
what a , such a + - - -
what, such - + - - 
 
 ____________________________________________________________________________
 Postdeterminers_____________________________________________________________
 one + -- +¹
 two, three, four, etc. - + - +¹
 first, second, third, etc. + + + -
 last, next, other + + + -
 many, several - + - +¹ +¹ 
 more, most - + + +¹ +¹
 (a) few, fewer, fewest - + - +¹ +¹ +¹
 (a) little, less, least - - + +¹ +¹ +¹
 dozen, hundred, thousand - + - dozens, etc.
 whole + - - _____________________________________________________________________________________
¹ These pronouns can have an of-phrase as postmodification: each of the boys, some of the books, any of the cars, none of the people, much of what has been said, enough of the cake, either of the boys, neither of us, what of the passengers, many of the soldiers, several of the apples, more of her money, most of the documents, few of the children, little of the wine, less of the cake
 
 2.1.2.1 The articles	
 The definite article the, the indefinite article a or an and the zero article 0 are used for specific and generic reference with definite or indefinite meaning. 
 2.1.2.1.1 Uses of the indefinite article: classification
 Use a before a word beginning with a consonant sound and an before a word beginning with a vowel sound.
 Supply a, an or 0 to complete the following noun phrases:
1 ___ man 6 ___ half 11 ___ Italian city 16 ___ one-way street
2 ___ car 7 ____ city 12 ___ yellow cab 17 ___ university 
3 ___ men 8 ____umbrella 13 ___ archives 18 ___ honest man
4 ___ idea 9 ___ libraries 14 ___ archivist 19 ___ American car
5 ___ hour 10 ___ librarian 15 ___ used car 20 ___ old university
 
 The definite article is used to classify an entity:
 A horse is an animal. (= any horse, every horse)
 When the indefinite article means any or every (=generic reference), its plural is zero:
 Horses are animals.
 If the indefinite article means one (specific reference), then its plural is some or zero:
 We bought a horse. --> We bought some horses. We bought horses.
(A) Add a or an to complete the noun phrases in the following sentences:
1 __ archive is __ unique collection of the legal records of __ individual, __ corporation or __ governmental agency.
2 The state constitution is ___ example of ___ one document series, and ___ correspondence file is ___ example of ___ series comprising thousands of individual documents.
3 ___ library is ___ collection of books, journals, pamphlets, etc., generally printed, although manuscripts may also be included. It is also ___ building or part of ___ building, which contains books that may be borrowed by the public (public library) or by the members of ___ special group (private library), or ___ room where books are kept and may be looked at, usually with tables at which people can study.
 
(B) Supply a or an and change the sentences to the plural form. Then write S or G in the brackets to indicate whether the noun phrases have specific or generic reference.
 1 ___ librarian is ___ specialist in librarianship. ( ) 
 2 There is ___ car in front of the library. ( )
 3 ___ lion is ___ animal. It is ___ wild animal. ( )
 4 ___ librarian works at ___ library. ( )
 
 2.1.2.1.2 Uses of the definite article: identification
 The definite article the is used for:
1 Specific reference, relating to the members of a class:
 (a) Anaphoric reference (back-pointing use): When identity has been established by an 
 earlier mention, often with a or an: 
 (1) direct: We saw a film and a play. We liked the play best. 
 (2) indirect: He bought a CD, but he didn`t like the songs.
 (b) Cataphoric reference (forward-pointing use): Identity established by postmodification: 
 The horse we bought is black. 
 Did you enjoy the breakfast we had yesterday?
 (c) Situational reference: 
 (1) The immediate situation: 
 The lion is hungry. (Said in a zoo.) 
 The children are sleeping. (Said in a domestic context.) 
 These are the pistons. (Explaining the engine of a car.
 
 (2) The larger situation (General knowledge):
 The United Kingdom has a seat in the United Nations.
 The earth goes round the sun. 
 We heard about the accident on the radio.
2 Generic reference, relating to what is general or typical for a whole class of entities:
 The tiger is a dangerous wild animal. (The species as a whole.) 
 The Eskimos live in igloos in the North Pole.
EXERCISE
 (A) Add the determiners a, an or the to complete the noun phrases in the following texts:
1 Library as ___ institution, constitutes ___ integral part in ___ manner of organization of ___ society in which it functions. Its main role consists in providing and developing ___ means to ___ easy access to knowledge. Librarianship is, therefore, ___ social process, inextricably bound up with ___ life of ___ community in ___ same sense as education.
2 To raise ___ question of practical values with ___ man whose whole life is devoted to ___ professional activity usually seems to him dangerously close to sacrilege. It does not always contribute to ___ amenities of ___ occasion to remark to ___ artist, ___ musician or ___ philosopher that ___ social value of his labour is ___ matter for question.
 (B) Write S or G in brackets to indicate whether the italicized noun phrases have specific or generic 
 reference:
 1 The librarian is classifying books now.	 ( )
 2 The librarian needs to know what society needs. ( )
 3 The library will be open tomorrow. ( )
 4 The library is an old institution.		 ( )
 5 The library is conceived to assist the reader. ( )
 6 The reader is waiting for the book. ( )
 7 The Japanese were listening patiently. ( )
 Notes on the plural of nouns: 
 1 To form the plural of most nouns in English, add s to the singular: boy > boys
 2 If the singular ends in –y preceded by a consonant, change -y to –ies: city > cities 
 Exception– proper nouns: the Kennedys 
 3 If the singular ends in a sibilant sound (-s, -sh, -ch, --x or –z), add –es to form the plural: 
 bus > buses - dress > dresses - dish > dishes - watch > watches - box > boxes - topaz - topazes 
 But if the final –ch is pronounced /k/, add –s: stomach > stomachs - monarch > monarchs 
 4 If the noun ends in –o preceded by a consonant, add –es: hero > heroes - potato > potatoes
 But see foreign plurals below.
5 If the noun ends in –f or –fe, change the ending to –ves: shelf > shelves - wife > wives 
 Exceptions: beliefs, chiefs, cliffs, proofs, roofs, safes, etc. A few nouns have either form: 
 dwarfs/dwarves - hoofs/hooves - scarfs/scarves 
 Irregular plurals
 man > men - woman > women - child > children - ox > oxen
 foot > feet - tooth > teeth - goose > geese 
 mouse > mice - louse > lice 
 These nouns have the same form for both singular and plural: sheep, deer, means, series, species 
 Mass nouns have no plural: advice, clothing, furniture, information, etc. Even those ending in –s:
 news, measles, politics, mechanics, physics, mathematics, economics
 Foreign plurals
1 Nouns ending in -o add s: concertos, kilos, photos, pianos, radios, sopranos, studios...
 Some nouns ending in –o form the plural with -es or (less common) –s:
 cargoes/cargos - mottoes/mottos - mangoes/mangos - mosquitoes/mosquitos - volcanoes/volcanos 
 1.1 Nouns of Latin origin 
 (a) ending in –us form the plural in -i /ai/: alumnus > alumni - stimulus > stimuli - radius > radii
 (b) ending in –a form the plural in –ae /i:/: alumna > alumnae - larva > larvae - vertebra > vertebrae 
 (c) ending in –um form the plural in –a: memorandum > memoranda - datum > data
 1.2 Nouns of Greek origin
 (a) ending in –is /is/ form the plural in –es /i:z/: analysis > analyses - basis > bases - crisis > crises - 
 diagnosis > diagnoses - hypothesis > hypotheses - oasis > oases - thesis > theses
 (b) ending in –on form the plural in –a: criterion > criteria - phenomenon > phenomena
 2.1.2.2 The demonstratives
 The demonstratives contrast in:
NUMBER: (a) singular count nouns and mass nouns: this, that; 
 (b) plural count nouns: these, those
GENDER: (a) personal reference: this man; (b) nonpersonal reference: that house
FUNCTION: (a) pronoun: This is a pen. That`s a book. Those are pens. These are books.
 (b) determiner: This book`s mine. That pen is yours. These/Those books are yours. 
GENERAL MEANING: (a) spatial reference: (1) here: this, these; (b) there: that, those
 Ex.: This is Mr. Clark. (Introducing him to another person.)
 That is Mr. Clark. (Pointing at him at a distance.) 
 (b) temporal reference: (1) now: this morning; (2) then: that time
DISCOURSE REFERENCE: 
(a) exophoric reference: Look at this picture. Close that window, please.
(b) endophoric reference: (1) anaphoric: She laughed. That/This made him angry.
			 (2) cataphoric: Wait until you`ve heard this story.	
EXERCISES
 (A) Supply this or these according to number:
1 ______ man 5 ______ boys 9 ______ women 13 ______ stimuli 17 _______ analysis
2 ______ boy 6 ______ wife 10 ______ wives 14 ______ shelves 18 _______ alumnus 
3 ______ men 7 ______ girls 11 ______ shelf 15 ______ watches 19 _______ alumnae
4 ______ girl 8 ______ woman 12 ______ cities 16 ______ analyses 20 _______ stimulus
 
 (B) Supply that or those, accordingly:
1 _____ pen 4 _____ feet 7 _____ basis 10 _____ thesis 13 _____ children 16 _____ potatoes
2 _____ bus 5 _____ mice 8 _____ bases 11 _____ theses 14 _____ criterion 17 _____ countries
3 _____ car 6 _____ data 9 _____ buses 12 _____ people 15 _____ country 18 _____ criteria
 
 
 (C) Supply the correct demonstratives and write D or P between slants to indicate the ones used as determiners and those used as pronouns. Then write S or T in the round brackets to indicate whether they have spatial or temporal reference, and write 1 or 2 in the square brackets to distinguish ‘near’ reference (here or now) from ‘distant’ reference (there or then).
1 I`m tired. _______ books that I`m carrying are very heavy.		 / / ( ) [ ]
2 Let`s ask _______ policeman on the corner where the post office is. / / ( ) [ ]
3 We saw the pyramids in Egypt. _______ monuments are really impressive. / / ( ) [ ] 
4 _______ is not a big city, but I like to live here. 				 / / ( ) [ ] 
5 In the early 50`s, time seemed to pass slowly. In _______ days, 		 / / ( ) [ ] 
 people had time to read books, to listen to the radio, to visit friends and talk
 for hours. I was a child at _______ time, but I still remember.		 / / ( ) [ ] 
 _______ days we have many time-saving gadgets, but we rarely use them / / ( ) [ ] 
 for lack of time. 
 
 (D) Supply the demonstrative required by each sentence below and write A or C in the brackets to indicate whether it has anaphoric or cataphoric reference.
1 Well, you won`t believe _______, but we are just good friends. 				 ( ) 
2 Thanks to Mrs. Brown I`m alive. _______ brave woman saved my life.			 ( )
3 They visited Spain, France and Italy. They loved _______ countries.				 ( )
4 The most important item of hardware is the CPU (Central Processing Unit). _______ is the ( )
 electronic unit at the centre of the computer system.
5 I saw ‘Tropa de Elite” two years ago. _______ was the best film I saw that year. ( )
6 I`ll see ‘Tropa de Elite 2” next week. _______ will be the first film I`ll see this month. ( )
7 “Their peace talks will come to nothing. _______ is what worries me”, said Henry. ( )
8 “_______ is what worries me, too”, agreed Frank.					 ( )
 2.1.2.3 The Possessives
 The possessives are used as determiners (1) and pronouns (2). They are related to the personal pronouns: I; you; he, she, it; we; you; they.
(1) my; your; his, her, its; our; your; their I am doing my homework. (2) mine; yours; his, hers; its; ours; yours; theirs		 Why aren`t you doing yours?
 Supply the possessive determiners as required:
CHARLES: Hello, Bob. This is Charles.
ROBERT: Hi, Charles. What`s the matter?
CHARLES: Well, ____ father went to see one of ____ patients and ____ mother went shopping 
 after lunch, and I`m alone.
ROBERT: Why don`t you come here? ____ brother and I are doing ____ homework, but we`ll 
 be free when you arrive.
CHARLES: Are ____ parents at home?
 ROBERT: Yes, they are watching ____ favourite TV program. And ____ sister, Jane, is giving 
 ____ cat ____ milk.
CHARLES: All right. I`ll be there in half an hour. See you.
 The boy`s name is Charles. Charles`s father is Dr. Brown.
 The boys` names are Charles and Robert. Bob is Robert`s nickname.
 The possessives answer a question with whose:
 Whose pen is this? – That`s my pen. It`s mine.Whose are these magazines? Those are Jane`s. They are hers.
 
 2.1.2.4 The genitive case
 The genitive is formed by adding an apostrophe plus s (`s) to singular nouns (the boy`s father, the child`s mother, Charles`s parents, the actress`s role) and to plural nouns not ending in –s (the children`s mother, the men`s clothes, a women`s college). 
 Plural nouns ending in –s form the genitive with the apostrophe only, the zero genitive (the boys` father, their parents` house, the actresses` role).
 The zero genitive also occurs with Greek names of more than one syllable ending in –s (Socrates` wife, Euripides` play, Archimedes` principle) and other names (especially famous names), where there is a vacillation both in spelling and pronunciation. However, the normal spelling is with the apostrophe only but the s is pronounced (Dickens` novels, Jones` car).
 The genitive has two forms: the inflected (the children`s toys) and the periphrastic (the toys of the children), but the two forms are not normally in free variation. We can say, for example, John`s car (=John has a car), but not *the car of John.
 2.1.2.4.1 The group genitive
 The group genitive is a construction where the s suffix is added to the last element of a noun phrase consisting of a postmodified or coordinated noun head: somebody else`s car, my son-in-law`s bicycle, in a month or two`s time, an hour and a half`s talk 
 With coordinated noun phrases a distinction is made between the group genitive (1) and the coordinated genitive (2):
 (1) John and Mary`s house, Peter and Henry`s father 
 (2) John`s and Mary`s cars, Peter`s and Paul`s fathers
 2.1.2.4.2 The double genitive
 The double genitive consists of the inflected and the periphrastic genitives, generally with a partitive meaning. The postmodifier must be definite and personal:
 a work of Milton`s (= one of Milton`s works), a friend of his father`s (= one of his father`s friends), an opera of Verdi`s (= one of the operas composed by Giuseppe Verdi)
 Compare: He is my brother. (= I have one or more brothers.)
	 He is a brother of mine. (= I have more than one brother.)
 
 2.1.2.4.3 The genitive with ellipsis
 The head of a noun phrase modified by the s genitive may be omitted if the context makes its identity clear:
 My bicycle is better than John`s. (= … than John`s bicycle.)
 His memory is like an elephant`s. (= … an elephant`s memory.) 
 Mary`s a nice car, too. (= Mary`s car)
 With some institutionalized expressions no head needs to be mentioned. It occurs with:
(a) normal residence: my aunt`s (= my aunt`s house), the Johnsons` 
(b) public buildings: St Paul`s (= St Paul`s Cathedral), St James`s (= St James`s Palace)
(c) a place where business is conducted: the barber`s (shop), the butcher`s 
 2.1.2.4.4 The meanings of the genitive
 The more common meanings of the genitive can be shown by sentential or phrasal analogues in brackets as follows:
(a) possessive genitive: my son`s wife (= My son has a wife.)
(b) subjective genitive: his parents` consent (= His parents consented.)
(c) objective genitive: the family`s support (= X supports the family.) 
(d) genitive of origin: the girl`s letter (= The girl wrote a letter.) 
(e) descriptive genitive: a doctor`s degree (= a doctoral degree, a doctorate)
 
 The meanings in (a) – (d) are instances of the specifying genitive; and in (e), the classifying genitive. Compare:
Specifying genitive					Classifying genitive
John is the boy`s name.				John is a boy`s name.
That is the girls` school.				That is a girls` school.
She brought the cat`s milk.				She bought cow`s milk.
 2.1.2.5 Quantifiers
 Quantifiers are determiners and pronouns denoting quantity or amount. The quantifiers which occur with plural count nouns answer a question with How many:
 How many eggs are there in the refrigerator? – There are a few (eggs).
Those which occur with mass nouns answer How much:
 How much milk is there in the fridge? – There is a little (milk).
 2.1.2.5.1 Some, any, no
 Some, any and no contrast in assertiveness. Some (positive) and no (negative) are assertive, but any is non-assertive.
(A) Plural count noun: Affirmative: There are some apples in the refrigerator.
 Interrogative: Are there any apples in the refrigerator?
 Negative: There are not any apples in the refrigerator.
 Emphatic: There are no apples in the refrigerator.
(B) Mass noun: Affirmative: There is some milk in the refrigerator.
 Interrogative: Is there any milk in the refrigerator?
 Negative: There is not any milk in the refrigerator.
 Emphatic: There is no milk in the refrigerator.
 Notice that any is used in the interrogative form, but when we expect or hope that the answer will be positive, we use some: “Would you like some cake?” is a sincere offer. “Do you want any cake?” sounds reluctant.
 Some and any contrast in function: determiner (1) and pronoun (2). When used as pronouns, some and any can be postmodified by an of-phrase (3). No is a determiner (4). Its corresponding pronoun is none (5), which can be postmodified by an of-phrase (6):
(1) She bought some grapes, but she didn`t buy any apples.
(2) As she likes flowers, I sent her some. I listened to all the songs, but I didn`t like any.
(3) Some of the grapes she bought were sour. I didn`t like any of the songs.
(4) Our library has no money for book acquisition.
(5) I didn`t like the songs because none was good.
(6) None of the songs on that CD is good.
 Some and any contrast in stress. Unstressed some and any have an indefinite meaning and occur with plural count nouns, as (A) and mass nouns (B) above. Some in (A) is the plural of an: an apple > some apples, or: a banana > some bananas. Stressed some and any occur with singular count nouns (7), plural count nouns (8) and mass nouns (9) and have a definite meaning:
(7) There was some book or other on this topic published last year. 
 Any car is safer than a motorcycle.
(8) Some people have no manners. I will consider any offers.
(9) He needs some help. Any beer is better than that.
EXERCISES
(A) Supply some, any or no and write D or P in brackets to indicate whether the word is used 
 as a determiner or as a pronoun:
1 I want __________ potatoes. ( ) 
2 Have you got __________ ? ( ) 
3 Sorry, I haven`t got __________ . ( )
4 Have you got __________ carrots? ( )
5 Yes, I`ve got __________. ( )
6 Is there __________ ham in the refrigerator? ( )
7 No, there`s __________ ham. ( )
8 Is there __________ cheese left? ( )
9 Yes, there is __________. ( )
10 So let`s make __________ cheese sandwiches. ( )
(B) Supply some, any or no as required:
1 There are __________ extra chairs in the next room.
2 We didn`t see __________ good shows in New York. 3 There were __________ good shows in New York last year. 
4 We got there without __________ trouble. 5 We got there with __________ trouble.
6 I wanted to buy __________ records, 7 but I didn`t have __________ money with me. 8 Yes, I had __________ money. 
9 They didn`t give me __________ help. 10 They gave me __________ help at all. 11 They never give me __________ help. 12 I need __________help. 13 Can you give me __________?
14 This could happen in __________ big city. 
15 Half a loaf is better than __________ bread.
16 Please give me __________ more coffee. 17 I`m sorry, but there isn`t __________.18 Please put __________ water in that vase; the flowers are dying.
19 __________ students can do this exercise without __________ difficulty. 20 __________ students can do this exercise with __________ difficulty. 21 __________ students can do this exercise with __________ difficulty. 22 __________ students can do this exercise with __________ difficulty.
 2.1.2.5.2 Degrees of quantity or amount
 These quantifiers specify degrees of quantity or amount: much, many, more, most; few, fewer, fewest; little, less, least; enough, several.
 Much is used with mass nouns and many with plural count nouns in negative statements
 We haven`t got much time. There aren`t many pandas in China.
and in questions:
 Is there much milk in the refrigerator? Will there be many guests at the party?
 In affirmative statements much and many occur in formal language
 Much effort was made to reach the trapped miners. Many people helped to rescue them.
But in everyday speech other quantifiers are preferred: a lot of, lots of, plenty are normally used in the affirmative, negative and interrogative forms:
 We got a lot of (lots of, plenty of) time before the train leaves.
 Were there a lot of (lots of, plenty of) questions after the lecture? 
 I don`t have a lot of (lots of) patience with hypochondriacs. 
 Plenty of in negative statements is less common. 
 More and most occur with plural count (1) and mass nouns (2):
(1) We`ve had more fine days this summer than last. Most days this summer have been fine.
(2) We`ve had more fine weather this summer than last. Most weather this year has been fine.
 A few and few occur with plural count nouns (3), a little and little are used with mass nouns (4). Notice that a few and a little denote an optimistic mood, whereas few and little have a negative bias: 
(3) There are a few minutes before the train leaves. 
 The president has few supporters in the army.
(4) There is a little time before the train leaves.
 The president has little support in the army.
 In theory, fewer and fewest should be used only with plural count nouns and less and the least only with mass nouns:
 There were fewer accidents on the road this year than last year, but this doesn`t mean there is less need for careful driving.
 The countries with the least population often seem to be those with the fewest problems.
 In practice, however, the informal use by native speakers of less and the least with plural count nouns is commonly heard, but not generally approved:
 Less and less people can afford to go abroad for their holidays. (Fewer and fewer people…)
 Political programmes on TV attract the least viewers. (… the fewest viewers.)
 Enough occurs with plural count and mass nouns:
 There are enough sandwiches for everybody, but not enough Coke.
 Several can only be used with plural count nouns:
 He hasn`t been to work for several days.
 Several hundred people took part in the demonstration.
 2.1.2.5.3 Numerals
 Exact indications of quantity can be conveyed by means of numbers. Cardinal (one, two…) and ordinal numbers (first, second…) can function as determiners or as pronouns. The ordinals are normally preceded by another determiner, usually the definite article: The first three runners won medals.
 They have five children already, so this will be their sixth child.
 There are ten on the list, so you are the eleventh.
 The general ordinals next, last, other, another, further can either precede or follow the ordinal numbers: 
 The last two books were novels. His two last books were novels. (less common)
 The next five years are of vital importance.
 The other three passengers were men. There were three other passengers.
 He has written another novel. (another = an + other)
 Turkey is eager for a further round of talks with Greece.
 The quantitative nouns dozen, hundred, thousand and million occur with plural count nouns as determiners (1) and nouns (2), which can be postmodified by an of-phrase (3):
(1) There are half a dozen apples in the refrigerator. This plane can hold two hundred people.
(2) They want ten thousand. Twenty millions saw the title fight on TV.
(3) Dozens of plates were broken. There had been hundreds of attempts to rescue them. 
 These quantifiers have zero plural when premodified by others (4). Million, however, can take plural -s when functioning as the head (5). The plural form is normally used with all four nouns when postmodified by an of-phrase, whether they are premodified by other quantifiers or not (6), but the zero plural is common enough (7), even such combinations (8):
(4) three dozen glasses, five hundred years, many thousand miles, several million inhabitants
(5) two and a half dozen, a few hundred, ten thousand, several million(s)
(6) (many) dozens of glasses, (some) hundreds of people, (several) thousands of spectators, (a few) millions of inhabitants
(7) a few dozen of times, many hundred of years, some thousand of them, a few million of us
(8) tens of thousands of people, hundreds of millions of people, millions and millions of stars
 The multipliers once, twice, three times, etc can co-occur with the determiners a, every, each and (less commonly) per to form distributive expressions of frequency with temporal noun as head: once a (every/each/ per) day / week/month/decade
 twice a (every/each/ per) day / week/month/decade
 three times a (every/each/ per) day / week/month/decade
 Such expressions can also occur with every + spatial nouns: We stopped once every mile.
Both with temporal and spatial nouns, every can be followed by a numeral in such expressions as the above: once every three months, twice every hundred miles
 The fractions one-third, two-fifths, etc. can also be followed by determiners. Unlike the multipliers, the fractions have the alternative of-construction. The indefinite article can replace one: He did it in one-third (of) the time it took me. (… a third the time it took me.)
 Fractions are read out in full as follows:
 1/10 = a/one tenth: A tenth of the population live in the capital.
 ½ = (a) half: They stayed (for) half an hour. (… a half hour.)
 ¼ = a quarter: They stayed (for) a quarter of an hour.
 ¾ = three quarters: Three quarters of the stadium were empty. 
 1 ½ - one and a half: I`ll be back in one and a half hours. (… in an hour and a half.)
 
 2.1.2.5.4 Distributives
 The central determiner every and the pronoun each are called distributives, because they refer to the members of a set individually. They occur with singular count nouns. Every suggests “all together” and each suggests “one by one”:
 Every student will have to take the test. Each patient receives individual treatment.
 Every can only be used as determiner (1). Each can be used as determiner (2) and pronoun (3). As pronoun, each can be postmodified by an of-phrase (4):
 (1) Every child likes to play.
 (2) She gave each child an apple.
 (3) She gave each an apple.
 (4) She gave an apple to each of the children.
 Supply each or every as required in the following sentences:
1 _______ library depends on technology, and _______ librarian is a technologist. _______ of us specializes in one or more aspects of technology.
2 This book includes twenty-one chapters dealing with aspects of current technology. _______
chapter is an informal discussion of one or more current technologies.
3 _______ writer and speaker makes some assumptions about the background of the readers or audience. Most articles and programs assume some basic understanding of the subject. Without that assumption, _______ article and program would be nothing more than a basic introduction, leaving no room to advance the topic.
4 I wish now to turn my attention to the papers justpresented at this Fourth Plenary Session.
_______ paper contains useful insight and instructive lessons for us.
 With plural count nouns and mass nouns in generic reference, we use all instead of every: 
 Every child likes to play. > All children like to play. > All advice is useless.
 
The predeterminer all can occur before the definite article, the zero article, possessive determiners and demonstrative determiners (1) with singular count nouns (2), plural count nouns (3) and mass nouns (4):
(1) He spent all (the) money and all his time playing roulette, and regrets all that time he lost.
(2) The baby cried all night. (… the whole night.)
(3) All (the) students were accepted. (specific reference) All men are created equal. (gen. ref.)
(4) All bread gets stale quickly. (generic reference) All the bread was stale. (specific reference)
 All is a pronoun (5) and can be postmodified by an of-phrase (6):
(5) All passed their exams.	
(6) All of the students were accepted. All of them were accepted. 
 The word both refers to two entities, personal (a) or nonpersonal (b), and therefore can occur only with plural count nouns: 
 (a) Both are my neighbours. (The two persons are my neighbous.)
 (b) Both are barking. (The two dogs are barking.)
 Both can be used as pronoun, (a) and (b) above, and as predeterminer. As pronoun (1), both can be postmodified by an of-phrase (2):
 (1) Both had been invited. Both came to the party.
 (2) Both of the girls had been invited. Both of them came to the party.
 The predeterminer both can occur before the definite article, the zero article (3), possessive determiners (4)and demonstrative determiners (5):
 (3) Both the dogs were barking. Both dogs were barking.
 (4) Both his parents died young. Both their friends tried to help 
 (5) Both these books are expensive. Both those persons are my neighbours.
Note: As predeterminer (Both the boys want to become football players.), both is somewhat formal, and can be replaced by the two + noun (The two boys want to become football players.) or by both + noun: Both boys want to become football players.
 
 Half can be used as a predeterminer followed by the definite article (1), the indefinite article (2), possessive determiners (3), demonstrative determiners (4), and as a pronoun (5) or a pronoun postmodified by an of-phrase (6), with singular count nouns (7), plural count nouns (8) and mass nouns (9):
 (1) This new computer can do any operation in half the time the old ones did.
 (2) They live half a mile from here.
 (3) She spends half her time travelling.
 (4) Half these eggs are bad. Half those bottles are empty.
 (5) Half passed their exams.
 (6) Half of my friends live abroad.
 (7) Please wait half a minute.
 (8) Half the shops were shut. I`ve read half of these books.
 (9) Half the food in the refrigerator was bad. The fire destroyed half the furniture.
 
The postdeterminer whole can occur after the definite article (1), the indefinite article (2), or a possessive determiners (3) with singular count nouns (4) and mass nouns (5):
 (1) I spent the whole morning studying the script. (= a definite morning)
 (2) I spent a whole morning studying the script. (= an indefinite morning)
 (3) I don`t believe a word of his whole story.
 (4) The whole film was boring.
 (5) You must tell me the whole truth.
 The central determiners either and neither refer to two entities, like both. The difference is that both is inclusive, meaning the two, while either and neither are exclusive. Either means “one or the other” and neither means “not one and not the other”. Consequently, they can only occur with singular count nouns as central determiners (1) and pronouns (2) or as pronouns postmodified by an of-phrase (3):
 (1) Do you want an appointment with Dr. Levy at 9 or at 10?
 – Either time is difficult. Neither time is convenient.
 (2) Which hand did you hurt? –Neither.
 I sent letters to Helen and Jane, but neither has replied.
 Proust and James are great novelists, but I like Tolstoy better than either.
 (3) She gave him a belt and a wallet, but he didn`t like either of her presents.
 Neither of the twins is very clever. 
 The interrogative pronouns are who, whom, what, which and whose. The last three (what, which and whose) can also function as determiners, referring to persons (1) or nonpersons (2) with indefinite (a) or definite reference (b):
(1) person: (a) What composer do you like best?
 (b) Which composer do you like best: Gershwin or Bernstein?
(2) nonperson: (a) What newspaper do you read?
 (b) Which papers do you read? (The Times or The Guardian or…) 
 Which implies that the choice is made from a limited number of alternatives in the context of discussion, but we can select what rather than which even in cases where the number of alternatives is strictly limited by the context: 
 What/Which parent do you like best: your father or your mother?
 What/Which will it be: tea or coffee?
 As the possessive form of who, whose can function as a determiner (a) or as a pronoun (b): 
 (a) Whose jacket is this? (b) Whose is this jacket?
 
 2.1.2.5.5 Phrasal quantifiers
 Open-class quantifiers consist of heads like lot, deal, number with an of-phrase as postmodification: a lot of students, lots of students, plenty of students (plural count nouns)
		 a lot of money, lots of money, plenty of money (mass nouns)
		 a great deal of money, a large quantity of money (mass nouns)
		 a number of students, a great number of students (plural count nouns)
EXERCISES
(1) Replace a in a great deal of money by the, my, this, that, some: 
(2) Replace great by good:
(3) Replace large in a large quantity of money by small: (4) Replace quantity by amount:
(5) Replace great in a great number of students by good and large:
 The open-class quantifiers that occur with mass nouns have both structural and semantic relations with the partitives in connection with gradability of mass nouns. (See 2.1.3.2)
 
 2.1.3 Noun classes and countability
 There are two classes of nouns: proper nouns (John, Rome, April) and common nouns (boy, milk, cake). Common nouns can be count nouns (a boy, few boys) or mass nouns (milk, much milk). Some nouns can be either count (a cake, two cakes) or mass (cake, much cake, a piece of cake).
 Count nouns may occur in the singular or in the plural, whereas mass nouns are invariable and lack number contrast: (a) a boy, (b) few boys, (c) boys; (d) milk, (e) much milk; 
 (f) a cake, (g) few cakes, (h) cakes; (i) cake, (j) much cake 
 If a noun can replace boy in (a), then it is a count noun in the singular. If a noun can replace boys in (b) and (c), then it is a count noun in the plural. If a noun can replace milk in (d) and (e), then it is a mass noun. If a noun can replace cake in (f) – (j), then it is a noun with dual class membership.
 
 2.1.3.1 Conversion
 Conversion is the process of converting a noun into a new secondary word-class, as coffee in.
(a) There`s some coffee in that jug. (mass noun)
(b) I have had two coffees. (count noun)
 When mass nouns are reclassified as count nouns, the converted nouns mean:
(1) “A unit of N”: I had two coffees at the airport. (= two cups of coffee)
(2) “A kind of N”: This is a better bread than the one I bought last.
(3) “An instance of N” (with abstract nouns): We all have our little weaknesses.
 Besides the grammatical count/mass distinction, there is a semantic division into concrete (book, bread) and abstract nouns (freedom, justice)
 Nouns in –ing may be used either as count or mass, either as concrete or abstract nouns: 
(a)I work in the building on the corner. (b) The building of this bridge took three years.
 The noun building is a concrete count noun in (a) and an abstract mass noun in (b).
 
 2.1.3.2 Gradability
 Both count and mass nouns are subject to gradability in two aspects: quality and quantity:
(1) The quality aspect is expressed by nouns like type, kind, sort, species, class, variety used 
 as the head of a noun phrase and postmodified by a prepositional phrase:
 A tiger is a species of mammal. Mahogany is a type of wood. A Ford is a make of car.
 (a) It is the head that normally takes the plural:
 these kinds of cat (*this kind of cats), two varieties of wheat, these kinds of people
 (b) It is the head that is normally premodified, not the noun in the prepositional phrase:
 a Japanese make of car, this cheap sort of paper, a delicious kind of bread 
 (2) The quantity aspect is expressed by three types of partitives, which is a means to quantify
 mass nouns: (a) Measure partitives: inch, foot, yard, mile, acre, pound, etc. 
 length: a foot of copper wire, a yard of cloth, a mile of cable
 area: an acre of land, five hundred square metres of land
 volume: a bottle of whisky, a glass of wine, a cup of coffee
 weight: a pound of butter, a kilo of sugar, a ton of coal
 (b) Typical partitives (with specific nouns):
 an act of cruelty, an article of furniture, a bar of chocolate 
 (c) General partitives (with all types of nouns:
 a piece of news, a bit of luck, an item of information
 
 2.2 The complex noun phrase
 A complex noun phrase consists of a head modified by one or more words placed before or after it. If the head is a noun, its premodifiers can be
 one or more adjectives: a good big old brown wooden house
 one or more nouns: office furniture, office furniture manufacturers
 a noun in the genitive: Peter`s motorcycle, those boys` father
 a present participle: a smiling face, the barking dogs
 a past participle: the typed letters, a broken chair 
and its postmodifiers can be:
 a relative clause: the girl who is typing letters
 a present participle: the girl typing letters¹
 a past participle: the letters typed (by the secretary)
 a to-infinitive: the letters to type
 an adjective: the only star visible (from here)²
 a prepositional phrase: the girl in the office
 If the head of a noun phrase is an indefinite pronoun, it can be postmodified by:
 a relative clause: someone who can type the letters
 a present participle: someone typing letters
 a past participle: something typed (by Mary)
 a to-infinitive: something to type
 an adjective: something strange
 a prepositional phrase: somebody in the office
Notes: ¹ The present participle, the past participle, the to-infinitive (=nonfinite clauses) and the adjective can be viewed as reduced relative clauses.
² a star visible (=temporary), a visible star (=permanent)
Similarly: A man sick is a man who is now sick. A sick man is a man who is sick.
 
 The complex noun phrase can thus be written: DETERMINERS¹ +PREMODIFIERS² + HEAD + POSTMODIFIERS³
 all the ten new tall young art club members who are talking by the swimming pool 
¹ predeterminer + central determiner + postdeterminer
² adverbs + adjectives + nouns
³ relative clauses, nonfinite clauses (= participles and to-infinitive clauses), an adjective or prepositinional phrases
 The head of a noun phrase (noun, adjective or pronoun) can be postmodified by one or more prepositional phrases: She chose the chair at the table in the back of the room
Note: The head of a noun phrase is:
1 The last noun in a sequence of nouns: the Christmas tree ornament salesmen committee meeting decision
2 The noun immediately before the first existing 
 (a) preposition: She chose the chair at the table in the back of the room
 (b) relative pronoun (who, which, that): the salesmen who/that were present at the meeting, 
 the decision which /that was made on salary matters
 (c) nonfinite verb form (present participle, past participle, to-infinitive or adjective): 
 the salesmen discussing salary matters
 the decision made by the Christmas tree ornament salesmen
 the strike to start next Monday
 	 the Christmas tree ornament salesmen dissatisfied with their salaries	
 2.3 Pronouns
 Pronouns are closed-class words that act syntactically like nouns phrases because they do not normally admit determiners or premodifiers : the men (*the they); a tall man (*a tall he).
 Semantically, a pronoun may be a pro-form: The man invited the Sweedish girl because he liked her.
 One can not say, however, that pronouns ‘replace’ nouns. Pronouns are, in fact, coreferential to noun phrases: When Paul sat on the couch, he entered the room.
 Paul could not sit on the couch and enter the room at the same time, so he must necessarily refer to another person.
 Morphologically, most pronouns in English, like nouns, have a common case (children, someone) and the genitive case (children`s, someone`s). Unlike nouns, however, the personal pronouns I, we, he, she, they and the wh-pronoun who have a further distinction between subjective and objective cases:
	
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS
 Subject Object
 
 I	 me
 you	 you
 he	 him
 she	 her
 it	 it
 one	 one
 we	 us
 you	 you
 they them
 who who/ whom
	
 GENITIVE (or ‘possessive’)
 Determiner Pronoun
 
 my mine
 your	 yours
 his his
 her	 hers
 its	 ---
 one`s ---
 our	 ours
 your yours
 their theirs
 whose whose
 whose whose
	
 REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
 
 
 myself	
 yourself
 himself
 herself
 itself
 oneself
 ourselves
 yourselves 
 themselves
 ---
 
 2.3.1 Personal pronouns
 The personal pronouns usually have definite meaning, and resemble the noun phrases introduced by the definite article in that they may have situational (a), anaphoric (b) or cataphoric (c) reference:
(a) Are they asleep? (Husband to wife, nodding his head towards the children`s bedroom.) 
(b) Before Henry joined the Navy, he had never seen the sea. 
(c) Before he joined the Navy, Henry had never seen the sea. 	
 Note that (b) is preferable, because he and Henry in (c) may not refer to the same person.
 2.3.2 The use of own with possessive determiners
 The emphatic determiner own intensifies the meaning of a possessive determiner:
 This book does not belong to the library – it is my own copy.
 Own emphasizes coreference between the possessive and the subject of the clause, and can be used to avoid ambiguity:
 The Housing Associations are encouraging people to buy their houses.
 The Housing Associations are encouraging people to buy their own houses.
 2.3.3 Reflexive pronouns
 The reflexive pronoun ‘reflects’ another nominal element of the clause or sentence in a coreferential relation: (a) He saw himself in the mirror. (b) He saw him in the mirror.
 Himself in (a) is necessarily coreferentialto the subject, while him necessarily refers to some other person, in (b).
 Where there is a mixture of persons, the reflexive pronoun agrees with a 1st person:
 You, Paul and I mustn`t deceive ourselves.
 If there is no 1st person, the reflexive pronoun agrees with a 2nd person:
 You and Paul mustn`t deceive yourselves.
 The indefinite pronoun one has its own reflexive form:
 One can`t enjoy oneself if one is too tired. One can`t enjoy oneself if he is too tired. (Am E)
 Other indefinite pronouns (everyone, somebody, etc.) use himself or themselves:
 No one hurt himself in the fight. Everybody is enjoying themselves.
 The reflexive pronoun has two distinct uses:
(1) The basic use: Functioning as object and complement and having the subject of its clause as its antecedent: Direct object: They helped themselves.
 Indirect object: She allowed herself a rest.
 Subject complement: He is not himself today. (= He does not feel well.)
 Prepositional complement: This machine moves by itself.
(2) The emphatic use: Functioning as an appositional phrase in an appositional relation to its antecedent. The reflexive pronouns in emphatic use have great positional mobility, but they are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. They just emphasize the subject (a) or the object (b): (a) I went there. I myself went there. I went there myself.
 (b) We saw the Pope. We saw the Pope himself.
 By + reflexive pronoun has the meaning of (c) alone or without help (d):
(c) I don`t like travelling by myself. She wants to be by herself.
(d) You needn`t help him. He can do this by himself. We can`t move the wardrobe by ourselves.
 The pronouns itself and themselves are sometimes used in sentences in which a contrast is made between two things:
 The meeting itself was interesting, but the talk in the afternoon was too long.
 The words themselves were not annoying: it was his manner that irritated me.
 
 2.3.4 Reciprocal pronouns 
 The reciprocal pronouns each other and one another are related to the reflexive pronouns in that they can be said to express ‘a two-way reflexive relationship`. Yet there are important differences between reflexive (a) and reciprocal pronouns (b):
 (a) Adam and Eve blamed themselves. (= Adam blamed himself and Eve blamed herself.)
 (b) Adam and Eve blamed each other. (= Adam blamed Eve and Eve blamed Adam.) 
 Each other is preferred for reference to two entities (Mary and Bill often see each other.) and one another to more than two (Third world countries should help one another.) but the two forms are often used interchangeably: My brother and sister hate each other/ one another.
 One cannot say therefore if there are two or more persons involved in sentences like the following: The party leaders promised to give each other their support. 
 Each other, however, is more common in informal style and one another in more formal contexts. Although they are written as word sequences, it is better to treat them as compound pronouns. At the same time, they correspond to the correlative use of each… other and one… another in sentences such as: They each blamed the other. 
 The passengers disembarked one after the other.
 The reciprocal pronouns may also be used as prepositional complements (Sandra and Debora
often write to each other. The soldiers were quarrelling with one another.) and their genitive form are each other`s and one another`s:
 They often stay in one another`s house. 
 The students can borrow each other`s books / one another`s books.
 The reciprocal pronouns are optional with reciprocal verbs: embrace, meet, argue, etc.:
 John and Mary argued (with each other). They competed furiously (with one another). 
 They kissed (each other) and parted (from each other). The children shared their toys. 
 
 2.3.5 Interrogative pronouns
 The interrogative pronouns are who, whom, what, which and whose. They may refer to persons (1) or nonpersons (2) with indefinite (a) or definite (b) reference:
(1) Person: (a) Who is your favourite conductor?
 (b) Which is your favourite conductor? (Von Karajan or Stokowsky?)
(2) Nonperson: (a) What is the name of this tune?
 (b) Which do you prefer: classical or popular music?
 The interrogative pronouns who and whom are personal only: 
 Who told you where I was? Who / Whom do you admire most?
 In objective use, who is informal and whom is formal. As prepositional complement, only whom can normally follow the preposition: For whom is she working?
 Both who and whom can take initial position, leaving the preposition deferred at the end of the clause: Who is she working for? Whom is she working for?
 As the possessive form of who, whose can function either as a determiner (See p. 14) or as a pronoun: Whose is this jacket?
 What and which can also act as prepositional complements with the preposition either in initial (formal and rare) of final position:
 What are you talking about? Which of the girls are you talking about?
	 On what is he lecturing? On which of the topics is he lecturing
 2.3.6 Indefinite pronouns
 The Indefinite pronouns are, in a logical sense, quantitative: they have universal or partitive meaning. They may be simple or compound. The compound pronouns are composed of two morphemes, a determiner morpheme (every-, some-, any- or no-) and a nominal morpheme (-one, -body or –thing) and they are divided into four classes: universal, assertive, nonassertive, and negative pronouns.
 The pairs of pronouns with personal reference are equivalent in function and meaning but the pronouns in –one are regarded as more elegant than those in –body. All the compound pronouns are singular, and have concord with a singular verb even though notionally they may denote more than one thing or person:
 Everybody / Everyone over sixteen has a vote.
	 I tried everything but nothing works.
	 Someone / somebody was telling me you`ve been to America.
	 Has anybody / anyone got anything to say?
	 There was no one / nobody in the office.
 2.3.6.1 Universal pronouns
 The universal pronouns are all, both, each, every (See 2.1.2.5.4), and the compounds everyone, everybody, and everything.
 All has both personal (All enjoyed themselves.) and nonpersonal reference: All is not lost. Everyone and everybody have personal (Everybody/Everyone enjoyed themselves.); and everything, nonpersonal reference: Everything is not lost. 
 Everybody and everyone can take the genitive (Everything was arranged to everybody`s satisfaction.) and can be postmodified by else (I stayed at work when everyone else had gone home). The genitive ending is added to else.She knew everybody else`s name by heart.
 
 2.3.6.2 Assertive pronouns
 The assertive pronouns are some, somebody, someone and something; many, much, more, most; few, fewer, fewest; little, less, least; several; half; enough; one; other and another. (See 2.1.2.5)
 Some as a determiner (See 2.1.2.5.1) and as a pronoun occurs most typically with plural (Some rolls have been eaten.) and mass nouns: Some bread has been eaten.
Somebody and someone have personal (I met someone you know last night. Somebody you haven`t seen for a long time.) and something has nonpersonal reference: There must be something wrong with this printer. It isn`t printing. They are also used in questions when a positive answer is expected (Did someone call this afternoon?) or hoped: Would you like something to drink? 
 Somebody and someone can take the genitive (There`s somebody`s glove on the floor.) andcan be postmodified by else (Someone else must have done it.) The genitive ending is added to else: His car broke down, and he went home in someone else`s car. 
 2.3.6.3 Nonassertive pronouns
 The nonassertive pronouns are either; any; anyone, anybody, and anything. Any represents a choice between three or more entities, while either limits the choice to two:
 I haven`t written to any of my relatives about the marriage.
 I haven`t written to either of my parents about the marriage.
 With reference to the distinction between assertive and nonassertive forms, we can see that there is a parallel between assertive some and nonassertive any:
 Assertive:				 Pam bought some apples.
 Nonassertive, interrogative, positive: Did Pam buy any apples?
 Nonassertive, interrogative, negative: Didn`t Pam buy any apples?
 Nonassertive, negative:		 Pam didn`t buy any apples
 Besides not, the negative forms whose scope favours nonassertive forms include, for example, the following: 
(a) Words negative in form: never, no, neither, nor.
(b) Words negative in meaning: the adverbs and determiners hardly, little, few, only, seldom, etc., and the ‘implied negatives` just, before; fail, prevent; hard, reluctant, difficult, etc. and comparisons with too. Compare: 
 Jean will always manage to do something useful. 
 Jean will never manage to do anything useful.
 There was a good chance somebody would come.
 There was little chance anybody would come. 
 John was eager to read some (of the) books.
 John was reluctant to read any (of the) books.
 John was too lazy to read any (of the) books.
 The main superficial markers of nonassertion are negative, interrogative and conditional clauses, but it is the underlying or basic meaning of the whole sentence which ultimately conditions the choice of the some or of the any series. For example, the basic meaning is negative and nonassertive in (1), as appears in the paraphrase (2):
 (1) Freud contributed more than anyone to the understanding of dreams.
 (2) No one contributed as much to the understanding of dreams as Freud.
 The choice between some (Did somebody telephone last night?) and any (Did anybody telephone last night?) can be explained in terms of different presuppositions: Somebody suggests the speaker expected a telephone call, whereas anybody in (2) does not. In making an invitation or offer, it is for the same reason polite to presuppose an acceptance: Would you like some wine?
 Any in its stressed form is assertive, meaning ‘it doesn`t matter who, what or which:
 He will eat any king of vegetable.
 Any dog might bite a child if teased.
 Any offer would be better than this.
 The compound pronouns anyone, anybody and anything are similarly used:
 Anyone who tells lies is punished. He will eat anything.
 
 
 2.3.6.4 Negative pronouns
 The negative pronouns are neither, none; no one, nobody, and nothing. 
 Neither is restricted to a set of two entities, while none applies to three or more:	
 What finger did you hurt? – None (of the fingers).	 
 Which hand did you hurt? – Neither. Neither hand.
 
 3 THE ENGLISH VERB PHRASE 
 A verb phrase may be simple (a), only the head, or complex (b), one or more auxiliary verbs followed by the main verb functioning as the head:
 (a) He is a worker. He works. He worked. 
			 (b) He is working. He has worked. He might have been working. 
 The open class of lexical verbs, such as work, can act only as main verbs. The closed class of auxiliary verbs comprises the modal auxiliary verbs (can, may, must…), which can only act as auxiliary verbs, and the primary auxiliary verbs (be, do and have), which can act either as main verbs or auxiliary verbs. 
 3.1 Lexical verbs
 Morphologically, lexical verbs are divided into regular and irregular verbs. The forms of regular verbs are predictable from the base. The past form and the past participle form of irregular verbs, however, cannot be predicted. (See p. 23)
			 REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS
 (1) base form: work speak go cut 
 (2) –s form: works speaks goes cuts 
 (3) present participle: working speaking going cutting 
 (4) past form: worked spoke went	 cut 
 (5) past participle: worked spoken gone cut
 The –s form is obtained by adding –s to the base form: He works. She speaks. It cuts. If the base form ends in:
(a) –y precede by a consonant, change –y to –i and add –es: fly – flies, study – studies
(b) –o preceded by a consonant, add –es to the base form: do – does, go – goes
(c) a sibilant sound, add –es to the base form: dress – dresses, wash – washes, teach – teaches
 The present participle is formed by adding –ing to the base: do – doing, study –studying, teach –teaching 
 If the base ends in –ie, change –ie to –y and add –ing: die – dying, lie – lying, tie - tying
 Double the final consonant when preceded by a single stressed vowel before adding –ing to the base form: stop – stopping, omit – omitting, begin – beginning, refer – referring
 The past form and the past participle of the regular verbs are formed by adding –ed to the base. If the base ends in: (a)–e, only –d is added: change – changed, die – died, agree – agreed
 (b) If the base ends in –y precede by a consonant, change –y to –i and add –ed: study - studied
 The –ed is pronounced /t/, /d/, or /id/, respectively, if the base ends in:
(a) a voiceless consonant: help – helped /helpt/, miss - missed /mist/, look – looked /lukt/
(b) a voiced consonant: rob – robbed /robd/, use – used /ju:zd/, beg – begged /begd/
(c) –t or –d: wait – waited /`weitid/, need – needed /ni:did/, visit – visited, add – added
 
3.2 Auxiliary verbs 
 The auxiliary verbs make different contributions to the verb phrase. Of the three primary auxiliaries, do is only a semantically empty syntactic component in negative and interrogative sentences, whereas be contributes to aspect and voice, and have contributes to aspect. The modal auxiliary verbs contribute to the meanings in the area of modality (volition, ability, possibility…).
 One important syntactic function of auxiliaries is that of operator: 
 Is he a worker? Is he working? Does he work? Has he worked?
 
 3.2.1 Primary auxiliary verbs
 The verb be is a main verb in (a), an aspect auxiliary in (b), and a passive auxiliary in (c):
(a) Ann is happy. Is she happy?		They are at home. Are they at home?
(b) Ann is learning Spanish. 			She has been studying hard.
(c) Ann was seen at the club.			Our team has never been beaten.
 The forms of be used with personal pronouns in the present (1) and in the past (2) are:
 (1) I am; he, she, it is; we, you, they are		(2) I; he, she, it was; we, you, they were
 Have can be used as a main verb in the affirmative (a), negative (b), and interrogative (c) form, as follows: (a) She has a job. She has got a job. (= She`s got a job.)
 (b) She hasn`t a job. She doesn`t have a job. She hasn`t got a job.
 (c) Has she a job? Does she have a job? Has she got a job?
 The have got construction is informal. Although perfective in form, it is nonperfective in meaning, and is frequently preferred, especially in British English.
 The forms of have in the present are have and has (he, she, it has), and in the past is had.
 Do, like be and have, can be both an auxiliary and a main verb. The forms of do in the present are do and does (he, she, it does), and in the past is did. The main