Língua Inglesa Aspectos SIntático e Semânticos aula 2

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The meaning within the sentences: Sentence Semantics
Professor Diego Candido Abreu
Description
Theoretical overview of the area of Sentence Semantics and its main
concepts, with a focus on the notions of paraphrase, scope relations,
ambiguity and figurative language.
Purpose
Understanding different types of relationships among words and
phrases within the sentence level, as well as the rules that govern the
linking of those elements, is key for the student to be able to convey
his/her ideas in a coherent and economical way. Understanding the
underlying semantic processes that make the production of sentences
possible will aid learners on their way to proficiency.
Preparation
Before starting this Unit, make sure you have a good dictionary at hand.
Among other great options, we recommend both Oxford and Cambridge
dictionaries.
Goals
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Section 1
Semantic phenomena: paraphrase and
ambiguity
To identify semantic phenomena such as paraphrase and ambiguity
and their roles in hindering or aiding communication.
Section 2
Semantic con�icts: scope relations and
�gurative language
To recognize the roles of scope relations and figurative language in
meaning-making processes.
Warm up
(1)
I woke up on that day at six o’clock in the morning. Horses are a
great company if you feed them well. Economics is the science
that studies the production, transference and distribution of wealth.
Eleven plus ten equals twenty-one. However, I swim in the
swimming pool of love.
The piece of text presented above is correct in its grammatical
structure. All verbs are correctly conjugated, the words have the
right spelling and there are no punctuation mistakes. However,
although grammatically flawless, the text looks like a scribble of
nonsense. That impression is accurate because the different
sentences that compose the text have no graspable semantic link
among each other.

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Being able to spot the senselessness of the text above is not a
skill that should be taken for granted. It requires a sharp capacity
for semantic analysis as well as a deep understanding of the
different types of meaning relationships among words. If you
were able to automatically grasp the awkwardness of the
aforementioned text, you certainly have linguistic skills in English
that many language learners yearn for.
The main goal of this Unit is to work on your already existing skills
in semantic analysis. This pedagogical resource will give you
theoretical and analytical knowledge that will make you aware of
the rules and organizational principles that govern the relationship
among words within a sentence. At the end of our journey here,
you will be able not only to say whether a text is meaningful or not
but also to explain the rules and features that make it
semantically proper.
1 - Semantic phenomena: paraphrase and ambiguity
By the end of this section, you will be able to identify semantic phenomena such as
paraphrase and ambiguity and their roles in hindering or aiding communication.
Paraphrase
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While Lexical Semantics is the study of word meaning, Sentence
Semantics looks towards the principles and rules that govern the
construction of meaning within a sentence through the articulation of
the elements that compose phrases and sentences. Numerous semantic
phenomena organize the meaning within the sentence. In this first sub-
section, our object of interest is the notion of paraphrase. In the
following lines, we will define this concept and discuss its main
theoretical features.
The first step in the journey of understanding the phenomenon of
paraphrase is presenting a preliminary definition for it. The classic view
of paraphrase conceives this notion as the reconstruction of a certain
message or idea with different wording. It therefore stands for the
sameness of meaning in distinct linguistic structures (RIEMER, 2015).
Take a look at some examples of paraphrase below:
(2)
Your speech was incomprehensible.
Your talk was impossible to understand.
His technique was almost unbearable.
His way of playing was hard to take.
Presented the concept, we can now talk a little bit about some of its
main properties. Paraphrase, although not necessarily, tends to be an
appropriation of someone else’s ideas and discourse. Usually,
paraphrasing happens when one wants to convey the same ideas
expressed previously by another person but wants to do it with his/her
own style and words.
In this sense, a paraphrase can occur in an explicit way (almost as a
quotation) or in an implicit form. When expressed explicitly, the identity
of the original coiner of the ideas paraphrased is mentioned within the
text of the paraphrase, as we can see in the examples below:
(3)
My dad always told me to keep my head up and my walking straight.
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The great linguist Ferdinand de Saussure defined language as a system of
signs.
When expressed implicitly, the message being paraphrased is deprived
of the presence of its original creator, demanding a common ground of
knowledge between the interlocutors of the interaction to make the
paraphrase acknowledged by them. Read the examples below:
(4)
Considering that man is a political animal, one may not talk about society
without touching the topic of politics.
Comments
The sentence above contains an implicit paraphrase of the classic
definition of man coined by Aristotle. If both interactants are familiar
with the ideas of the ancient master, the paraphrastic feature of the
sentence will be crystal clear. However, in case of the interlocutor of the
message not being acquainted with Aristotle’s thinking, the paraphrase
may become cloudy, and the highlighted assumption may seem to have
been created by the utterer of the sentence.
Although it may be impossible to list exhaustively all the functions
performed by a certain linguistic phenomenon, in the case of paraphrase,
one may stress roughly three main functions that are usually realized by
paraphrastic texts.
The first of them is the recognition of someone else’s “ownership” over
the message being uttered.

In many cases, one paraphrases explicitly another person due to the
need of giving legitimate credit to the creator of a certain idea.

In other situations, the objective is less noble: instead of giving credit to
him/her, the goal of the paraphrase is to “borrow” the original creator of
the idea’s authority and prestige.
Take a look at the sentences below:
(5)
Newton was the first to state in mathematical terms that every action
creates a reaction.
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As the great sociolinguist Labov used to say, language variation is the rule,
not the exception.
In 5, we see examples of paraphrases that recognize the author of the
original idea being restated. This recognition may be due either to an
elegant urge to give credit to others or an attempt to endorse the views
presented with the prestige of important intellectuals.
Another important function of paraphrases is to organize, clarify and
summarize a message in order to make it fit better in a specific
discursive context. In face of a construction that seems toocomplex, a
teacher may paraphrase it in order to make it more didactic; a lecturer
may summarize a certain set of assumptions in order to make it shorter;
and one may paraphrase someone else’s idea in order to make it more
coherent.
Finally, paraphrases may be used to change the level of abstraction of a
certain line of thought. One’s reflection about the economic problems of
a country may be paraphrased in order to highlight how those issues are
faced at the family business level; one’s personal observations about the
weather or the nature in his/her neighborhood may be enlarged to the
level of the underlying principles that determine the biological
organization of life.
Paraphrase, polysemy and polyphony
Paraphrase and polysemy
The definition of paraphrase as the sameness of meaning in different
linguistic structures is simple and straightforward. However, things get
more complicated when we dig deeper into this notion through the
lenses of two other notions:
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
Polysemy

Polyphony
The concept of polysemy stands for the presence of multiple different
meanings within a certain word or linguistic expression (RIEMER, 2015).
It is forged to break the assumption of a one-to-one correspondence
between meaning and word. Just like homologous meanings may be
expressed by different words (synonymy), the same linguistic form may
carry a set of related but not completely homologous meanings.
Therefore, since words that seem equivalent may be polysemic and
through polysemy express different ideas, the notion of paraphrase as a
“mirroring” of another meaning becomes problematic. Let’s read the pair
of sentences below:
(6)
Nightly birds are fit to fly in the darkness.
Nocturnal birds are biologically prepared to perform their displacement in
low-visibility conditions.
In 6, we can see a pair of sentences that, through an orthodox linguistic
classification, would tend to be seen as a perfect paraphrase. “Nightly”
can convey the same meaning as “nocturnal”; and the same is true with
the pairs “fit”-“biologically prepared”, “fly”-“perform their displacement”
and “darkness”-“low-visibility conditions”. However, when we take a
closer look, important semantic differences can be seen among the
pairs of words highlighted. The “homologous” words presented in the
second sentence are clearly more technical and scientific than the
constructions in the first sentence. Although understandable by people
that master this type of genre, the second sentence may be somehow
unclear to some people, not so acquainted with this type of vocabulary.
On the other hand, the first sentence may appear generic and loose to
ornithologists, who would expect a more precise way of conveying the
behavior of nocturnal birds.
Paraphrase and polyphony
While the notion of polysemy relativizes the concept of paraphrase by
showing that seemingly synonymous words may have different
polysemic meanings, polyphony poses a different threat to this
theoretical framework.
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Studied by the Russian thinker Mikhail Bakhtin, the notion of polyphony,
in a nutshell, can be seen as the ever-existing presence of multiple
voices and discourses in a certain utterance.
Polyphony is the integration of a certain piece of
discourse in a chain of related voicings and ideas: it is
the historicization of language.
The notion of polyphony raises doubt over the main assumption that
sustains paraphrase. If all utterances dialogue and trace back to
previous voices and discourses, every piece of linguistic construction is,
in this sense, paraphrastic.
Comments
Polyphony invites us to think about paraphrase in a gradual and relative
way, which differs from the absolute view imposed by canonic
Linguistics. Instead of seeing a sentence as paraphrastic or not,
polyphonic thinking urges us to grade utterances in different levels of
paraphrase: from an explicit and deliberate reconstruction of one’s
previous utterance to a piece of discourse that vaguely and
unconsciously brings about other ideas and voices.
De�ning ambiguity
As previously stated, polysemy refers to multiple meanings a word or
phrase may have. Does that mean that language is ambiguous? To put it
another way: is polysemy the same as ambiguity? To set matters straight
and avoid possible misunderstandings, let’s check the definition for
ambiguity!
Ambiguity can be defined as the presence of more than
one conventional meaning in the same word or
linguistic form, hindering or creating hurdles to the
understanding of the message (RIEMER, 2015).
The different ways of grasping a certain linguistic item are called
readings in the field of Linguistics. Therefore, the most important criteria
for establishing the existence of ambiguity are the presence of more
than one reading in a specific language unity as well as the existence of
communicative problems caused by those multiple readings.
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Although coming from a technical and scientific vocabulary, the term
ambiguity became popular in ordinary language, usually referring to any
type of vagueness, confusion or duality of interpretation of a certain
piece of discourse. Therefore, to outline thoroughly the concept of
ambiguity, besides presenting its theoretical definition, we also have to
distinguish it from similar ideas.
Ambiguity x Polysemy
The main difference between ambiguity and polysemy is that the
semantic plurality in the latter is seen as a natural feature of language
while, in ambiguity, it is understood as a linguistic problem, causing
confusion and disturbing communication. Thus, in an ambiguous stretch
of utterance, the readings of a certain word/expression must be
competing instead of complementary or supplementary. They must
pollute and curb objectively and effectively the interaction.
In a nutshell, ambiguity and polysemy are concepts of different natures.
Let's check their main differences below:
Ambiguity
A vice in language use,
caused either by the
conventionalization of
shocking meanings
within the same
word/expression or by
unclear syntactic
constructions.
Polysemy
One of the semantic
properties of words and
linguistic structures: the
coexistence of
numerous meanings
within the same
linguistic unity.
Check the following examples which clarify this distinction:
(7a)
The band was missing one of its founding members.
(7b)
Iron Maiden is my favorite metal band.
(8)
Metal bands are rare in my region.
In 7, we have a pair of sentences that contains a classic example of
polysemy. The word band, although referring specifically to a certain type
of social group (musicians that gather to play as a Unit), has within its

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semantic array different meaning facets. Therefore, the highlighted term
in (7) can either represent the abstract institution formed by the
gathering of the musicians (the brand and the symbol) or the real group
of individuals that, in some specific situations, play songs together in
certain venues. Those two possible readings are variations that fall
within the conventional meaning of band, in most of the cases, not
raising any sort of ambiguity.
Conversely, in (8), we have a sentence that can become ambiguous
when abstracted from its social context of utterance. What does the
interlocutor mean by metal bands? Is he/she talking about groups of
musicians that play the type of Rock genre called Heavy Metal or a metal
strip used to hold thingstogether? Without proper clarification about the
context of the utterance, the sentence becomes ambiguous, hindering
the understanding of its intended meaning.
Therefore, in (7), we have a case of polysemic use of the same word
while, in (8), we have a classic case of ambiguity.
Ambiguity x vagueness
Vagueness is itself a vague term. In the sense it is meant here, it could
be replaced by terms such as imprecision or indefiniteness.
Talking or writing vaguely means being unable to specify or clarify the
real meaning of the information that is being conveyed. In this sense, a
vague message paves the way for different forms of interpretation of the
same utterance, being this the reason why ambiguity and vagueness
tend to be used as interchangeable concepts by some people.
However, there are important differences between both
notions. While ambiguity refers to a specific type of
linguistic phenomenon, vagueness is just a general
expression that can be applied in a myriad of
situations, describing a lack of precision in a certain
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utterance without any effort to specify the source of
unclarity.
Ambiguous sentences can also be somehow vague and vague
sentences can also be ambiguous. We are talking about two concepts
that dwell in two different dimensions: ambiguity is a technical notion
applied to areas of science while vagueness is a commonsensical
adjective that describes a feeling towards some forms of language.
Types of ambiguity
As communicative vices resulting from the possibility of multiple
readings for the same utterance, ambiguity can be caused by the
interplay of many different linguistic variables. Roughly, there are four
main types of ambiguity:

Lexical

Syntactic

Semantic

Pragmatic
Those four different kinds of ambiguity, as well as their subtypes, will be
covered shortly.
Lexical ambiguity
Lexical ambiguity happens when the plurality of meanings conveyed by
the same word/expression somehow hinders the grasping of the
message, establishing a situation of vagueness, imprecision or
confusion within the sentence. Lexical ambiguity can be either
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polysemic or homonymic. In polysemic ambiguity, this phenomenon is
due to the presence in a sentence of a polysemic term, whose meaning
is unclear. Take a look at an example:
(9)
The events of that night destroyed the football club.
Without any extra information regarding the nature of the mentioned
events, the sentence in (9) becomes ambiguous because one cannot tell
whether the term football club is referring to the institution (that
participates in football leagues) or the physical place (where people can
get together to play the sport).
In homonymic cases, on the other hand, ambiguity results from the
presence of a word that has a homonymic pair in a context that makes it
uncertain which of the pairs is being employed. The meanings being
confused, in this case, differ in terms of reference: they refer to different
things in the world. read the sentence below:
(10)
The golf club was destroyed by your father.
In (10), we can see a sentence whose organization allows the possibility
of two ambiguous interpretations that point to completely different
referents. Golf club, in this case, can either be the place where people
practice the sport or the object used to play the game.
Syntactic ambiguity
This type of ambiguity occurs in utterances formed by complex and
somehow ill-composed syntactic structures. In sentences constructed
with many phrases and syntactic elements, the link among those items
can become fuzzy, creating a sense of ambiguity within the message.
Syntactic ambiguity can be divided into two categories:

Attachment ambiguity

Coordination ambiguity
Take a look at the following sentence:
(11)
The man saw his wife with the telescope.
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In (11), we have a classic example of attachment ambiguity. This type of
ambiguous construction results from a poor attachment of a clause or a
phrase to the entire structure of the sentence, allowing for multiple and
confusing interpretations about the utterance’s meaning.
Another type of syntactic ambiguity occurs with the use of coordinators,
especially and/or. This kind of ambiguous structure usually consists of a
confusing or cumbersome interaction between both clauses coordinated
within one sentence. Read the following example:
(12)
She never watched a romantic movie and didn’t cry.
In (12), we have a sentence in which the same subject (she) has two
actions negated by the terms never and not (didn’t). Those two
“unpracticed” actions are coordinated by the word and. This combination
of double negation and coordinated clauses paves the way for the rising
of multiple and confusing interpretations of the sentence.
Semantic ambiguity
Semantic ambiguity occurs when the meaning of a word, phrase, clause
or sentence gets blurred by confusion caused by an unclear reference
within the sentence. This type of ambiguity can be divided into:

Scope ambiguity

Anaphoric ambiguity
As it will be discussed later, scope relations are semantic relations in
which the interpretation of a term depends on the interpretation of
another. Scope ambiguity, by its turn, occurs when this “meaning
transmission” faces problems due to a lack of clarity within the
sentence. An example of scope ambiguity is presented below:
(13)
Many students ate a lot of sandwiches.
In (13), the presence of two scope-taking terms (many and a lot) makes
the sentence confusing in terms of how both generalizers will interact
with each other. In section two you will learn more about scope relations!
Anaphoric ambiguity is also a semantic problem in the interplay of
references within a sentence. In this case, however, the confusion
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happens because of the impossibility to determine which of the previous
words is the correct reference of the anaphoric term. Take a look at the
sentence below:
(14)
Mary and her sister talked about her vacation.
In (14), the anaphoric pronoun her has its reference blurred by the
existence of two previous elements that can be candidates for this
anaphoric relation: Mary and her sister.
Pragmatic ambiguity
Pragmatic ambiguity occurs when the literal meaning of the sentence is
changed by the context in which it occurs. In many cases, this tension
between literal meaning and contextualized meaning is resolved by
common sense and intuition. However, depending on the interlocutor
and the situation, the utterance can become ambiguous. A good
example of this type of ambiguity is presented below:
(15)
Can you please pass me the salt?
In most occasions in which this type of construction is produced, the
meaning aimed by the speaker is not the literal meaning of the sentence
(asking a question), but a contextually meaningful variation of it: asking
politely someone to do something for you.
Paraphrase and ambiguity
In this video, Professor Erika Coachman will discuss two semantic
phenomena: paraphrase and ambiguity.

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You are very close to reaching your goals.
Let’s practice!
Question 1
Since both ambiguity and polysemy occur in situations of multiple
meanings within a linguistic expression, they can sometimes be
confused. However, ambiguity is a semantic phenomenon that
definesa problem in communication, while polysemy is a feature of
natural languages. Based on this assertion, read the sentences
below and mark the one that presents a case of ambiguity:
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Parabéns! A alternativa C está correta.
The only example of ambiguity is C, in which one cannot tell whether
the bat is the animal or the piece of wood used to play sports.
Question 2
Many are the discursive functions performed by paraphrase: from
making ideas more didactic to making thought more abstract.
Based on the different roles played by paraphrase, read the pair of
sentences below:
a) Vagarious insects tend to be devoured by predators.
b) Slow bugs are easily eaten by other animals.
Considering b as a paraphrase of a, which of the discursive
functions below is performed by the paraphrastic sentence?
A I lost my senses after drinking too much wine.
B
Great clubs of soccer are playing in this year’s
league.
C
They entered the dark room and found a bat on the
floor.
D Pigs and rats are seen as dirty animals.
E
Minority groups were oppressed throughout the
history.
A Recognition
B Clarification
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Parabéns! A alternativa B está correta.
Since the first sentence is using more technical and scientific
language, b paraphrases it in different terms, using more commonly
used vocabulary, in order to make it more understandable.
Therefore, the function of this paraphrase is clarification.
2 - Semantic con�icts: scope relations and �gurative language
By the end of this section, you will be able to recognize the roles of scope relations and
�gurative language in meaning-making processes.
Scope relations
When communicating either in our mother tongue or in an additional
language, meaning may get lost. Ambiguity, as previously stated, may be
C Summarizing
D Making ideas more abstract
E Making ideas more concrete
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one of the causes for that. In this section, we will study phenomena that
may hinder understanding somehow, when not properly manipulated:
scope relations and figurative language. Even though these phenomena
are quite distinct, both may result in misinterpretation. Interpretation,
therefore, in both cases is dependent upon interdependence relations
among the constituents of a sentence or phrase (as is the case of scope
relations), or on whether literal or non-literal meaning is intended (as with
figurative language).
Let’s understand some underlying semantic processes that may either
enable or hinder communication!
De�ning scope relations
Scope relations are traditionally defined as types of semantic relations in
which the interpretation of a specific element of the utterance relies on
the interpretation given to another element (RIEMER, 2015).
Scope relations, therefore, establish a relationship of interdependence
among two or more constituents within a sentence.
(16)
Each student used two uniforms.
In (16), there are two possible interpretations for the message conveyed:
(16a) each student used two different uniforms that were exclusive
to each student.
(16b) each student used the same two uniforms.
As denoted above, the way the order of distribution between student and
uniforms is organized affects the overall meaning of the sentence.
The notion of scope relations is closely linked with the
wider idea of semantic scope: the semantic object
influenced or modified by a certain semantic operation.
Read the example below:
(17)
My mother does not eat meat, but she does eat eggs.
In (17), the scope of the negation conveyed by the item not comprises
the construction eat meat. On the other hand, the structure does eat
eggs is not affected by the negation, thus, not belonging to its scope.
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One key characteristic of scope relations is that, since they presuppose
the existence of more than one possible interpretation of the same item,
they tend to be mingled with the notion of ambiguity. Scope ambiguity is
the type of ambiguity caused by the interpretative interdependence that
characterizes scope relations.
Types of scope relations
Since scope relations are a product of a situation of meaning
interdependence generated within the semantic and syntactic structure
of each specific language, it is not any wonder that each language may
have its own ways of manifesting this phenomenon. However, some
types of linguistic items tend to foster certain kinds of scope relations
across different languages.
Quantifiers may be the most common and prolific source of scope
relations in English. This is due to their tendency of generating scope
ambiguity, especially when more than one quantifier is used in the same
sentence. Take a look at the example below:
(18)
Six girls have eaten ten apple pies.
Here we have a classic example of scope relation with two quantifiers in
the same sentence. The interpretation of how many apple pies each girl
has eaten depends on the way we understand the meaning of the
quantifier ten.
Through a distributive view, each specific girl has eaten ten apple pies,
summing up a total of sixty dishes. On the other hand, through a
generalizing perspective, all girls together have eaten the total of ten
apple pies, not being clear then how many pies each girl has devoured.
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Negation is another common source of scope relations in English. In
most of the cases, the interdependence of meaning lies in the fact that it
is unclear which of the elements being negated falls within the scope of
the negative item. Let us take a look at the example below:
(19)
All students in my class were not approved.
In (19), the interpretation of the sentence demands a clarification about
the scope of the negation or, more precisely, whether the phrase not
approved modifies the phrase all students in an integrative way (the
entire class failed) or in an excluding way (all students in my class were
not approved because some of them failed). As highlighted before, if the
interpretation of a certain element depends on the clarification of
another item (in this case, the negation), there is a scope relation being
realized.
Modals are also well-known for establishing scope relations among
items within a sentence. The principle here is the same as in the
previous types of scope relation: the interpretation of the meaning of the
sentence relies on the understanding of the scope of the modal element.
Read the example below:
(20)
In this game, he may win or lose.
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In (20), two different interpretations fror the sentence are possible
depending on whether we see the modal may modifying the following
elements in an alternative (he may win or he may lose) or in an
integrative way (this is a game in which he may just win or lose, and
other options, like a tie, are ruled out).
Finally, let us talk about generalizers: another classic example of
structure that fosters scope relations. Read the following sentence:
(21)
All kids have won all the medals.
There are two possible interpretations to (21) according to the way we
interpret both generalizers in the sentence.
(21a)
All kids together have won the totality of medals.
(21b)
Each specific kid has won all medalsavailable.
The only way of sorting out which of those interpretations is correct is
determining the scope of the generalizer all in the sentence, clarifying
the kind of scope relation it performs.
Figurative language
Figurative language stands for any use of language in which the literal
and conventional meaning of the word/expression is replaced by a non-
literal reading. Many are the functions of figurative language: from
making an utterance more aesthetically appealing to conveying ideas in
a smooth way.
Figurative language usually manifests in real discourse in three different
forms:

The combination of different words into an expression that has a non-
literal meaning (sayings, proverbs, idioms and formulaic expressions).

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The articulation of different ideas in one sentence (simile and
metaphor).

The formation of compound words whose meaning may be more or less
unattached from the individual words’ meaning (binomials and phrasal
verbs).
Let’s check these different ways of conceiving figurative language!
Sayings, proverbs, tournure idioms
and formulaic expressions
In this sub-section, we will talk about the figurative language that is
produced by the combination of words whose meaning gets abstracted
from its original sense through convention. Those expressions can either
become semantically independent from their composing parts by
tradition, by technical use in a certain area or by popularization through
media or any other form of social discourse. In the following lines, some
examples of this type of figurative language will be discussed.
Sayings
Sayings are sentences or groups of sentences that shed supposedly
wise ideas on any aspect of human life and human experience in the
world. Therefore, sayings are understood as messages of knowledge
that are shared in a condensate form. Sometimes, the greatness of a
saying may also be due to its stylistic form, portraying in a memorable
way a bit of wisdom.
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Some examples of sayings are presented below:
(22a)
Beggars can’t be choosers.
(22b)
Blood is thicker than water.
(22c)
Better safe than sorry.
(22d)
All that glitters is not gold.
All the different sayings expressed in (22) comprise rich messages
regarding the way society and people work.
Comments
Their bits of life wisdom are expressed in a way that is, at the same time,
memorable (due to its concise form) and dense (due to the volume of
reflections condensed in it).
Proverbs
In its essence, proverbs could be seen as specific types of saying – or
the other way around. They are both short discursive units of wisdom
about human life presented in a memorable style. The main difference
between both forms of figurative language lies in the cultural
profoundness and embodiment of the proverbs.
Sayings
Common to many
different languages and
cultures, not having a
deep link with one
Proverbs
Organically integrated
into one specific people
and culture. Many
proverbs are inspired by

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specific cultural
background (some of
the sayings in 22 can be
seen in other
languages).
religious allegories or
old tales or myths that
are meaningful to
particular social groups.
Proverbs are linguistic expressions of a certain ethnos.
In a nutshell, sayings are general pieces of wisdom regarding life in
general while proverbs are religious/cultural frameworks regarding the
way that specific people, culture or faith understands some elements of
life and the world.
Take a look at the following examples of proverbs:
(23a)
A journey of a thousand miles begins with the first step (Chinese
proverb)
(23b)
There is no hand to catch time (Indian proverb)
Despite being cells of traditional wisdom about life, both proverbs are
deeply rooted in the cultures and religious way of approaching human
experience, representing, respectively, the Chinese and the Indian way of
proposing these reflections.
Tournure idioms
In order to understand the concept of tournure idioms, firstly, we have to
become familiar with the notion of idioms in general. Idioms are:
A string of two or more words
for which meaning is not
derived from the meaning of
the individual words
comprising that string.
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(SWINNEY; CUTLER, 1979, p. 523)
Tournure idioms, therefore, are a specific kind of idioms, composed of a
particular kind of repeating structure. Grammatically, tournure idioms
work as verbs, expressing a certain type of action or state of things.
Their default form is “to X a/the Y” in which X stands for the verb and Y
for the object of this verb. Some examples of tournure idioms, inspired
by Makkai (1972), are presented below:
(24a)
To do a guy/girl (to have a quick love affair with someone).
(24b)
To sweat bullets (to be extremely nervous or angry about something).
Although the most common structure of the tournure idioms is
represented in 24, variations of this basic form are possible, as we can
see below:
(25a)
To build castles in the air (to make impossible plans).
To + verb + object + prepositional phrase
(25b)
To dance on air (to be extremely happy).
To + verb + prepositional phrase
Comments
In all examples presented, we can see a meaning unity whose meaning
is not the sum of the individual meanings of the elements that compose
it, but a metaphorical meaning derived figuratively from it.
Formulaic expressions
Formulaic expressions are crystalized forms whose meaning and unity
are not a product of individual spontaneous combinations. Formulaic
expressions make up a traditional piece of discourse within a
community, therefore having its structure turned into canon.
As highlighted by Pinker (1995), formulaic expressions share some
important properties.
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Read the following examples of formulaic expressions:
(26a)
Let’s call it a day.
(26b)
I wouldn’t want to be in his shoes.
Similes and metaphors
Metaphors and similes can be seen as mental operations of analogy
that manifest in language through the construction of semantic links
between elements more or less unrelated. In the following topics of this
sub-section, both notions will be covered in more detail.
Metaphors
 First of all, formulaic expressions present a non-
literal meaning, derived metaphorically from the
elements comprising it.
 Secondly, this type of linguistic structure usually
projects intrinsically a certain type of attitude or
emotional stance, being, in this sense, different
from spontaneous constructions.
 Finally, formulaic expressions have a determined
and unchangeable internal coherence and semantic
color. Their lexical order is fixed and their prosodic
pronunciation tends to be standardized.
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Hurford, Heasley and Smith (2007, p. 331) define metaphors as
“conceptual operations reflected in human language that enable
speakers to structure and construe areas of knowledge and experience
in more concrete and experimental terms”.
Metaphors are, thus, analogies inscribed in language.
Their function may be to ease the understanding of a phenomenon of
the world by equating it to a known element or to establish a non-literal
and poetic connection among differentelements.
Take a look at the following examples of metaphoric constructions:
(27a)
Dr. Brandon is a butcher.
(27b)
Working here is an eternal vacation.
Both sentences presented in (27) construct an interface between
different notions based on their belonging to similar semantic
dimensions. In (27a), the work of a doctor can be associated with the
work of a butcher when it is poorly executed, possibly killing someone
due to its lack of care or accuracy. In (27b), the ideas of work and
vacation can be seen almost as an antithesis. However, in the
highlighted sentence, they are presented within a relationship of identity
(working here = vacation).
Many are the tentative models used to typify metaphors based on a
variety of criteria: from the type of cognitive skill used to produce it to
the semantic nature of the verbs employed in the metaphorical
utterance. The most meaningful of those typologies is the one founded
on the linguistic structure of metaphors. Based on this framework, there
are three different types of metaphor:

Standard

Implied
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
Mixed
Standard metaphor occurs when the basic metaphorical structure
(notion + is + notion) is maintained. Below, there is an example of a
standard metaphor:
(28)
My girlfriend is a flower.
Implied metaphor takes place when a metaphorical relationship between
two heterogeneous notions is established, but the canonical structure is
somehow violated. In (29), we have an example of an implied metaphor:
(29)
The wind roared in my corridor.
Mixed metaphor happens when more than one metaphorical relationship
is coined within the same sentence. Read the following example:
(30)
She dived with her soul through the walls of fire.
Similes
Similes could easily be confused with a particular kind of metaphor. The
main difference, though, between both concepts lies in the following:
Attention
While metaphors establish a figurative relationship of identity or
belonging between unlike terms, similes project a comparison between
the same type of elements.
Therefore, the existence of the phenomenon of simile depends on the
use within the utterance of certain comparison-making words, such as
like and as. In (31), we have two examples of simile:
(31a)
Her eyes were shining like the sun.
(31b)
The weather today is as dry as a desert.
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Binomials and phrasal verbs
Let’s study now forms of figurative language that are composed of a
short sequence of words that convey a non-literal meaning, usually more
or less unattached from the original meanings of its components.
Binomials
Traditional definition of binomials traces back to Malkiel (1959, p. 113),
understanding this phenomenon as “a sequence of two words pertaining
to the same form-class, placed on an identical level of syntactic
hierarchy, and ordinarily connected by some kind of lexical link”. The
canonic form of the binomials is X + X, in which two similar words are
bound by a conjugative element (usually, the conjunction and or the
preposition to).
Binomials can be of two types:

Fixed binomials

Varying binomials
Fixed binomials are compound expressions whose meaning and use
became crystalized, being odd to try to make changes to the original
structure. We have some examples of fixed binomials below:
(32a)
Face to face
(32b)
Head to toes
(32c)
Odds and ends
It is easy to see that the attempt to make personal variations of the
conventional binomial would create odd structures (head to feet /
countenance to countenance).
Variant binomials, on the other hand, are compound expressions that
become popular and commonly used in a certain discourse community,
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but whose structure is still vulnerable to suffer eventual changes during
the interaction. Some examples of variant binomials are presented
below:
(33a)
Tears for fears
(33b)
Scream and shout
Although identified with some specific referents and contexts of
production, it would not be impossible to form constructions like fears
for tears or scream and cry. Therefore, variant binomials, although
produced in the same way, are still open to restructuring.
Phrasal verbs
Phrasal verbs are compound terms formed by combinations of verb-
particle in which the meaning of the compound is not the literal sum of
its elements. This is the figurative nature of the phrasal verb, since its
meaning is a non-literal production of the encounter of a group of words.
In many cases, the meaning of the phrasal verb is similar to the meaning
of the main verb in the unity, as in the examples below:
(34a)
Slow down
(34b)
Make up
It is clear that the meaning of the phrasal verb slow down is relatively
alike the original sense of slow. By the same token, make up resembles
the sense of making something. However, the semantic features of the
particles down and up are not integrated into the resulting meaning of
the phrasal verb: make up and slow down have nothing to do with the
movements or directions up and down.
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In some cases, however, the phrasal verb has few or no resemblance
whatsoever with any of its original constitutive elements, as we can see
in the examples below:
(35a)
Beef up
(35b)
Clam up
In (35a), we can see a phrasal verb whose meaning is almost random
when compared with the meaning of its parts: to improve something has
nothing to do with the meaning of beef or the movement upwards. In
(35b), we have a phrasal verb whose semantic connection with the verb
that constitutes it is highly metaphorical: be quiet and the biological
design of a clam.
Although, in most of cases, phrasal verbs are formed by a combination
of a verb + a particle (usually a preposition or an adverb), phrasal verbs
can also contain two particles. Some examples of these three-part
phrasal verbs are presented below:
(36a)
Look forward to
(36b)
Put up with
(36c)
Come up with
Figurative Language and Scope
relations
What is figurative language? And what are scope relations? Watch this
video to find out!

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You are very close to reaching your goals.
Let’s practice!
Question 1
Metaphors are figurative pieces of discourse formed by the
linguistic materialization of analogies. They can assume many
different forms depending on their structure. Read the sentences
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below and mark the one that presents an example of an implied
metaphor:
Parabéns! A alternativa A está correta.
The only alternative that presents an example of an implied
metaphor, that creates an analogical link among elements without
the X is Y structure, is A. The others either refer to similes or
standard metaphors.
Question 2
Scope relations occur when the interpretation of an item within the
sentence or the entire sentence depends on the interpretation of the
scope of another element of the utterance. Bearing this definition in
mind, read the example below:
Based on the exams analyzed, the course of her disease may be
progressive or stable.
What is the type of scope relation presented in the sentence above?
A Her strong steps shook the entire block.
B Life is a quick breath.
C Her blue eyes shined like the summer sky.
D Education ispure gold.
E Look after the elderly and they take care of you.
A Modal
B Quantifier
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Parabéns! A alternativa A está correta.
Modal scope relations tend to open two different lines of
interpretation to the modal element of the sentence, an alternative
one and a generalizing one. This is the case of the highlighted
sentence since the modal ‘may’ can be modifying the elements in an
alternative way (the disease may progress or may stabilize) or in a
generalizing way: this is an exam that rules out other possibilities
such as the disease being in a regressive state, meaning that only
two alternatives can be perceptible in this exam. Therefore, A is the
correct answer.
Final issues
Throughout this Unit, we have discussed some of the key concepts and
ideas that constitute the theoretical framework of Sentence Semantics,
characterizing their most relevant features and grammatical properties.
Founding notions like paraphrase, scope, ambiguity, metaphor, idioms,
sayings, phrasal verbs and many others were presented and analyzed, by
highlighting not only their grammatical constitution but their possible
use in our daily operation with language.
Understanding in depth the way the components of the phrase and the
sentence establish semantic relationships among each other can
enhance our knowledge regarding the structure and organization of
language, as well as our capacity of communicating in English. On top of
that, being able to grasp the different types of semantic phenomena that
comprise the phrases in English can make you more proficient in the
language since you will be capable of seeing the linguistic tools
presented in this Unit as new instruments to make meaning in the world.
C Generalizer
D Negation
E Indefinite
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Podcast
Let's revise the main topics of the Unit!

Go Further
To proceed with your studies in the field of Sentence Semantics, read the
chapter Phrasal Semantics, written by Ray Jackendoff. In this text, the
author draws a theoretical panorama concerning the entire conceptual
framework of the area, highlights the main discussions of the field, as
well as its most important tenets.
JACKENDOFF, R. Phrasal Semantics. In: JACKENDOFF, R. Foundations of
language: brain, meaning, grammar, evolution. Oxford: Oxford Academic,
2007.
References
HURFORD, H. J.; HEASLEY, B.; SMITH, B. M. Semantics: a coursebook.
New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
MAKKAI, A. Idiom structure in English. The Hague: Mouton, 1972.
MALKIEL, Y. 1959. Studies in irreversible binomials. Lingua, 8, 1959. p.
113-60. Accessed: 7 October 2022.
PINKER, S. The language instinct. New York: Harper Collins, 1995.
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RIEMER, N. The Routledge handbook of Semantics. London: Routledge,
2015.
SWINNEY, D.; CUTLER, A. The access and processing of idiomatic
expressions. Journal of verbal learning and verbal behavior. V. 18, n. 1,
1979. p. 523-534. Accessed: 7 October 2022.
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