Tema 01 - Verbals (73)

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Goals
Section 1
The nature of verbals
To recognize the differences between finite and non-finite structures.
Start section 1
Section 2
In�nitives
To analyze the structure and uses of Infinitives.
Verbals
Professor Fellipe Fernandes Cavallero da Silva
Description
Introduction to the concept of verbals: non-finite structures in English.
Purpose
Since verbals are one of the most advanced structures in the English language, understanding their structure and
functions in both written and oral communication is of the utmost importance with a view to developing students’
communicative skills.
Preparation
Before you start exploring and exploiting the content of this Unit, make sure you have a good English dictionary to clarify
any doubts you may have concerning vocabulary and linguistic expressions. The following list of on-line dictionaries may
be useful: Merriam-Webster, Cambridge, Oxford, Linguee.
Buscar Baixar conteúdo em PDF Videos Menu
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Start section 2
Section 3
Gerunds
To explore the form and functions of Gerunds.
Start section 3
Section 4
Participles
To investigate the uses of Present and Past Participles.
Start section 4
1
The nature of verbals
Welcome to our Unit on verbals in the English! We have prepared a set of engaging sections so that you can have a better understanding of
the uses of verbals, their most recurrent functions, as well as their typical structures.
In this Unit, we will learn about the nature of verbals, commonly understood as non-tensed verbal structures in the English language. If you
feel you are snowed under too many pieces of information, don´t worry! As we progress, every definition and terminology typically employed in
English grammar will be clarified, especially those related to the study of non-tensed verbal structures, ok?
Finally, by having an overview of the types of verbals in English, we will be able to systematize the way these non-tensed structures pair up
with other linguistic elements to create more complex phrasal configurations.
Warm up
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By the end of this section, you will be able to recognize the differences between finite and non-finite structures.
Verb Phrases
Tense and Aspect
It is a truth universally acknowledged that verbal issues always provide the guidelines for analyzing sentences syntactically, especially in terms of
their elementary and formal building blocks: noun phrases, verb phrases, adjective phrases, adverbial phrases, and prepositional phrases. More
specifically, when investigating the set of phrases a simple sentence is composed of, we must primarily consider the type of verbal transitivity
present in its verbal structure (i.e., in its verb phrase) so that we can devise its formal composition.
The type of verbal transitivity in verb phrases will determine the necessity of complements (subject complement, object complement, direct object,
indirect object) or not, as well as the type of adjuncts (= extra information concerning time, place, manner, etc.) to be manipulated in sentences.
Besides organizing sentences grammatically, verb phrases may also provide extra pieces of data, such as tense and aspect.
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Tense
Tense comprises morphological inflections in verb conjugation which translate information concerning time (in English, there are only
inflections related to the present or past).
Aspect
Aspect should be primarily understood as “how the speaker perceives the duration of events, and how different events relate to one another
in time” (CARTER; MCCARTHY, 2010, p. 411).
In English, there are two types of aspects: progressive and perfect. Eliminar a repetição, alterar para: According to Carter & McCarthy (2010, p.411):
“The choice of aspect may also reflect an emphasis on whether an event was long-lasting or just a point in time. It may also reflect whether it is to be
seen as temporary or permanent, whether it is/was already in progress when something else happened, whether it is generally or always the case,
whether it happens regularly, etc.”
When a verbal structure contains information on tense, it is classi�ed as a tensed or �nite verb
form.
However, there are situations in which non-tensed verb forms are necessary in English. These special structures are specially classified as non-finite
verb forms, whose interpretation will depend on other elements present in a given sentence.
Understanding the differences between finite and non-finite verb forms is the first step to being able to manipulate verbals in English.
Finite vs. non-�nite structures
De�ning verbals
According to Crystal (1996, p. 212), the forms of verbs, and the phrases they are part of (i.e., the verb phrases), are usually classified into two types,
based on the kind of contrast in meaning they express. The author highlights that the notion of finiteness is the traditional way of classifying the
differences, since this term suggests that verbs can be somehow “limited” in some way, which is in fact what happens when different kinds of
endings are used. These two forms are organized as follows:
Finite forms
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They are those which limit the verb to a particular number, tense, or person.
Non-�nite forms
They are the ones which do not limit the verb in the aforementioned way.
Let us make use of examples to point out which elements in each verb phrase are finite or non-finite.
In sentence (a) Jane and Mary passed out at the show on Friday, the verb phrase contains the “-ed” inflection to refer to the Simple Past Tense.
Consequently, the “-ed” form in this case concerns a finite structure. Sentences (b) James has bought a house in Hollywood and (c) This food has
gone bad, however, provide us with two important pieces of information: their verb phrases are composed of the auxiliary verb have used in the
Simple Present structure (i.e. has) due to the present of the inflection ‘-s’ plus the use of a Past Participle structure (i.e., bought and gone) which,
unless they are combined with the auxiliary verb at play, they cannot stand alone to communicate information on tense, person, number, etc.
Finally, sentences (d) Anna was at school this morning and (e) I sent my sister flowers on her birthday, operate similarly to sentence (a), except for
the fact that their verb phrases possess irregular inflections/forms to refer to the Simple Past Tense (i.e., was = irregular past for of the verb to be &
sent = irregular past form of the verb to send).
Based on the previous analysis, we have realized that the Past Participle form is an example of a non-finite structure. But would there be any other
structures we should classify the same way? To find the answer to this question, let us add some more examples.
Task
Consider the following sentences:
f) Mary has been working in New York since 2010.
g) I have decided to learn another foreign language.
h) We enjoy living in this city.
i) We enjoy our life in this city.
j) I will travel to Italy next year.
Let us find out!


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Based on the information presented above, we can say the following structures should be classified as non-finite forms:

Gerunds

Present and Past Participles

In�nitives (bare in�nitives and TO-in�nitives)
Working it out
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The non-finite forms we have just listed are the ones whichare also known as verbals, non-tensed structures commonly employed in the
construction of more complex phrases, clauses, and even sentences. Our next section will offer a more complete investigation of the structure and
uses of those non-finite forms.
Finite vs non-�nite structures
In this vídeo professor Fellipe Cavallero will clarify your doubts on finite and non-finite structures. Stay tuned!
Demonstration
It is interesting to notice how non-finite verb forms are used to systematize the formulas for verb tenses either in students’ books or in teachers’
manuals. For example, when teaching the uses of the Present Perfect Continuous in the English language, chances are information on this verb tense
will be typically organized as follows:

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Consequently, knowing both the uses and functions of finite and non-finite verb forms can pave the way for the mastery of every verb tense in the
English language.
Hands on
Question 1
Read the text below:
AT&T to Delay 5G Deployment Near Certain Airports
AT&T has (1)ANNOUNCED that it is (2)DELAYING its 5G deployment near some airports around the country indefinitely.
"At our sole discretion we have voluntarily agreed to temporarily defer turning on a limited number of towers around certain airport runways as
we continue (3)TO WORK with the aviation industry and the FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) to provide further information about our 5G
deployment since they have not utilized the two years they've had to responsibly plan for this deployment," an AT&T spokesperson said in a
statement released Tuesday.
Source: BRADY, E. AT&T to Delay 5G Deployment Near Certain Airports. Newsweek, 18 Jan. 2022.
We can say the highlighted structures in the text are, respectively:

A [1] = infinitive; [2] = bare infinitive; [3] = gerund
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Question 2
Read the text below:
Earth's Core Is (1)COOLING Faster Than Expected, Creating Uncertain Future for Planet
A study (2)HAS (3)UNVEILED secrets previously locked deep inside the Earth's interior that could (4)HAVE profound implications for the future of
the planet we call home.
The research paper, published in Earth and Planetary Science Letters, shows Earth's core is cooling faster than scientists had (5)THOUGHT
previously.
Source: JENKINSON, O. Earth's Core Is Cooling Faster Than Expected, Creating Uncertain Future for Planet. Newsweek, 18 Jan. 2022.
Which of the highlighted structures is an example of a finite verb form?
B [1] = past participle; [2] = present participle; [3] = infinitive
C [1] = present participle; [2] = infinitive; [3] = bare infinitive
D [1] = bare infinitive; [2] = gerund; [3] = past participle
E [1] = past participle; [2] gerund; [3] = infinitive
Answer
A 1
B 2
C 3
D 4
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Question 3
Read the text below:
THE POWER OF COLLABORATION
The world’s problems can (1)SEEM overwhelming when we (2)ARE alone behind our screens. TIME (3)PARTNERED with the World Economic
Forum (4)TO EXPLORE how we can still come together (5)TO ACHIEVE great things
Source: TIME. The power of collaboration. Accessed 14 Feb. 2022.
Which of the five highlighted elements is an example of a BARE INFINITIVE?
Question 4
Read the text below:
How Do You Even calculate COVID-19 Risk Anymore?
This month, I DID something both mundane and momentous: I WENT to a fitness class, in an actual gym, alongside other humans. In the Before
E 5
Answer
A 1
B 2
C 3
D 4
E 5
Answer
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Times, this was something I did multiple times a week. But—you know the rest.
It felt good TO BE back for the first time in more than a year, until I WALKED home afterward and began TO SPIRAL. Was that safe? Did I just get
COVID? Did I just spread COVID? Am I part of the problem?
Source: DUCHARME, J. How Do You Even calculate COVID-19 Risk Anymore? Time, 15 Dec. 2021.
How many non-finite verb forms have been highlighted in the text?
Question 5
READ THE TEXT BELOW:
An N95 Is the Best Mask for Omicron. Here's Why
As health officials (1)SCRAMBLE (2)TO MINIMIZE spread of the highly contagious Omicron variant, many experts have (3)RECOMMENDED that
people switch from cloth or surgical masks to more-protective N95 and KN95 masks.
The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC) current mask guidance does not explicitly recommend one type of mask over
another, instead specifying that people should (4)CHOOSE the most protective and well-fitting mask they can (5)WEAR consistently.
Source: DUCHARME, J. An N95 Is the Best Mask for Omicron. Here's Why. Time, 18 Jan. 2022.
How many of the highlighted elements in the text can be classified as NON-FINITE?
A 5
B 4
C 3
D 2
E 1
Answer
A 1
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Question 6
READ THE TEXT BELOW:
John Milton (1)WAS nearly sixty when he (2)PUBLISHED Paradise Lost in 1667. John Aubrey (1626-97) tells us that the poem was (3)BEGUN in
about 1658 and (4)FINISHED in about 1663. But parts were almost certainly (5)WRITTEN earlier, and its roots lie in Milton's earliest youth."
(Source: MILTON, J. Paradise Lost. London: Penguin Classics, 2014, p. VII)
How many of the highlighted items in the text refer to NON-FINITE forms?
B 2
C 3
D 4
E 5
Answer
A 1
B 2
C 3
D 4
E 5
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Theory in practice
Answer


You are very close to reaching your
goals.
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Question 1
Consider the following sentence: “Anna has been a teacher in Providence since 2006.” Which of the elements refer to a non-finite structure?
Question 2
Consider the following sentence: “Jane HAS BEEN WORKING as a translator since she FINISHED her course in 2010 and GOT a job at CNN.”
Which of the elements below is a lexical verb containing information on the PROGRESSIVE ASPECT?
Let’s practice!
A Anna
B has
C been
D in Providence
E since 2006
Answer
A has
B been
C working
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2
In�nitives
By the end of this section, you will be able to analyze the structure and uses of Infinitives.
D finished
E got
Answer
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What are In�nitives?
De�ning in�nitives
Learn to walk before you run. (Proverb)
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Upon analyzing the quotes above, we realize the presence of a specific type of verbal: infinitives, which are represented by the following elements: to
walk and teach.
As Carter & McCarthy (2010, p.907) point out, infinitives should be understood as the non-tensed form of a verb that usually combines with TO,
such as the cases of the first quote (being normally classified as TO-infinitive), and which can also occur without TO (also known as the ‘bare
infinitive’ and exemplified in the last proverb).
Infinitives are also called the base form of a verb, since they express the lexical meaning associated to it. Moreover, they offer the point of departure
for deriving verb conjugations, creating new words, and devising more complex sentence structures. Consider the following examples:
Conjugation of the verbs TO PLAY and TO STUDY in the Present Simple
Tense
SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE
TO PLAY TO STUDY
I play
You play
He plays
She plays
It plays
We play
You playThey play
I study
You study
He studies
She studies
It studies
We study
You study
They study
Table: Conjugation of the verbs TO PLAY and TO STUDY in the Present Simple Tense.
Fellipe FCS.
Word formation based on verbs in the INFINITIVE FORM
INFINITIVE FORM NEW WORD PROCESS
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TO UNDERSTAND TO MISUNDERSTAND Prefixation
TO RESIST RESISTANCE Suffixation
TO QUALIFY REQUALIFICATION Prefixation & Suffixation
Word formation based on verbs in the Infinitive Form
Source: the author
Creation of more complex sentence structures by using infintives:
a) To speak foreign languages is vital in today’s globalized world.
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c) I encourage you to invest part of your income in the stock market.
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Our two last examples highlight the fact that an infinitive structure can take part in a more complex sentence configuration: specific verbs (such as to
encourage and to hear) demand the use of two objects, the first one being a pronoun or noun (= such as you and the children, respectively), and the
second being either a TO- infinitive form (such as TO INVEST) or a bare infinitive form (such as SING).
The following sections will dive into more examples and complex sentence structures in which infinitive forms can be manipulated.
When to use In�nitives
In�nitives in use
In general, infinitive forms can be employed to operate as:
Noun complements
Adjective complements
Part of the verb phrase (i.e., after modal verbs)
The second object in a complex sentence structure
Subjects, subject complements, direct objects, prepositional complements, adjectivals,
adverbs or appositives
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We offer several examples of each case in the subsections below.
In�nitives performing syntactic functions
When we say infinitives are used to perform syntactic functions, it means that these non-finite verb forms will be used to serve, for instance, as
subjects, subject complements, direct objects, prepositional complements, adjectivals, adverbials, and appositives. Consider the following examples:
a. [To speak five languages fluently] demands a lot of training.
b. All my students planned [to finish university in three years].
c. My advice is [to study all topics in advance].
d. My students had no choice except [to read all texts on verbals].
e. I have a paper [to write before next class].
f. My students did all the extra exercises (in order) [to understand verbals].
g. My favorite physical activity, [to run three miles a week], requires a lot of discipline.
To specify ways on how to determine the functions infinitive forms have in each example, it is advisable that we break those sentences down as
follows.
a) [To speak five languages fluently] demands a lot of training.
[To speak five languages fluently] demands a lot of training
SUBJECT PREDICATE
Example (a) shows that the infinitive structure is placed before the main verb of the sentence (i.e., demands). As a result, the infinitive form is
performing a SUBJECT function.
b) All my students planned [to finish university in three years].
All my students planned [to finish university in three years].
SUBJECT
PREDICATE
planned [to finish university in three years].
TRANSITIVE VERB DIRECT OBJECT
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In example (b), due the placement of the infinitive structure right after a transitive verb, it performs the function of a direct object.
c) My advice is [to study all topics in advance].
My advice is [to study all topics in advance].
SUBJECT
PREDICATE
is [to study all topics in advance].
LINKING VERB SUBJECT COMPLEMENT
Because example (c) contains a linking verb, the piece of information located right after it refers to the subject. Therefore, our infinitive structure
plays the role of a subject complement.
d) My students had no choice except [to read all texts on verbals].
My students had no choice except [to read all texts on verbals].
SUBJECT
PREDICATE
except [to read all texts on verbals].
PREPOSITION PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENT
Sentence (d) presents an interesting case: since the preposition except depends on the elements located after it to make sense, they are used to
complete its meaning. As a result, an infinitive structure is used as a prepositional complement.
e) I have a paper [to write before next class].
I have a paper [to write before next class].
SUBJECT
PREDICATE
a paper [to write before next class].
DIRECT OBJECT
= which I need [to write before next class].
ADJECTIVAL
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It is interesting to notice that the infinitive structure in sentence (e) was used to simplify an adjective clause (i.e., which I need). Hence, the infinitive
part of the sentence operates as an adjectival.
f) My students did all the extra exercises (in order) [to understand verbals.]
My students did all the extra exercises (in order) [to understand verbals.]
SUBJECT
PREDICATE
in order [to understand verbals.]
CONJUNCTION = PURPOSE ADVERBIAL
Sentence (f) exemplifies the ellipsis of the conjunction in order to, which serves to convey an adverbial function: purpose. Consequently, the infinitive
form possesses an adverbial role in the sentence in question.
g) My favorite physical activity, [to run three miles a week], requires a lot of discipline
My favorite physical activity , [to run three miles a week], requires a lot of discipline
SUBJECT EXTRA INFORMATION PREDICATE
Finally, sentence (g) comprises the use of infinitive forms to provide readers with extra information on the subject, which is placed between commas.
Hence, the infinitive structure is exploited to operate as an appositive.
In�nitive: special cases
As noun complements
Depending on the way nouns are used, they may require the presence of an infinitive form so that information becomes more thorough.
Task

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Consider the following cases:
a) The appeal [to increase the use of biofuel] was effective.
b) Her motivation [to become the most competent employee] impressed me.
c) The opportunity [to live in Spain] interested us.
What do all these examples have in common?
As adjective complements
Similar to what was shown concerning nouns, adjectives may be used in a way which will require the presence of an infinitive structure right after
them so that the sentence is as clear as possible. For instance, let us take a look at the following:
Working it out
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b) Phillip was fortunate [to get a scholarship]
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Again, unless the infinitive structures are articulated, each of the examples above would not provide readers with the necessary information. For
instance, in sentence (a) we all want to know what the subject was eager to get, which is informed thanks to the infinitive structure [to start her
Spanish course]. In sentence (b), we ask what the subject was lucky to conquer, which can only be explained if the infinitive form is part of it. Finally,
in sentence (c), we are aware that something is going to happen, but how would we know about it if the infinitive form was not included?
As we can see, every infinitive structure was essential to making each of the sentences more meaningful.
In verb phrases
Infinitives,more specifically Bare Infinitives (= infinitives without to), are used in partnership with Modal Verbs, a special class of auxiliary verbs
which can provide contributions in meaning concerning permission, ability, possibility, advice, obligation, future time, conditional ideas, etc.
As a rule, simple verb phrases using Modal Verbs tend to have the following structure:
MODAL VERB + BARE INFINITIVE
Examples:
I can speak two foreign languages fluently.
It might rain tonight.
May I use your computer?
You should do some exercises on verbals.
We must finish the task by the end of the month.
I will travel to Italy in 2023.
If I had time, I would read ten books a month.
In all examples, a BARE INFINITIVE structure is exploited together with a MODAL VERB in blue. Moreover, each modal verb is used to provide EXTRA
INFORMATION on:
ABILITY: I can speak two foreign languages fluently.
POSSIBILITY: It might rain tonight.
PERMISSION: May I use your computer?
ADVICE: You should do some exercises on verbals.
OBLIGATION: We must finish the task by the end of the month.
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FUTURE TIME: I will travel to Italy in 2023.
CONDITIONAL: If I had time, I would read ten books a month.
In complex sentence structures
When structuring sentences in English, we must also be aware of certain syntactic organization demanded according to the main verb. In this sense,
most grammar books normally state that while there are certain verbs which are typically followed by an infinitive structure, there are others which
will be accompanied by two distinct structures: a noun phrase + an infinitive structure.
All in all, the following formula can be used to simplify what has just been presented:
The non-finite form of INFINITIVES is not the only VERBAL structure we have in English. Gerunds are another extremely important non-tensed verb
form which requires serious investigation.
In�nitives
Do you know when to use infinitives? No? This video then is definitely a must-see!
Case 01: MAIN VERB + INFINITIVE FORM 
Case 02: MAIN VERB + NOUN PHRASE + INFINITIVE FORM 

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Demonstration
When students start learning a foreign language, one of their typical challenges involves the mastery of irregular verb forms in the target language.
This is the reason why most grammar books and websites on the English language have a list of the most common irregular verbs.
It is interesting to point out that the first column of the list uses verbs in the infinitive form, since they represent both the basic form of this word
class, as well as the lexical meaning these words possess. Here is an example:
Infinitive Past Simple Past Participle
beat beat beaten
become became become
begin began begun
bend bent bent
bet bet bet
bite bit bitten
bleed bled bled
blow blew blown
break broke broken
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breed bred bred
bring brought brought
build built built
buy bought bought
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
come came come
cost cost cost
cut cut cut
do did done
dig dug dug
draw drew drawn
dream dreamt/ -ed dreamt/-ed
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
feed fed fed
feel felt felt
find found found
fight fought fought
fly flew flown
forget forgot forgotten
forgive forgave forgiven
freeze froze frozen
get got got
give gave given
go went gone
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grow grew grown
have had had
hear heard heard
hide hid hidden
hit hit hit
hold held held
hurt hurt hurt
keep kept kept
know knew known
lay laid laid
lead led led
leave left left
lend lent lent
lose lost lost
make made made
mean meant meant
meet met met
pay paid paid
put put put
read read read
rise rose risen
run ran run
say said said
see saw seen
sell sold sold
send sent sent
sit sat sat
sleep slept slept
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speak spoke spoken
spend spent spent
take took taken
teach taught taught
tell told told
think thought thought
understand understood understood
wear wore worn
win won won
write wrote written
Adapted from vocabularypage.com
Consequently, by memorizing which base verb forms are irregular, students will be able to express their experiences more accurately.
Hands on
Question 1
Read the sentence below:
“Their suggestion will always be to wait patiently.”
The infinitive form in the sentence above functions as:

A Subject
B Subject complement
C Direct object
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Question 2
Read the sentence below:
“We all wanted to solve the problem as soon as possible.”
The infinitive form in the sentence above functions as:
Question 3
Read the sentence below:
“A friend of mine was about to give up on his career.”
The infinitive form in the sentence above is used as:
D Indirect object
E Noun complement
Answer
A Subject
B Subject complement
C Direct object
D Indirect object
E Adjective complement
Answer
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Question 4
Read the sentence below:
“We stayed at home to rest for a couple of hours.”
The infinitive form in the sentence above is used as:
A Subject
B Subject complement
C Direct object
D Indirect object
E Prepositional complement
Answer
A Subject
B Subject complement
C Noun complement
D Adverbial
E Adjective complement
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Question 5
Read the sentence below:
“Communicative competence, to use a language at any situation or context effectively, is a myth to most learners.”
The infinitive form in the sentence above is used as:
Question 6
Read the sentence below:
“It would seem awkward to throw a party during the pandemic.”
The infinitive form in the sentence above is used as:
Answer
A Subject
B Direct object
C Appositive
D Adverbial
E Subject complement
Answer
A Appositive
B Subject complement
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Theory in practice
C Noun complement
D Adjective complement
E Prepositional complement
Answer

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Question 1
Infinitives are non-tensed verb forms which can perform a variety of functions typically related to nouns. Bearing this in mind, consider the
following sentence:
“Jane was lucky to find a wonderful apartment in Seattle.”
The infinitive form highlighted in the sentence functions as:

Let’s practice!
You are very close to reaching your
goals.
A A noun complement
B An adjective complement
C A subject
D A subject complement
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Question 2
Because infinitives can possess certain syntactic functions normally related to nouns, those non-finite elements can be used in different
places in a sentence. Based on this, consider the following complex sentence:
“TO LIVE in a foreign country demands having a more flexible mindset.”
What is the function of the highlighted infinitive structure “TO LIVE” in the sentence above?
3
Gerunds
By the end of this section, you will be able to explore the form and functions of gerunds.
E A direct object
Answer
A Subject
B Subject complement
C Direct object
D Prepositional complement
E Noun complement
Answer
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What are gerunds?
De�ning gerunds
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Be slow in choosing a friend, slower in changing him/her. (Proverb)
If we take a closer look at each of the examples above, the use of a specific verbal will become evident: gerunds, which are exemplified by the
following items: borrowing, paying, choosing, and changing.
Gerunds, as Carter & McCarthy (2010, p. 905) highlight, are derived from a verb form which ends in “-ing” and are
used as nouns.
It means that this non-finite verb form, despite coming from a verb, performs functions normally associated with nouns. For instance, gerunds can
be used to refer to general classes of people, things, and activities, as well as commonly syntactic functions linked to nouns, such as subject, direct
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object, indirect object, etc. The following sentences offer an overview on how gerunds can act as nouns in sentences:
a. I normally go RUNNING twice a week.
b. A: What is your favorite physical activity?
B: Body BUILDING. What about you?
A: WRESTLING. I practice it three times a week.
c. We avoid BUYING products on suspicious websites.
d. READING ten books a month can improve your vocabulary.
e. Most people are afraid of INVESTING in the stock market.
The sections below will provide us with further details on when and how to use gerunds in English.
When to use gerunds
Communicative functions
In general, gerund forms can be employed to operate certain communicative functions, such as:
We offer several examples of each case in the subsections below.
After certain verbs
To refer to activities
Part of idiomatic expressions
The subject, subject complement, direct object, indirect object, prepositional complement,
adverbial, or appositive in complex sentences
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Gerunds performing syntactic functions
As gerunds can be used to perform syntactic functions, these specific non-finite verb forms can be used to serve, for instance, as subjects, subject
complements, direct objects, indirect objects, prepositional complements, adverbials, or appositives. Consider the following examples:
a. [Reading ten books a month] can improve your vocabulary.
b. Our strategy was [preparing the task in advance].
c. Students can´t stand [reading extra materials]
d. Military soldiers give [training] most of their time.
e. A friend of mine is interested in [living abroad].
f. You will get good grades (by) [revising every topic weekly].
g. Friendship, [relying on someone in the darkest hours], has become a legend.
Let’s look into the examples above:
[Reading ten books a month] can improve your vocabulary.
[Reading ten books a month] can improve your vocabulary
SUBJECT PREDICATE
Example (a) shows that the gerund structure is put before the main verb phrase of the sentence (i.e., can improve). As a result, the gerund form is
performing a subject function.
Our strategy was [preparing the task in advance].
Our strategy was [preparing the task in advance].
SUBJECT
PREDICATE
was [preparing the task in advance].
LINKING VERB SUBJECT COMPLEMENT
Because example (b) contains a linking verb, the piece of information placed right after it refers to the subject. Therefore, our gerund structure plays
the role of a subject complement.
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Students can´t stand [reading extra materials].
Our students can´t stand [reading extra materials].
SUBJECT
PREDICATE
can't stand [reading extra materials].
TRANSITIVE VERB DIRECT OBJECT
In example (c), due the use of the gerund structure right after a transitive verb, the gerund performs the function of a direct object.
Military soldiers give [training] most of their time.
Military soldiers give [training] most of their time.
SUBJECT
PREDICATE
give [training] most of their time
DITRANSITIVE VERB INDIRECT OBJECT DIRECT OBJECT
Since example (d) contains a ditransitive verb, the two pieces of information present after it are, respectively, an indirect object and a direct object.
Consequently, our gerund structure plays the role of an indirect object.
A friend of mine is interested in [living abroad].
A friend of mine is interested in [living abroad].
SUBJECT
PREDICATE
in [living abroad]
PREPOSITION PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENT
Sentence (e) offers us an interesting case: since the preposition in is dependent on the elements located after it so that it can make sense, the
gerund structure is used as a prepositional complement.
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You will get good grades (by) [revising every topic weekly].
You will get good grades (by) [revising every topic weekly].
SUBJECT
PREDICATE
(by) [revising every topic weekly].
OMMITED PREPOSITION
= explains HOW something will take place
ADVERBIAL (MANNER)
It is interesting to notice that the gerund structure in sentence (f) is used to explain, according to the context in question, how something should be
done in order to get good grades (i.e., by revising every topic weekly). Hence, the gerund structure operates as an adverbial.
Friendship, [relying on someone in the darkest hours], has become a legend.
Friendship , [relying on someone in the darkest hours], has become a legend.
SUBJECT EXTRA INFORMATION PREDICATE
Finally, sentence (g) comprises the use of a gerund form placed between commas to provide readers with extra information on the subject. Hence
the gerund structure is exploited to operate as an appositive.
Gerund special cases
As part of idiomatic expressions
Grammatically speaking, certain idiomatic expressions take gerund forms as part of their structure. The table below shows some of them:
GO + GERUND
(RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES)
HAVE FUN + GERUND
HAVE DIFFICULTY +
GERUND
HAVE A HARD TIME +
GERUND
HAVE A GOOD TIME +
GERUND
FIND + NOUN PHRASE +
GERUND
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Examples:
a. I normally go running twice a week.
b. My friends have fun playing cards on the weekend.
c. Anna had difficulty memorizing irregular verb forms in Spanish.
d. We had a hard time understanding how gerunds are used.
e. My wife and I had a good time travelling around Europe.
f. I found my friend spending a lot of money on grammar books.
What do all these examples have in common? Every idiomatic expression is structured by using a gerund form.
After certain verbs
Gerunds are used in partnership with certain verbs. What does it mean? It means that there are some verbs in English that demand that a gerund
form is placed immediately after them.
The following verbs would fall under this criterion:
AVOID + GERUND FINISH + GERUND
ENJOY + GERUND KEEP + GERUND
PREFER + GERUND MIND + GERUND
DENY + GERUND QUIT + GERUND
Examples:
a. We avoid buying products on suspicious websites.
b. I enjoy reading books in English.
c. Anna prefers exercising early in the morning.
d. Sophia denies stealing the money.
e. We finished revising all topics for the test yesterday.
f. Keep moving forward!
g. I don´t mind helping my wife with the chores.
h. Raquel should quit smoking.
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Gerunds used to refer to activities
Morphologically speaking, an “-ing” inflection can be applied to the base form of a verb with a view to devising nouns. These new words are often
related to activities. Consider the words from the table below:
READING SPEAKING FISHING
LISTENING SLEEPING WRESTLING
WRITING DANCING BODY BUILDING
HORSEBACK RIDING MOUNTAIN CLIMBING BUNGEE JUMPINGExamples:
a. A: What is your favorite physical activity?
B: Body building. What about you?
A: Wrestling. I practice it three times a week.
b. We all need to develop our reading, listening, writing, and speaking skills if we want to master a foreign language.
c. Mountain climbing can be a risky sport.
d. Wrestling is a typical physical activity among American university students.
e. Bungee jumping is a common free-time activity in Australia.
f. Horseback riding is a tradition in most central regions of the United States.
g. Dancing helps people become more sociable.
h. Many people say that fishing can teach us the art of patience.
Gerunds
Do you know when to use gerunds? No? This video then is definitely a must-see!

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Demonstration
One common difficulty students encounter is related to which verbal structure should be used after certain verbs. A special situation concerns
certain verbs which accept either an infinitive or a gerund form. However, the meaning of the sentence changes depending on the verbal used. For
example:
1.
I always remember to turn off the lights before leaving the office.
2.
I remember turning off the lights before leaving the office last Friday. However, as we arrived there on Monday morning, we noticed they
were all on.
Do examples (1) and (2) communicative the same idea?
Absolutely not! While sentence (1) indicates that the subject first remembers (s)he has to do something and then performs the action, in sentence (2)
it is evident that the subject mentions a past memory, i.e. (s)he remembers that he did something.
Consequently, depending on the verbal used after the verb remember, different ideas can be conveyed.
Hands on
Question 1

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Read the sentence below:
“We can find extra examples (by) searching on the Internet.”
The gerund form in the sentence above functions as:
Question 2
Read the sentence below:
“My favorite free-time activity, training jiu-jitsu four times a week, demands lot of discipline.”
The gerund form in the sentence above functions as:
A Subject
B Subject complement
C Direct object
D Indirect object
E Adverbial
Answer
A Appositive
B Adverbial
C Subject
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Question 3
Read the sentence below:
“Students should focus on reading all texts of the discipline beforehand.”
The gerund form in the sentence above is used as:
Question 4
Read the sentence below:
“My advice is planning every step carefully.”
The gerund form in the sentence above is used as:
D Subject complement
E Prepositional complement
Answer
A Subject
B Subject complement
C Direct object
D Indirect object
E Prepositional complement
Answer
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Question 5
Read the sentence below:
“All my students remember learning about phrases, clauses, and sentences in their first semester at university.”
The gerund form in the sentence above is used as:
A Subject
B Subject complement
C Noun complement
D Adverbial
E Adjective complement
Answer
A Subject
B Direct object
C Appositive
D Adverbial
E Subject complement
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Question 6
Read the sentence below:
“Being anxious about test results can lead to a stressful mindset.”
The gerund form in the sentence above is used as:
Theory in practice
Answer
A Appositive
B Subject complement
C Subject
D Indirect object
E Prepositional complement
Answer

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Question 1
Gerunds are non-tensed verb forms which can perform a variety of functions typically related to nouns. Having this piece of information in
mind, consider the following sentence:
“Having a more tolerant mindset means accepting differences as natural.”

Let’s practice!
You are very close to reaching your
goals.
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The gerund form highlighted in the sentence functions as:
Question 2
Because gerunds can possess certain syntactic functions normally related to nouns, those non-finite elements can be used in different places
in a sentence. Based on this, consider the following complex sentence:
“We must consider all the pros and cons of living in a foreign country before making a decision.”
The gerund structures highlighted in the sentence above have the same function. Which one?
A A noun complement
B An adjective complement
C A subject
D A subject complement
E A direct object
Answer
A Subject
B Subject complement
C Direct object
D Prepositional complement
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4
Participles
By the end of this section, you will be able to investigate the uses of Present and Past Participles.
E Noun complement
Answer
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What are Participles?
Types of Participles
Earned, Not Given.
(Common Motivational Sentence)
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A rolling stone gathers no moss.
(Proverb)
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Participle structures comprise another extremely important non-tensed verb form in the English language.
Look at the quotes above: what do they have in common?
Exactly! They contain a type of participle form. However, it is possible to visualize two types of participles:
Present Participles
The ones composed of the base form of a verb + ing, such as rolling and smiling.
Past Participles
The ones whose endings involve either a regular form (i.e., -ed past participles, such as earned) or an irregular structure (such as given,
been, and done).
Perfect and Progressive Tenses
Common uses
In general, participle forms can be used to:
Form the Passive Voice
Characterize noun phrases
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Participles used in Perfect tenses
Carter & McCarthy (2010, p. 415) explain that the perfect aspect is concerned with the speaker’s perspective on the relationship between a one-time
frame and an event that takes place in another time frame. As the authors exemplify, an event that took place in the past may be seen as relevant to
the present moment; likewise, an event that takes place in the future may be linked to the present moment.
As a rule, perfect tenses are composed of AUXILIARY VERB HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE of a lexical verb. Examples:
a. Anna has lived in Italy since 1999. (= Present Perfect Simple)
b. My wife had cooked dinner before I got home. (= Past Perfect Simple)
c. I will have finished my tasks by the weekend. (= Future Perfect Simple)
d. We should have bought the tickets in advance. (= Modal Perfect = criticizing)
e. Sophia may have found the pieces of information she needed for her research. (= Modal Perfect = Possibility)
What do the sentences above communicate?
Let us briefly take a look at them.
Example (a) states that the subject started living in Italy in 1999 and still lives there. Consequently, there is a connection between the past and the
present moment. Sentence (b) highlights two past events, one happening before the other: first there was dinner preparation and then the husband’s
arrival at home. Sentence (c) comments that an activity will be over in the future before theweekend starts, that is, first the tasks will be finished and
then the weekend begins. Sentence (d) exploits the modal verb should in partnership with a perfect aspect to criticize someone for not purchasing
the tickets previously. Finally, in sentence (e), due to the use of a specific modal verb (i.e., may), we understand that something possibly happened.
The central issue, however, relies on the use of a participle structure to form such verb tenses in the English language.
Participles used in Progressive tenses
Carter & McCarthy (2010, p. 412) highlight that, with the progressive tenses, the focus is principally on the duration of the event. As they explain,
progressive structures may be used to indicate that something is ongoing, unfinished, or that it is extended but temporary; it may also indicate that
Simplify adjective and adverbial clauses
Compose the structure of verb phrases in Perfect tenses
Compose the structure of verb phrases in Progressive tenses
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something is/was/will be already in progress when something else happens/happened. All in all, the authors comment that the focus of progressive
forms is not on the starting or finishing point of an event, but on the event as seen from its center, i.e., in its progress. Consider the examples below:
a. I am working on an international project now. (= Present Progressive)
b. Jane has been doing some research on verbals for about six months. (= Present Perfect Progressive)
c. My hands were shaking during a school presentation last week. (= Past Progressive)
d. I had been running for half an hour before it started raining. (= Past Perfect Progressive)
e. I will be cooking dinner when you get home from school. (= Future Progressive)
f. My wife and I will have been living in Barra da Tijuca for ten years soon (= Future Perfect Progressive).
Our examples provide an idea on what can be communicated in English via progressive structures. For instance, sentence (a) states an ongoing
process (i.e., working) at the moment of speaking. Sentence (b), however, focuses on someone’s action (i.e., doing some research) which started in
the past, reaches the present moment, and will possibly continue in the future. Sentence (c) points out an ongoing process (i.e., shaking) at a specific
point in the past (i.e., during a school presentation) the speaker refers to. Sentence (d) talks about an action which had been in progress for some
time (i.e., running for half an hour) before another event took place (i.e., it started raining). Sentence (e) refers to an ongoing process (i.e., cooking)
at the point in the future the speaker mentions (i.e., when you get home from school). Finally, sentence (f) emphasizes the fact that the subjects are
about to celebrate their living in a place for over ten years.
As it can been seen from the previous sentences, progressive tenses are composed of one or two AUXILIARY VERBS + PRESENT PARTICIPLE of a
lexical verb. Again, the main point relies on the use of a participle structure to form such verb tenses in English.
Forming the Passive Voice
Participles in the Passive Voice
Passive Voice structures are normally used “to give less prominence to the agent of the clause” (BIBER, CONRAD & LEECH, 2017, p. 459). It means
that more emphasis is placed on the elements affected by the agent. Consider the following cases:
a. King C. Gillette invented the first safety razor in 1903.
b. The first safety razor was invented in 1903 by King C. Gillette.
If we break these examples down into their constituents, we will be able to better understand the functions of both Active and Passive :
King C. Gillette invented the first safety razor in 1903
King C. Gillette invented the first safety razor in 1903
SUBJECT TRANSITIVE VERB DIRECT OBJECT ADJUNCT (TIME)
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Example (a) highlights the agency of the subject in inventing a new tool at the very beginning of the twentieth century. Now, let us investigate what
happens in sentence (b):
The first safety razor was invented by King C. Gillette in 1903
The first safety razor was invented by King C. Gillette In 1903
DIRECT OBJECT PASSIVE STRUCTURE SUBJECT ADJUNCT (TIME)
What has changed in comparison to example (a)?
Now the invention is placed as the subject of the sentence and the agent becomes its object. This slight shift emphasizes the invention, not the
inventor. Moreover, the use of a participle structure, the Past Participle, is part of the new verb phrase.
The following steps must be taken to change a sentence in the Active Voice into the Passive Voice:
Visually speaking:
These extra examples, which use a variety of verb tenses in the Active Voice, are followed by their versions in the Passive Voice:
a. Amazon delivers millions of parcels every day. (= ACTIVE VOICE)
b. Millions of parcels are delivered by Amazon every day. (= PASSIVE VOICE)
c. Anthony is writing a book on English verbals. (= ACTIVE VOICE)
d. A book on English verbals is being written by Anthony. (= PASSIVE VOICE)
e. Sophia found a cell phone on the street this morning. (= ACTIVE VOICE)
f. A cell phone was found by Sophia on the street this morning. (= PASSIVE VOICE)
ACTIVE VOICE STRUCTURE
SUBJECT VERB PHRASE DIRECT OBJECT
1
Move the Direct Object into
the position of the Subject
and vice versa.
2
Place the preposition by
before the subject in its new
position.
3
Add a verb TO BE structure in
the same verb tense of the
Active Voice.
4
Change the lexical verb of the
active voice into its Past
Participle form.
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ACTIVE VOICE STRUCTURE
↓
ACTIVE VOICE STRUCTURE
DIRECT OBJECT VERB TO BE (SAME VERB TENSE - ACTIVE VOICE) + PAST PARTICIPLE BY + SUBJECT
Participle special cases
To simplify adjective and adverbial clauses
Another important function Present and Past Participles perform has to do with their use to simplify more complex structures, such as Adjective
and Adverbial Clauses. Let us see how. Check the following sentences:
a. The footballers, smiling and motivated, waved at the crowd in the stadium as a sign of respect and admiration.
b. The woman driving on the highway was visibly out of her mind.
c. Knowing her husband well, Anna bought him a new novel.
d. Waiting for my wife, I made some tea.
e. Filled with pride, the President walked along the streets of the capital.
Both the Present and Past Participle forms have been highlighted in each of the previous sentences. Let’s see how these structures were used to
simplify either adjective or adverbial clauses.
The footballers, smiling and motivated, waved at the crowd in the stadium as a sign of respect and admiration.
smiling and motivated who were smiling and who were motivated
PARTICIPLE STRUCTURE(S) ORIGINAL, EXPANDED STRUCTURE
In example (a), both a Present Participle form (i.e., smiling) and a Past Participle form (i.e., motivated) were used to simplify two non-restrictive
adjective clauses: who were smiling and who were motivated.
The woman driving on the highway was visibly out of her mind.
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driving who was driving
PARTICIPLE STRUCTURE(S) ORIGINAL, EXPANDED STRUCTURE
(b) exemplifies the use of a PRESENT PARTICIPLE form (i.e. driving) to simplify a RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE: who was driving.
Knowing her husband well, Anna bought him a new novel.
knowing As/Since/Because she knows her husband well,
PARTICIPLE STRUCTURE(S) ORIGINAL, EXPANDED STRUCTURE
What an interesting case example (c) shows us: a Present Participle form (i.e., knowing) being used to simplify an adverbial clause of reason!
Waiting for my wife, I made some tea.
waiting While I was waitingfor my wife,
PARTICIPLE STRUCTURE(S) ORIGINAL, EXPANDED STRUCTURE
Sentence (d) points out the simplification of an adverbial clause of time (= While I was waiting for my wife) by a present participle form: waiting.
Filled with pride, the President walked along the streets of the capital.
filled As if (s)he was filled with pride,
PARTICIPLE STRUCTURE(S) ORIGINAL, EXPANDED STRUCTURE
Finally, example (e) shows the use of a past participle structure (i.e., filled) to simplify an adverbial clause of manner (as if [s]he was filled with pride).
To characterize noun phrases
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Both Present and Past Participle forms can be exploited to characterize noun phrases in English, which means that these non-tensed verb forms will
basically function as adjectives. Look at the sentences below:
a. Smoked salmon is expensive in Brazil.
b. You should add boiling water if you want vegetables to cook faster.
c. If you want to read moving narratives, you should consider Halldor Laxness’ novels.
d. I will never forget our exciting moments in London in 2010.
e. My daughter wants two colored calendars for her birthday.
f. Roasted meat is one of my favorite dishes.
It is possible to see the presence of Present and Past Participle forms in every example. However, one may ask:
• What is the difference between using a Present and a Past Participle structure to characterize nouns?
• Can we say that Present and Past Participles function as adjectives?
If we focus on the examples containing Past Participle forms, we will soon realize that they refer to passive information, that is, the noun the past
participle structure characterizes is the patient of the action, i.e., the element which suffered the action performed by the agent. Consequently, the
following line of thought can be devised for examples (a), (e), and (f):
PAST PARTICIPLE + NOUN PHRASE PASSIVE MEANING
a) Smoked salmon Salmon that was smoked
e) Two colored calendars Two calendars that were colored
f) Roasted meat Meat that was roasted
Now what ideas are engendered by the placement of Present Participle forms before noun phrases? Basically two: the indication of an ongoing
situation and the information on the person, thing, or situation that cause a specific feeling. Let us see these two perspectives in detail concerning
sentences (b), (c), and (d):
PRESENT PARTICIPLE + NOUN PHRASE MEANING: THE INDICATION OF ONGOING SITUATION
b) boiling water Water that is boiling
PRESENT PARTICIPLE + NOUN PHRASE MEANING: AN ELEMENT CAUSES A SPECIFIC FEELING
c) moving narratives Narratives that move people’s hearts
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d) exciting moments Moments that made people feel excited
Extra examples:
g. My investigation on Brazilian education revealed some worrying results.
h. According to some psychologists, alarming thoughts are perfectly normal.
i. Because it was a long, boring lecture, many students felt asleep.
j. My little daughter made a wish upon a shooting star.
In detail:
PRESENT PARTICIPLE + NOUN PHRASE MEANING: AN ELEMENT CAUSES A SPECIFIC FEELING
g) worrying results Results that make people feel worried
h) alarming thoughts Thoughts that make people feel alarmed
i) boring lecture A lecture that made people feel bored
PRESENT PARTICIPLE + NOUN PHRASE MEANING: THE INDICATION OF ONGOING SITUATION
j) a shooting star A star that was shooting (= moving quickly)
Participles
Do you know when and how to use Participles? No? This video then is definitely a must-see!
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Demonstration
As part of any student’s learning process, the dealing with complex verb tenses are typical of advanced classes, especially when it comes to
understanding the differences between using the Present Perfect Simple versus the Present Perfect Progressive. For instance, the following
examples may cause a lot of confusion amongst students:
1.
I have read many books this semester.
2.
I have been reading many books this semester.
Although both sentences communicate on the subject’s readings, they refer to different ideas. How can we extract the exact meaning these
sentences aim to convey? One possible way has to do with the function of participle forms in each of them.
In sentence (1), its main focus is on a perfective aspect, i.e., it aims at expressing a set of reading activities, not being relevant when they took place.
However, sentence (2) conveys a different idea: a set of reading activities already happened and chances are they will continue in the present and
future moments. Hence, example (2) bears a progressive aspect in relation to the events communicated via its verb phrase.
Hands on
Question 1
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Read the sentence below:
“The restaurant located at the end of this street is famous for its international cuisine.”
The participle form in the sentence is used to:
Question 2
Read the sentence below:
“The passengers injured in the accident were taken to the local hospital.”
The participle form in the sentence is used to simplify:
A Form a perfect verb tense.
B Devise a progressive verb tense.
C Refer to an ongoing situation.
D Simplify an adverbial clause.
E Simplify an adjective clause.
Answer
A A non-restrictive adjective clause.
B A restrictive adjective clause.
C An adverbial clause of time.
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Question 3
Read the sentence below:
“Learned carefully, non-finite structures will help you speak more complex structures in English.”
The participle form in the sentence is used to simplify:
Question 4
Read the sentence below:
“Interested in her students’ linguistic development, Anna devised an incredible methodology.”
The participle form in the sentence is used to simplify:
D An adverbial clause of condition.
E An adverbial clause of manner.
Answer
A A non-restrictive adjective clause.
B A restrictive adjective clause.
C An adverbial clause of time.
D An adverbial clause of condition.
E An adverbial clause of manner.
Answer
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Question 5
Read the sentence below:
“A brand-new economic strategy is being designed by the American government.”
The participle form in the sentence is used to
A An adverbial clause of reason.
B An adverbial clause of manner.
C An adverbial clause of time.
D An adverbial clause of condition.
E An adverbial clause of result.
Answer
A refer to a perfect verb tense.
B devise a progressive verb tense.
C form a passive structure.
D simplify an adverbial clause.
E simplify an adjective clause.
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Question 6
Read the sentence below:
“Anna drove focusing on getting at her destination.”
The participle form in the sentence is used to simplify:
Theory in practice
Answer
A An adverbial clause of reason.
B An adverbial clause of manner.
C An adverbial clause of time.
D An adverbial clause of condition.
E An adverbial clause of result.
Answer
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Question 1
Participles, a common non-finite verbal structure, possess two forms: present and past. They can be used to perform a variety of functions.
Bearing this in mind, consider the following sentence:
“Lost in his research on human behavior, Peter had to postpone his family trip for two weeks.”
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Let’s practice!
You are very close to reaching your
goals.
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The participle form highlighted in the sentence was used to simplify:
Question 2
Participles, present or past, can be used to form certain verb tenses. Moreover, these non-finite structures are normally used to provide
aspectual information. Bearing this in mind, which of the following verb tenses contains a PAST PARTICIPLE FORM in its structure?
A An adverbial clause of reason.
B An adverbial clause of manner.
C An adverbial clause of time.
D An adverbial clause of condition.
E An adverbial clause of result.
Answer
A Present Simple.
B Past Simple.
C Future Simple.
D Future Progressive.
E Future Perfect.
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Final issues
In our Unit on verbals, we have managed to explore a set of non-tensed verb forms used in a variety of ways in the English language.
As we have seen, there are three types of non-tensed/non-finite verb forms in English: infinitives (To-infinitives & bare infinitives), gerunds, and
Participles (Present and Past Participles).
In closing, we hope that upon studying the elements above, you have been able to master their uses and the general functions they can have in
English.
Podcast
Let's revisit the main topics of the Unit!
00:00 13:02
1x
Answer
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Go Further
On the Education First (EF) website you can find lots of examples of verbs that are followed by gerunds.
The engVid website is also a must for those interested in learning more about verbs followed by gerunds and/or infinitives.
The British Council website has a dedicated space for those who want to learn English. Check the website for more on verbals.
References
BIBER, D.; CONRAD, S.; LEECH, G. Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Longman, 2017.
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BRADY, E. AT&T to Delay 5G Deployment Near Certain Airports. Newsweek, 18 Jan. 2022.
CARTER, R.; McCARTHY, M. Cambridge Grammar of English. Cambridge: CUP, 2010.
CRYSTAL, D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
DUCHARME, J. How Do You Even calculate COVID-19 Risk Anymore? Time, 15 Dec. 2021.
DUCHARME, J. An N95 Is the Best Mask for Omicron. Here's Why. Time, 18 Jan. 2022.
JENKINSON, O. Earth's Core Is Cooling Faster Than Expected, Creating Uncertain Future for Planet. Newsweek, 18 Jan. 2022.
PARROT, M. Grammar for English Language Teachers. Cambridge: CUP, 2010.
QUIRK et al. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1984.
TIME. The power of collaboration. Accessed 14 Feb. 2022.
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