Contextual Grammar - LÍNGUA INGLESA RELAÇÕES DISCURSIVAS

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CONTENTS 
Contents……………………………………………………………………………………….1 
Cover page……………………………………………………………………………………..4 
SECTION 1 ............................................................................................................................ 5 
Noun Clauses ......................................................................................................................... 5 
Determiners and quantifiers .................................................................................................. 10 
Quantifiers ........................................................................................................................ 13 
Articles ............................................................................................................................. 16 
The Definite Article ...................................................................................................... 17 
The indefinite Article .................................................................................................... 19 
Cases where articles should not be used ............................................................................ 20 
What to use - a/an or the? ................................................................................................. 22 
Common expressions without articles ............................................................................... 23 
If Clauses ............................................................................................................................. 24 
Zero Conditional ............................................................................................................... 25 
The Type 1 Conditional .................................................................................................... 26 
The Type 1 Conditional - Alternate forms ......................................................................... 26 
The Type 2 Conditional .................................................................................................... 29 
The Type 3 Conditional - Alternate forms ......................................................................... 30 
The Mixed Conditional ..................................................................................................... 31 
Active and Passive Voice ..................................................................................................... 31 
Choice of passive structures .............................................................................................. 32 
Passive verb forms ............................................................................................................ 32 
Verbs not used in the passive ............................................................................................ 35 
Passives: Agents ............................................................................................................... 36 
Passives: Verbs with two objects ...................................................................................... 37 
Passives: Sentences with infinitive and clause objects ....................................................... 37 
Passives: Verbs with object + infinitive ............................................................................ 38 
Passives: object complements ........................................................................................... 38 
Adverbs ................................................................................................................................ 39 
Formation of Adverbs ....................................................................................................... 39 
Adverbs of Certainty......................................................................................................... 40 
Adverbs of Degree ............................................................................................................ 41 
Adverbs of Indefinite Frequency ....................................................................................... 42 
Adverbs of Manner ........................................................................................................... 43 
Adverbs of Place............................................................................................................... 44 
Tenses .................................................................................................................................. 46 
Simple Present (Present Simple) ....................................................................................... 46 
The simple present expresses an action in the present taking place once, never or several 
times. It is also used for actions that take place one after another and for actions that are set by 
a timetable or schedule. The simple present also expresses facts in the present. .................... 46 
Uses of the simple present tense .................................................................................... 46 
timeless truths ............................................................................................................... 47 
series of events ............................................................................................................. 47 
here comes etc. ............................................................................................................. 47 
talking about the future ................................................................................................. 47 
2. The present progressive tense........................................................................................ 48 
formal correspondence .................................................................................................. 48 
Uses of the present progressive tense ............................................................................ 48 
3.The present perfect tense................................................................................................ 50 
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Uses of the present perfect tense ................................................................................... 50 
4.The present perfect progressive tense ............................................................................. 53 
5. The simple past tense .................................................................................................... 55 
Uses of the simple past tense ......................................................................................... 55 
6. The past progressive tense ............................................................................................ 55 
7. The past perfect tense.................................................................................................... 57 
Uses of the past perfect tense ........................................................................................ 57 
8. The past perfect progressive tense ................................................................................. 58 
9. The simple future tense ................................................................................................. 59 
10. The future progressive tense........................................................................................ 60 
11. The future perfect tense ............................................................................................... 61 
Modals ................................................................................................................................. 62 
Adjectives ............................................................................................................................ 66 
Position of adjectives ........................................................................................................67 
Adjectives - Attributive position ....................................................................................... 67 
Attributive adjectives after nouns ...................................................................................... 67 
Adjectives used only in attributive position ....................................................................... 68 
Adjectives - Predicative position ....................................................................................... 68 
Adjectives used only in predicative position ..................................................................... 69 
Adjectives: order before nouns ......................................................................................... 70 
Kinds of Adjectives .......................................................................................................... 71 
Kinds of adjectives ........................................................................................................... 71 
Possessive Adjectives ................................................................................................... 71 
Demonstrative Adjectives ............................................................................................. 71 
Interrogative Adjectives ................................................................................................ 72 
Indefinite Adjectives ..................................................................................................... 72 
Adjectives with and .......................................................................................................... 72 
Before a noun ............................................................................................................... 73 
Relative Clauses ................................................................................................................... 73 
We use relative clauses to give additional information about something without starting 
another sentence. By combining sentences with a relative clause, your text becomes more 
fluent and you can avoid repeating certain words. ................................................................. 73 
How to Form Relative Clauses.......................................................................................... 73 
Relative Pronouns ............................................................................................................. 74 
Subject Pronoun or Object Pronoun? ................................................................................ 75 
Relative Adverbs .............................................................................................................. 75 
Defining Relative Clauses ................................................................................................. 75 
Non-Defining Relative Clauses ......................................................................................... 76 
How to Shorten Relative Clauses? .................................................................................... 76 
Gerunds and Infinitives ........................................................................................................ 77 
Verbs - Gerund or Infinitive .............................................................................................. 79 
SECTION 2 .......................................................................................................................... 80 
1. CONTEXT ....................................................................................................................... 80 
VERB SEMANTICS ............................................................................................................ 80 
2. LINGUISTICS ................................................................................................................. 80 
ASSIGNMENT 1 ............................................................................................................. 81 
ASSIGNMENT 2 ............................................................................................................. 81 
ASSIGNMENT 3 ............................................................................................................. 82 
ASSIGNMENT 4 ............................................................................................................. 83 
ASSIGNMENT 5 ............................................................................................................. 83 
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Semantic Components .......................................................................................................... 84 
Analysis of some verbs ..................................................................................................... 84 
Thematic Roles..................................................................................................................... 87 
VOICE ................................................................................................................................. 91 
MODALITY ...................................................................................................................... 101 
Modal Auxiliary ............................................................................................................. 101 
Modal Verbs ................................................................................................................... 101 
Modal or Tense? ............................................................................................................. 102 
Modality Markers ........................................................................................................... 102 
SENTENCE STRUCTURE ................................................................................................ 103 
1. Constituents: ............................................................................................................... 103 
1.1. Noun Phrases (NPs) ............................................................................................. 104 
The most important element of a string of words as in the boy in the garden, in which boy is 
the head of the phrase.( Head is the determiner of the phrase name -English is a head initial/ 
first, Turkish is a head final/ last language) The head of the NP triggers the agreement rules 
imposed on the verb. ........................................................................................................... 104 
1. 2. Prepositional Phrases (PPs) ................................................................................. 104 
Phrases are inseparable units; any insertion destroys the nature of the string. ................... 104 
In the room/ *the room in ................................................................................................... 104 
After dinner/ *dinner after .................................................................................................. 104 
1.3. Verb Phrases (VPs) .............................................................................................. 104 
1.4. Adjective Phrases (APs) ....................................................................................... 104 
2. Transitivity and Complementation .............................................................................. 104 
3. SENTENCE TYPES ................................................................................................... 106 
SIMPLE SENTENCES: ............................................................................................... 106 
COMPLEX SENTENCES .......................................................................................... 106 
4. Finiteness in Clauses ...................................................................................................115 
Examples: ................................................................................................................... 116 
SENTENCE TYPES .......................................................................................................... 117 
1. Simple sentences......................................................................................................... 117 
2. Compound Sentences .................................................................................................. 118 
3. Complex sentences ..................................................................................................... 118 
4. Compound-complex Sentences ................................................................................... 118 
CLAUSE CONNECTORS ................................................................................................. 119 
1. Subordinators: (Adverbial Clauses) ............................................................................. 119 
2. Coordinators: (Transition Signals) .............................................................................. 119 
3. Conjunctive Adverbs: ................................................................................................. 119 
Gerund or Present Participle? ............................................................................................. 119 
REDUCTION..................................................................................................................... 120 
1. Adverbial Clause ........................................................................................................ 120 
2. Noun Clauses .............................................................................................................. 120 
3. Relative Clauses(Defining Relative Clauses) .............................................................. 120 
PARTICIPLES ................................................................................................................... 121 
1. Present Participles(Ving) ............................................................................................ 121 
2. Past Participles (V3) ................................................................................................... 121 
3. Perfect Participles (having V3) ................................................................................... 122 
ADJECTIVE OR ADVERB? ............................................................................................... 122 
PARAGRAPH ANALYSE................................................................................................. 123 
EVALUATION .................................................................................................................. 124 
 
 4 
 
 
T.C. 
 
Mersin University 
 
English Language Teaching Department 
 
 
2008–2009 Fall Term 
 
 
IDE 101-Contextual Grammar 
 
By 
 
 
MERYEM US 
07271009 
 
To 
 
Dönercan DÖNÜK 
 
Mersin 
January, 2008 
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SECTION 1 
 
 
Noun Clauses 
 
See The Sentence for definitions of sentence, clause, and dependent clause. 
A sentence which contains just one clause is called a simple sentence. 
A sentence which contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is 
called a complex sentence. (Dependent clauses are also called subordinate clauses.) 
There are three basic types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses, and noun 
clauses. (Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses.) 
This page contains information about noun clauses. Also see Adjective Clauses and Adverb 
Clauses. 
 
A. Noun clauses perform the same functions in sentences that nouns do: 
A noun clause can be a subject of a verb: 
What Billy did shocked his friends. 
A noun clause can be an object of a verb: 
Billys friends didnt know that he couldn’t swim. 
A noun clause can be a subject complement: 
Billy’s mistake was that he refused to take lessons. 
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A noun clause can be an object of a preposition: 
Mary is not responsible for what Billy did. 
A noun clause (but not a noun) can be an adjective complement: 
Everybody is sad that Billy drowned. 
 
B. You can combine two independent clauses by changing one to a noun clause and 
using it in one of the ways listed above. 
The choice of the noun clause marker (see below) depends on the type of clause you are 
changing to a noun clause: 
To change a statement to a noun clause use that: 
I know + Billy made a mistake = 
I know that Billy made a mistake. 
To change a yes/no question to a noun clause, use if or whether: 
George wonders + Does Fred know how to cook? = 
George wonders if Fred knows how to cook. 
To change a wh-question to a noun clause, use the wh-word: 
I don’t know + Where is George? = 
I don’t know where George is. 
C. The subordinators in noun clauses are called noun clause markers. Here is a list of the 
noun clause markers: 
That, if, whether 
 
Wh-words: how, what, when, where, which, who, whom, whose, why 
Wh-ever words: however, whatever, whenever, wherever, whichever, whoever, whomever 
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D. Except for that, noun clause markers cannot be omitted. Only that can be omitted, but 
it can be omitted only if it is not the first word in a sentence: 
correct: 
Billy’s friends didn’t know that he couldn’t swim. 
correct: 
Billy’s friends didn’t know he couldn’t swim. 
correct: 
Billy’s mistake was that he refused to take lessons. 
correct: 
Billy’s mistake was he refused to take lessons. 
correct: 
That Billy jumped off the pier surprised everyone. 
not correct 
* Billy jumped off the pier surprised everyone. 
 
E. Statement word order is always used in a noun clause, even if the main clause is a 
question: 
not correct: 
* Do you know what time is it? (Question word order: is it) 
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correct: 
Do you know what time it is? (Statement word order: it is) 
not correct: 
* Everybody wondered where did Billy go. (Question word order: did Billy go) 
correct: 
Everybody wondered where Billy went. (Statement word order: Billy went) 
 
F. Sequence of tenses in sentences containing noun clauses: 
When the main verb (the verb in the independent clause) is present, the verb in the noun 
clause is: 
future if its action/state is later 
He thinks that the exam next week will be hard. 
He thinks that the exam next week is going to be hard. 
present if its action/state is at the same time 
He thinks that Mary is taking the exam right now. 
past if its action/state is earlier 
He thinks that George took the exam yesterday. 
When the main verb (the verb in the independent clause) is past, the verb in the noun clause 
is: 
was/were going to or would + BASE if its action/state is later 
He thought that the exam the following week was going to be hard. 
He thought that the exam the following week would be hard. 
past if its action/state is at the same time 
He thought that Mary was taking the exam then. 
past perfect if its action/state is earlier 
He thought that George had taken the exam the day before. 
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If the action/state of the noun clause is still in the future (that is, after the writer has written 
the sentence), then a future verb can be used even if the main verb is past. 
The astronaut said that people will live on other planets someday. 
If the action/state of the noun clause continues in the present (that is, at the time the writer is 
writing the sentence) or if the noun clause expresses a general truth or fact, the simple 
present tense can be used even if the main verb is past. 
We learned thatEnglish is not easy. 
The boys knew that the sun rises in the east. 
 
G. Here are some examples of sentences which contain one noun clause (underlined) and 
one independent clause: 
Noun clauses as subjects of verbs: 
That George learned how to swim is a miracle. 
Whether Fred can get a better job is not certain. 
What Mary said confused her parents. 
However you learn to spell is OK with me. 
Noun clauses as objects of verbs: 
We didn’t know that Billy would jump. 
We didn’t know Billy would jump. 
Can you tell me if Fred is here? 
I don’t know where he is. 
George eats whatever is on his plate. 
Noun clauses as subject complements: 
The truth is that Billy was not very smart. 
The truth is Billy was not very smart. 
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The question is whether other boys will try the same thing. 
The winner will be whoever runs fastest. 
Noun clauses as objects of prepositions: 
Billy didn’t listen to what Mary said. 
He wants to learn about whatever is interesting. 
Noun clauses as adjective complements: 
He is happy that he is learning English. 
We are all afraid that the final exam will be difficult. 
 
 
Determiners and quantifiers 
 
Determiners are words like a, my, this, those, each, either, some, few, all and both. They 
come at the beginning of noun phrases, but they are not adjectives. 
a new book 
every week 
some rice 
enough trouble 
my mother 
English grammar recognises two main groups of determiners . Group A and Group B. 
Group A determiners 
Articles, demonstratives and possessives are often called Group A determiners. They help to 
identify things. 
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Articles - a, an, the 
Demonstratives - this, that, these, those 
Possessives - my, our, your, their, her, his, its, one s, whose 
Two Group A determiners cannot be put together. We can say my car, this car or the car, 
but not the my car, this my car or my this car. 
If we have to put two Group A determiners together, we use the structure a/this + noun + of 
mine/yours. 
 this car of mine 
 a friend of yours 
Group B Determiners 
Most of them indicate something about quantity. 
Examples are: 
 some, any, no 
 each, every, either, neither 
 much, many, more, most 
 a little, less, least 
 a few, fewer, fewest 
 all, both, half 
 what, whatever, which, whichever 
 one, two, three etc. 
We can put two Group B determiners together, if the combination makes sense. 
 We meet every few days. 
 Have you got any more rice? 
Group B + Group A 
Group B determiners can be used directly before nouns without of. 
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 Have they got any children? 
 Most people love children. 
But if we want to put a Group B determiner before a noun with a Group A determiner, we 
have to use of. 
Compare: 
 some children 
 some of the children 
 neither method 
 neither of these methods 
 most plants 
 most of the plants 
Points to be noted 
We can leave out of after all, both and half when they are followed by nouns. 
 all my friends OR all of my friends 
 both (of) my parents 
 half (of) her income 
But note that we cannot leave out of when all, both and half are followed by pronouns. 
 all of us (NOT all us) 
 both of them (NOT both them) 
No and every are not used before of; instead we use none and every one. 
 no children 
 none of the children 
 every child 
 every one of the children 
Group A + Group B 
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Certain Group B determiners can be used after Group A determiners. They are: many, most, 
least, little and few. 
 a little time 
 his many ideas 
 a few questions 
 the most Money 
Quantifiers 
 
 
Quantifier 
Singular 
nouns (C) 
Plural 
nouns (C) 
Uncountable 
nouns (U) 
all - Yes Yes 
any - Yes Yes 
both - Yes - 
each Yes - - 
enough - Yes Yes 
every Yes - - 
few/a few/fewer - Yes - 
little/a little/less - - Yes 
many - Yes - 
more - Yes Yes 
some - Yes Yes 
a lot of - Yes Yes 
Quantifiers are used at the beginning of noun phrases: 
 before a noun on its own: fewer answers 
 before an adjective and noun: some useful phrases 
 before an adverb, adjective and noun: every really pleasant experience 
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Normally two quantifiers cannot be used together before the same noun. However, the 
quantifiers all and both are found immediately before the or a possessive pronoun: all my 
relatives, both the ministers. You will also see the following combinations of quantifiers: 
 a little less noise 
 a few more questions 
 every few minutes 
Many, much, a lot of 
These are all used to talk about a large quantity of something; many is used only with C 
nouns, much with U nouns and a lot of can be used with both. 
Only many and much can be preceded by the words how, to form questions (how many / how 
much ...?). The word too can be used to express a negative idea (too hot, too cold) and so, to 
show the speaker's attitude to the quantity (so many that ... /so much he couldn't ...). Many and 
much tend to be rather formal in use and are therefore often found in legal documents, 
academic papers and so on; in speech we often use phrases like a lot of, loads of, tons of, 
hundreds of. 
Few, little 
Again, the meaning of these two words is similar since they both refer to small quantities, 
except that few is found with C nouns and little with U nouns. 
If they are used without the indefinite article, a, they have the sense of not enough and are 
negative in feeling (few events, little interest) but these are quite formal and we would 
normally prefer not many events and not much interest. 
When few and little are used witha they simply mean a small quantity with no extra negative 
overtones: a few events (i.e. three or four) and a little interest (i.e. some interest, but not a lot). 
Any 
Any can be used before countable and uncountable nouns usually in questions and negative 
sentences: 
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 Are you bringing any friends with you? 
 Do you have any coffee? 
 I can't remember any songs. 
 He isn't taking any chances. 
If we stress the word any heavily when speaking, we are suggesting an unlimited choice from 
a range of things or an unrestricted quantity; in this case its use is not confined to just 
questions and negatives: 
 Help yourself to any sandwiches. (the choice is yours) 
 Don't you like any Beatles song? (I can't believe you dislike them all) 
 I can't see any difference. (nothing at all) 
Some 
Some is usually thought of as the positive counterpart to any in many circumstances. 
 I'm bringing some friends with me. 
 I have some coffee. 
Like any it is used before both C and U nouns, and means an indefinite quantity but not a 
large amount. The general rule given above for the use of any in negative sentences and 
questions does not always hold in requests and offers where we often use some to mean a 
small amount of a known quantity: 
 Would you like some cake? (here is the cake, do you want a piece of it?) 
 Could I have some biscuits instead? (any would not be possible in this case) 
If we stress the word some in positive and negative sentences and in questions, we are 
suggesting a limited quantity or number of something: 
I like some Beatles songs. (but certainly not all) 
 I can see some difference. (but not a lot) 
 
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Articles 
The articles a/an (the indefinite article) and the (the definite article) belong to a group of 
words called determiners. They normally go at the beginning of noun phrases. 
 Alice is a financial advisor. 
She is working for an insurance company. 
 I have been to the doctor. 
 Can I talk to the manager? 
What are articles used for? 
Articles are used to show whether we are talking about things that are known both to the 
speaker and to the listener, or that are not known to them both. Articles can also show 
whether we are talking about things in general or particular things. 
Points to be noted 
A singular countable noun normally has an article or other determiner (my, this, her, some 
etc.) with it. We can say a dog, my dog, that dog or every dog, but not just dog. 
 I saw a child in the store. 
 They have a house in the city. 
 Can I use your car? 
 He is my friend. 
 Who is that boy in the red shirt? 
Plural and uncountable nouns can be used with or without an article or other determiner. 
 Children usually rush about. 
 Milk is rich in nutrients. 
 Is there any milk in the bottle? 
 Water is precious. 
 Time is money. 
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The Definite Article 
The is called the definite article because it is used to refer to a particular person or thing. 
 Call the man waiting outside. 
 Revenge is the main theme of this play. 
Uses 
To talk about a person/thing already mentioned 
When a person/thing has been mentioned earlier, the definite article is used in later references 
to that particular person/thing. 
 I saw a beggar near the bus stop; the fellow came to me with outstretched hands. 
To talk about a person/thing known to the listener 
We use the definite article (the) before a noun when we expect the listener/reader to know 
which particular person(s) or thing(s) we are talking about. 
 Can I talk to the manager? (The listener knows which person is meant.) 
 I have been to the doctor. (Which doctor? My doctor.) 
 The book you want is out of print. (Which book? The one you want.) 
 The child was crying. (Which child? The one I met in the store.) 
 Let us go to the park. (Which park? The one in the town.) 
To talk about unique things or events 
We use the to talk about unique things or events. 
 The French Revolution began in 1789. (Unique: because there has been only one 
French revolution.) 
 The Nile is the longest river in the world. 
Most nouns that represent things that are the only ones of their kind also take the before them. 
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Examples are: the sun, the moon, the earth, the city, the Nile, the country, the sea, the weather 
etc. 
This use of the is possible even when we are talking about somebody/something that the 
listener knows nothing about? 
 You dont know the Hiltons, do you? (The use of the makes it clear that there is only 
one Hilton family in the speakers social environment.) 
With expressions referring to our physical environment 
The is used in a number of expressions referring to our physical environment. 
Examples are: the town, the weather, the rain, the wind, the country, the sunshine, the sea, the 
city etc. 
 I prefer the country to the city. 
 The earth is the only planet that supports life. 
With adjectives referring to a particular class of people 
We use the before certain adjectives referring to a particular class of people. 
Examples are: the blind, the dead, the poor, the disabled etc. 
 The rich are not always happy. 
 The accused was sent on bail. 
 The educated should teach the illiterate. 
With superlatives 
Superlative adjectives take the before them. 
 She is the eldest member in the family. 
 The Nile is the longest river in the world. 
With singular nouns that represent a whole class 
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We use the before a singular noun when it is used to represent the whole class of things to 
which it belongs. 
 The lotus is a lovely flower. 
 Can the leopard change its spots? 
 The camel is the ship of the desert. 
The indefinite Article 
The indefinite article a/an is used to talk about one particular person or thing when the 
listener does not know which one is meant, or when it does not matter which one. 
 She married an old man. 
 They have a big house in the city. 
 You had better consult a doctor. 
 I saw a hawker selling his wares on the street. 
 A man came and knocked at the door. 
A/an is also used to talk about any one member of a class. 
 A teacher must have patience. (=any teacher) 
 A spider has eight legs. (=any spider) 
 A dog is faithful to its master. 
 A parrot can repeat what you say. 
Cases where the indefinite article should not be used 
With plural and uncountable nouns 
The indefinite article cannot used before plural and uncountable nouns. 
 Apples are red. 
 Computers are expensive. 
 Time is money. 
With possessives 
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We cannot use the indefinite article with possessives. We use double possessives instead. 
 He is a friend of mine. (NOT He is a my friend.) 
With adjectives without nouns 
We cannot use the indefinite article with an adjective alone (without a noun). 
 She is a beautiful girl. 
 She is beautiful. (NOT She is a beautiful.) 
Cases where articles should not be used 
With uncountable nouns 
Articles are not used with uncountable nouns when we make general statements. 
 I love coffee. (NOT... a coffee OR the coffee) 
 Milk is rich in nutrients. (NOT The milk OR a milk) 
 We can't do without water. (NOT The water OR a water) 
 She likes reading books. (NOT...the reading books OR a reading books) 
With the names of countries 
We do not use articles with the names of countries. 
 Japan is a developed nation. (NOT The Japan) 
 I have been to England. (NOT...to the England) 
 India is a secular republic. (NOT The India) 
 He has just returned from South Africa. (NOT the South Africa) 
But we use 'the' if the name of the country or organization specifically states that it is a 
collection of states. (For example, The United States, The United Arab Emirates, The United 
Nations etc.) 
 He is leaving for the United States tomorrow. 
 The United Nations is an international organization of countries created to promote 
world peace and cooperation. 
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With the names of languages 
We do not use articles with the names of languages. 
 Hindi is the national language of India. 
 It is not easy to learn French. 
 English is spoken in many parts of the world. 
With the names of meals 
We do not use articles with the names of meals. 
 We have lunch at midday. (NOT...the lunch) 
 We have dinner in the evening. (NOT...the dinner) 
 Breakfast is the first meal of the day. (NOT...the breakfast) 
With proper nouns 
We do not use articles with proper nouns (the names of people, places etc.) 
 Alice is an architect. (NOT The Alice or a Alice) 
 Mary is my friend. (NOT The Mary) 
 Delhi is the capital of India. 
But we use 'the' with plural names. 
 We are having dinner with the Smiths. 
 The Sharmas are very kind. 
With titles and names 
We do not use articles with titles and names. 
 Princess Diana was killed in a car accident. 
 President Kennedy was assassinated. 
But we say, the queen of England, the President of USA 
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With years 
We do not use articles before years. 
 India won freedom in 1947. (NOT...in the 1947) 
 I was born in 1979. 
With possessives and demonstratives 
We do not use articles before possessives (my, your, their etc.) and demonstratives (this, 
that, these, those). 
 This is my book. (NOT This is a my book.) 
 I like this car. (NOT I like the this car.) 
With days 
Articles are not used to talk about the coming or last day/month. 
 See you on Friday.(=Coming Friday) 
 We are leaving for the US next week. (NOT the next week.) 
But we use articles with the names of days of the week and months if we are talking about 
particular days or months. 
 We met on a rainy Friday. 
 It was a wet Monday in May. 
 She died on the Thursday after the accident. 
What to use - a/an or the? 
The indefinite article a/an is used to talk about one particular person or thing when the 
listener does not know which one is meant. 
 I saw a child in the toy store. 
 She married an old man. 
The definite article is used when the listener knows which particular person or thing is meant. 
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 The child was crying. (You know which child - the one I met in the toy store.) 
 I went to the doctor yesterday. 
 The girl who answered the phone was polite. (You know which girl - the one who 
answered the phone.) 
The first time you speak of something/somebody use a/an, the next time you repeat the same 
noun use the. 
To talk about things in general, we normally use a singular countable noun with a/an. 
 A spider has eight legs. 
 An apple is red. 
Note that we can also use a plural noun with no article to make a general statement. 
 Children need love. 
 Spiders have eight legs. 
 Teachers must have patience. 
 Apples are red. 
 Computers are expensive. 
Sometimes we use a singular noun with the to make general statements. This is particularly 
common before the names of instruments and inventions. 
 Who invented the computer? 
 I would like to learn the violin. 
Common expressions without articles 
In some common fixed expressions to do with place, time and movement, normally countable 
nouns are treated as uncountables, without articles. Examples are: 
To/at/in/from school 
To/at/from university/college (GB) 
To/in/from college (US) 
To/at/in/into/from church 
To/in/into/out of bed/prison 
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To/in/into/out of hospital (GB) 
To/at/from work 
To/at sea 
To/in/from town 
At/from home 
Leave/start/enter school/university/college 
By day 
At night 
By car/bus/bicycle/plane/train/tube/boat 
On foot 
By radio/phone/letter/mail 
With place nouns, similar expressions with articles may have different meanings. 
Compare: 
 I met her at college. (When we were students) 
 I met her at the college. (The college is just a meeting place.) 
In American English, university and hospital are not used without articles. 
 
 If Clauses 
If clauses are usually used to talk about uncertain events and situations. They often refer to a 
condition - something which must happen first, so that something else can happen. 
 If you love me, I will love you. 
 If you study well, you will pass the exam. 
 If you marry me, I will make you my queen. 
 If you don't hurry up, you will be late. 
Clauses of this kind are often called conditional clauses. There are four main types of 
conditional clauses in English. They are: 
1. Zero conditional 
 25 
2. Type 1 conditional 
3. Type 2 conditional 
4. Type 3 conditional 
Position of an if clause 
An if-clause can come at the beginning or end of a sentence. When an if-clause begins a 
sentence, we use a comma to separate it from the rest of the sentence. 
Compare: 
 I will phone you if I have time. 
 If I have time, I will phone you. 
 
 
Leaving out If 
In a formal or literary style if can be dropped and an auxiliary verb put before the subject. 
This is common with had, should and were. 
 Were I you I would accept the offer. (= If I were you I would accept the offer.) 
 Had he not received her help he wouldn't have become a millionaire. (= If he had not 
received...) 
 
Zero Conditional 
Here we use a simple present in both clauses. 
 If you give respect, you get respect. 
 If you heat ice, it melts. 
 If I am late, my father takes me to school. 
 If he comes to town, we have dinner together. 
 26 
The Zero Conditional is used to talk about situations that are always true if something 
happens. They are also used to talk about general truths. 
In most cases, it is possible to replace a zero conditional by a time clause using when. 
 When you heat ice, it melts. 
 When I am late, my father takes me to school. 
 When he comes to town, we have dinner together. 
 When you give respect, you get respect. 
The Type 1 Conditional 
Here we use a simple present in the if-clause and a simple future in the result clause. 
 If you want, I will talk to him. 
 If I see her, I will give her your love. 
 If you finish on time, we will go to the movies. 
 If it rains, the match will be cancelled. 
 You will be late if you don't hurry up. 
 I will buy a car if I get my rise. 
The Type 1 conditional refers to the present or future time. Here the situation is real and 
possible. It is used to talk about a possible condition and its probable result. 
 
 
The Type 1 Conditional - Alternate forms 
Future in both clauses 
Sometimes we use a future tense in both clauses. This is particularly common in polite 
requests. 
 If you will marry me, I will love you forever. (More polite than 'If you marry me’) 
 If you will wait for me, I will come with you. 
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 If you will help us, we will be grateful. 
Here will means ' is/are willing to'. In more polite requests we can use would. 
 If you would help us, we will be extremely grateful. 
 If you would come this way, I will take you to the theatre. 
Going to in result clause 
Going to often replaces will in the type 1 conditional. This is done to emphasize a certain 
result. 
 If you skip your classes, you are going to fail. 
 If you don't mend your ways, you are going to land in trouble. 
Going to can be used in the if-clause to mean 'intend to'. 
 If you are going to skip school, you certainly won't pass your exams. 
Present perfect in if-clause 
Sometimes we use a present perfect, instead of a simple present, in the if-clause. This is to 
put an extra focus on the completion of an action. 
Compare: 
 We will go to the movies if you have finished your work. (There is a focus on the 
completion of the action.) 
 We will go to the movies if you finish your work. (There is no focus on the 
completion of the action.) 
Should in if-clause 
Should is sometimes used in the if-clause to imply that something is possible, but not very 
likely. 
 If he should arrive, we will invite him along to dinner. (He will probably not come. 
But if he comes, we will invite him to dinner.) 
 28 
This use of should in the type 1 conditional is stronger than the type 2 conditional in which 
an imaginary or unreal situation is presented. 
Compare: 
 If he arrives, we will invite him along to dinner. (Type 1 conditional - He is likely to 
come. And if he comes we will invite him to dinner.) 
 If he arrived, we would invite him to dinner. (Type 2 conditional - I am sure he will 
not come.) 
 If he studied, he would pass the exam. (Type 2 Conditional - I am sure the student 
will not pass.) 
 If he studies, he will pass the exam. (Type 1 conditional - He will probably study. 
And if he does he will pass.) 
 If he should study, he will pass the exam. (Type 1 conditional with should - The 
student will probably not study. But if he does he will pass.) 
Happen to/ should happen to 
We sometimes use happen to or should happen to in If- clauses. It suggests that something 
is unlikely, but if it happens, something else will happen. 
 If they happen to come to town, we will meet them. (= They are unlikely to come. 
But if theycome, we will meet them.) 
Should happen to has a similar meaning. 
 If he should happen to get stuck in that town, he will be able to find a good hotel. 
Modals in result clauses 
We can use modals in result clauses to talk about future possibilities, permission and advice. 
 If you finish your work, you can go out and play. 
 You should see a doctor if you continue to feel bad. 
 If I arrive early, I might give him a call. 
Provided (that), as long as 
 29 
Provided that and as long as can be used instead of if to say that a particular condition must 
be met in order for something to happen. 
 Provided (that) he finishes his studies, he will find an excellent job. 
(= If he finishes his studies, he will find an excellent job.) 
 As long as you pay off the loan, the house will be yours at the end of this year. (= If 
you pay off the loan, the house will be yours at the end of this year.) 
 
The Type 2 Conditional 
Here we use a simple past in the if-clause and would + infinitive (bare form of the verb) in 
the result clause. 
 If you asked, they would help you. 
 If it rained, you would get wet. 
 If you loved her, she would love you. 
 If I had more money, I would buy a new car. 
 If he studied more, he would pass the exam. 
 If I were the President, I would lower taxes. 
The type 2 conditional refers to present and future situations. It is used to talk about unreal - 
impossible, improbable or imaginary - situations. It refers to an unlikely or hypothetical 
condition and its probable result. 
Type 1 or type 2 - What to use? 
Real and imaginary situations 
The type 1 conditional is often called the real conditional. It is used for real and possible 
situations. The type 2 conditional is used for unreal - impossible, improbable or imaginary - 
situations. 
Compare: 
 30 
 If I become the President, I will give free electricity to farmers. (Said by a candidate, 
who may win the election - Type 1) 
 If I win this race, I will... (- Said by the fastest runner - Type 1) 
 If I became the President, I would give free electricity to farmers. (Said by a child - 
Type 2) 
 If I won this race, I would... (- Said by the slowest runner - Type 2) 
Direct requests and suggestions 
In direct request or suggestions we use type 1 conditional. To make a request or suggestion 
more polite, we use type 2 conditional. 
Compare: 
 I will be grateful if you lend me some money. (direct request - Type 1) 
 It will be nice if you help me. (direct request - Type 1) 
 It would be nice if you helped me. (less direct, more polite request - Type 2) 
 I would be grateful if you lent me some money. (more polite request - Type 2) 
The Type 3 Conditional - Alternate forms 
Here we use a past perfect in the if-clause and would have + past participle in the result 
clause. 
 If I had won that award, my life would have changed. 
 If she had studied science, she would have found a better job. 
The Type 3 Conditional is used to talk about past situations that did not happen. 
 If you had invited them they would have come. (You did not invite them and 
therefore they did not come.) 
 If you had worked harder you would have passed the exam. (You did not work hard 
and therefore you did not pass.) 
 31 
The Mixed Conditional 
There are two types of mixed conditional sentences. One of them states the present result of a 
past condition and the other state the past result of a present or continuing condition. 
Present result of a past condition 
Here we use a past perfect in the if-clause and would + infinitive in the main clause. 
 If I had accepted that job I would be a millionaire now. 
 If I had married him I would live happy now. 
In these sentences the time is past in the If-clause and present in the main clause. They refer 
to an unreal past condition and its probable result in the present. 
Past result of a present or continuing condition 
Here we use a simple past in the If clause and would have + past participle in the main 
clause. 
 If I didn't love him I wouldn't have married him. (= I love him and that is why I 
married him.) 
 If I were invited I would have come. (= I was not invited. Therefore I did not go) 
They refer to an unreal present situation and its probable (but unreal) past result. 
 If I were a good cook, I would have invited them to lunch. (= I am not a good cook 
so I can't invite them to lunch.) 
 If I knew English, I would have got a better job. 
Active and Passive Voice 
When we say what people and things do, we use active verb forms. When we say what 
happens to people and things - what is done to them - we often use passive verb forms. 
 They built this house in 1960. (active) 
 This house was built in 1960. (passive) 
 32 
 This book will change your life. (active) 
 Your life will be changed by this book. (passive) 
The object of an active verb corresponds to the subject of a passive verb. 
 They built this house (object) in 1960. 
 This house (subject) was built in 1960. 
In most cases, the subject of an active verb is not mentioned in the corresponding passive 
sentence. If it does have to be mentioned, this usually happens in an expression with by. 
 This house was built in 1960 by Sir John Elton. 
 
Choice of passive structures 
We use passive structures when we want to talk about an action, but are not interested in 
stating who or what does/did it. 
 Promises should be kept. (passive) 
 Smoking must be banned. (passive) 
 This house was built in 1990. 
 The house is being painted. 
Some verbs can be used in both active and passive forms with similar meanings. Examples 
are: to worry/to be worried; to drown/to be drowned. 
Sometimes active and passive infinitives can be used with very similar meanings. 
 There is a lot of work to do. 
 There is a lot of work to be done. 
 
Passive verb forms 
Simple Present 
 33 
Active verb form: write/writes 
 He writes a letter. 
 I write letters. 
Passive verb form: is/am/are + written 
 A letter is written by him. 
 Letters are written by me. 
Present Progressive 
Active verb form: is/am/are + writing 
 He is writing a letter. 
 I am writing letters. 
Passive verb form: is/am/are + being + written 
 A letter is being written by him. 
 Letters are being written by me. 
Present Perfect 
Active verb form: has/have + written 
 He has written a letter. 
 I have written letters. 
Passive verb form: has/have + been + written 
 A letter has been written by him. 
 Letters have been written by me. 
Simple Past 
Active verb form: wrote 
 He wrote a letter. 
 34 
 I wrote letters. 
Passive verb form: was/were + written 
 A letter was written by him. 
 Letters were written by me. 
Past Progressive 
Active verb form: was/were + writing 
 He was writing a letter. 
 I was writing letters. 
Passive verb form: was/were + being + written 
 A letter was being written by him. 
 Letters were being written by me. 
Past Perfect 
Active verb form: had + written 
 He had written a letter. 
 I had written letters. 
Passive verb form: had + been + written 
 A letter had been written by him. 
 Letters had been written by me. 
Simple Future 
Active verb form: will/shall + write 
 He will write a letter. 
 I shall write letters. 
Passive verb form: will/shall + be + written 
 35 
 A letter will be written by him. 
 Letters shall be written by me. 
Future Perfect 
Active verb form: will/shall + have + written 
 Hewill have written a letter. 
 I will have written letters. 
Passive verb form: will/shall + have + been + written 
 A letter will have been written by him. 
 Letters will have been written by me. 
Perfect progressive passives and future progressive passives are unusual. 
Verbs not used in the passive 
Not all verbs can have passive forms. Passive structures are not possible with intransitive 
verbs like die, cry or arrive, which cannot have objects. 
 He died yesterday. (passive) 
 The baby cried aloud. (passive) 
Some transitive verbs, too, are seldom used in the passive. Most of these verbs refer to 
states, not actions. Examples are: have, lack, resemble, suit etc. 
 I have a house in the city. (BUT NOT A house is had by me.) 
 My shirt doesn't fit me. (BUT NOT I am not fitted by my shirt.) 
 You lack tact. (BUT NOT Tact is lacked by you.) 
 She resembles an angel. (BUT NOT An angel is resembled by her.) 
Some prepositional verbs are mainly used in the active. Examples are: walk into, agree 
with. 
 We walked into the room. (BUT NOT The room was walked into by us.) 
 She agreed with me. (BUT NOT I was agreed with by her.) 
 36 
 
Passives: Agents 
In most cases, the subject of an active verb (the agent) is not mentioned in the corresponding 
passive sentence. If it does have to be mentioned, we usually use an expression with by. 
 They gave me a warm welcome. (active) 
 I was given a warm welcome by them. (passive) 
 Children love toys. (active) 
 Toys are loved by children. (passive) 
 They built this house. (active) 
 This house was built by them. 
 Her attitude shocked me. 
 I was shocked by her attitude. 
It should be noted that by is not the only word with which the agent can be introduced. After 
the past participles of some 'stative “ verbs (verbs which refer to states, not actions) other 
prepositions can be used instead of by. 
 The state of his health worries me. (active) 
 I am worried about the state of his health. (passive) 
 Snakes scare me. (active) 
 I am scared of snakes. (passive) 
With is used when we talk about an instrument which is used by an agent to do an action. 
 He killed the snake with a stick. (active) 
 The snake was killed (by him) with a stick. (passive) 
 
 
 37 
Passives: Verbs with two objects 
Many verbs can be followed by two objects - an indirect object and a direct object. The 
indirect object usually refers to a person and the direct object usually refers to a thing. Two 
structures are possible. 
 She gave me (indirect object) a nice gift (direct object). 
 She gave a nice gift (direct object) to me (indirect object). 
Both these structures can be made passive. 
 I was given a nice gift (by her). (Indirect object becomes subject.) 
 A nice gift was given to me (by her). (Direct object becomes subject.) 
Another example is given below. 
 They lent me (indirect object) ten thousands pounds (direct object). 
 They lent ten thousand pounds to me. 
 I was lent ten thousand pounds. (passive) 
 Ten thousand pounds were lent to me. (passive) 
Common verbs that are followed by two objects include give, send, show, lend, pay, 
promise, refuse, tell and offer. 
Passives: Sentences with infinitive and clause objects 
Some sentences have infinitives or clauses as their objects. Passive structures are not 
normally possible with these sentences. 
 He thought that she was the right woman for the job. (BUT NOT That she was the 
right woman for the job was thought by him.) 
 I hoped to meet him. (BUT NOT To meet him was hoped by me.) 
 People say that their marriage is in trouble. (BUT NOT That their marriage is in 
trouble is said by people.) 
However, most of these structures can be made passive if it is used as a preparatory subject 
for the clause. 
 38 
 It was thought that she was the right woman for the job. 
 It is said that their marriage is in trouble. 
 
Passives: Verbs with object + infinitive 
Most verbs can be followed by object + infinitive. Most of these structures can be made 
passive. 
 I told them to behave. (active) 
 They were told to behave. (passive) 
 I asked him to send me a letter. (active) 
 He was asked to send me a letter. (passive) 
 They thought him to be a traitor. (active) 
 He was thought to be a traitor. (passive) 
Note 
All active verbs cannot be followed by object + infinitive. The verb say is one of them. With 
say the infinitive structure is only possible in the passive. 
 Their marriage is said to be in trouble. (BUT NOT People say their marriage to be in 
trouble.) 
Passives: object complements 
After some verbs the direct object can be followed by an object complement a noun or 
adjective which describes or classifies the object. 
 They elected him their leader. 
 The other children called her stupid. 
 We all regarded her as an expert. 
 Queen Victoria considered him a genius. 
When these clauses are made passive, these objects complements become subject 
complements; they come after the verb. 
 39 
 He was elected their leader. 
 She was called stupid by the other children. 
 She was regarded as an expert. 
 He was considered a genius by Queen Victoria. 
 
 
 
Adverbs 
Adverbs are words like tomorrow, daily, badly, once and too. They tell us more about other 
words, especially verbs. 
 The child smiled sweetly. (The adverb sweetly modifies the verb smiled.) 
 She walked slowly. (The adverb slowly modifies the verb walked.) 
 He talked politely. (The adverb politely modifies the verb talked.) 
Sometimes adverbs modify adjectives. 
 It was a very important question. (The adverb very modifies the adjective important.) 
 You are so sweet. (The adverb so modifies the adjective sweet.) 
Adverbs can also modify other adverbs. 
 He walked very slowly. (The adverb very modifies the adverb slowly.) 
 She sang extremely well. (The adverb extremely modifies the adverb well.) 
Formation of Adverbs 
Most adverbs are formed by adding -ly to their corresponding adjectives. Examples are: 
kindly (kind), slowly (slow), hardly (hard), sweetly (sweet) etc. 
 She is very beautiful (adjective). 
 She is beautifully (adverb) dressed. 
 40 
 He is a strange (adjective) person. 
 He behaved strangely (adverb). 
 
Points to be noted 
1. If the adjective ends in -y, replace it with -i and then add -ly. 
 
 
 
2. If the adjective ends in -able, -ible, or -le, replace the -e with -y. 
 
 
 
 3. If the adjective ends in –ic, add -ally., 
 
 
 
 This rule, however, has an exception. The adverb formed from public is publicly, and not 
publically. 
Adverbs of Certainty 
Adverbs of certainty express how certain or sure we feel about an action or event. 
Common examples are: certainly, definitely, probably, undoubtedly, clearly, obviously etc. 
Adjective Adverb 
Happy happily 
Angry angrily 
Lucky luckily 
Adjective Adverb 
probable probably 
gentle gently 
humble humbly 
Adjective Adverb 
basic basically 
economic economically 
 41 
 He is undoubtedly a great leader. 
 There is clearly something wrong. 
 She is definitely taller than you. 
Position 
Adverbs of certainty usually go in mid position. They are placed after auxiliary verbs and 
before other verbs. When there are two or more auxiliaries, the adverb goes after the first. 
 He is undoubtedly a great leader. (is/am/are/was/were + adverb) 
 She will probably come. (auxiliary verb + adverb + main verb) 
 It will certainly rain this evening. (auxiliaryverb + adverb + main verb) 
 I certainly feel better today. (adverb + main verb) 
 You have definitely been working too hard. (first auxiliary + adverb + second 
auxiliary + other verb) 
Exceptions 
Perhaps and may be are exceptions to this rule. They usually go at the beginning of a clause. 
 Perhaps she will come. 
 May be you are right. 
Adverbs of Degree 
Adverbs of Degree tell us about the degree or extent of an action, quality or manner. 
Examples are: almost, little, enough, much, too, partly, fully, so, rather, quite, nearly, just, too, 
hardly, scarcely, very etc. 
 She is very beautiful. 
 I am extremely sorry. 
 She is quite strong. 
 They are fully prepared. 
Position 
 42 
Adverbs of degree normally come in mid position with the verb. They are placed after the 
auxiliary verbs and before other verbs. If there are two auxiliary verbs, the adverb comes after 
the first. 
 He had hardly begun. (auxiliary verb + adverb + main verb) 
 My work is almost finished. (is/am/are/was/were + adverb) 
 I just asked. (adverb + main verb) 
 She hardly realized what she was doing. (adverb + main verb) 
 He is entirely right. (is/am/are/was/were + adverb) 
 She was rather busy. (is/am/are/was/were + adverb) 
An adverb of degree qualifying an adjective or another adverb normally goes before it. 
 She is very beautiful. 
 Those mangoes were very sweet. 
 I am extremely sorry. 
Enough is an exception to this rule. It is placed after the adjective or adverb it qualifies. 
 You are not old enough to marry. 
 This is good enough to be true. 
Adverbs of Indefinite Frequency 
Adverbs of indefinite frequency tell us how often something happens. 
Common examples are: always, ever, usually, normally, often, frequently, seldom, never etc. 
 I am never late for office. 
 Have you ever been to the US? 
 I often work late. 
Position 
Adverbs of indefinite frequency go in mid position. They are normally placed after the 
auxiliary verbs and before other verbs. When there are two auxiliary verbs, the adverb goes 
after the first. 
 43 
 I always get up early. (adverb + main verb) 
 I am seldom late for work. (is/am/are/was/were + adverb) 
 We frequently visit them. (adverb + main verb) 
 I often read comics. (adverb + main verb) 
 I have never seen a dolphin. (auxiliary verb + adverb + main verb) 
Points to be noted 
1. Usually, normally, often, frequently, sometimes and occasionally can also go at the 
beginning or end of a clause. 
 We visit them occasionally. 
 Often we trust the wrong person. 
2. Always, ever, rarely, seldom and never can go only in mid position. 
 They never admitted their fault. 
 You can always trust him. 
However, always and never can begin imperative clauses. 
 Always look before you leap. 
 Never ask her about her age. 
Adverbs of Manner 
Adverbs of manner say how something happens or is done. 
Examples are: happily, angrily, slowly, carefully, fast etc. 
 She walked slowly. 
 John drove carefully. 
 The soldiers fought bravely. 
Position 
Adverbs of manner normally go in end position (at the end of a clause). 
 44 
 She sang well. 
 He talked loudly. 
 She walked slowly. 
 He managed it skillfully. 
 She speaks English well. 
An adverb of manner modifying an adjective or another adverb normally goes before it. 
 She is seriously ill. 
 I was terribly busy. 
Points to be noted 
1. Adverbs of manner can come in mid position if the adverb is not important to the meaning 
of the verb. 
 She angrily tore up the letter. (The manner in which she tore up the letter is not 
important.) 
 His health slowly began to improve. 
2. If there is a preposition before the object, we can place the adverb either before the 
preposition or after the object. 
 The man walked happily towards his home. 
 The man walked towards his home happily. 
3. To emphasize the point, sometimes, an adverb of manner is placed before the main verb. 
 He gently woke up the woman. 
4. Some writers put adverbs of manner at the beginning of a sentence to catch our attention. 
 Happily Tom went home. 
 Slowly he walked away. 
Adverbs of Place 
Adverbs of Place tell us where something happens. 
 45 
Examples are: upstairs, here, there, nearby, everywhere, in, out etc. 
 She looked for him everywhere. 
 Please come in. 
 They bought a house nearby. 
 He lives here. 
 The boss has gone out. 
 He was seen nowhere. 
Certain adverbs of place express both movement and location. 
Examples are: ahead, abroad, overseas, uphill, downhill, sideways, indoor, outdoors etc. 
 My parents live abroad. 
 They climbed uphill. 
 She fell backwards. 
Position 
They are normally placed at the end of a clause. 
 She took him out. 
 They all went away. 
 We went ahead. 
 The children were playing upstairs. 
 He jumped out. 
They can also come at the beginning of a clause. This is common in literary writing. 
 On the hilltop an old castle stood majestically. 
 At around the corner there is a big banyan tree. 
 Out he jumped. 
 Upstairs the children were playing. 
 
 46 
Tenses 
 The word tense is from the Latin word tempus, which means time. English marks tense in 
verbs. The tense of a verb shows the time of an action or event. 
English has three tenses: the past, the present and the future. 
The present tense refers to the moment of speaking. With most English verbs the present 
tense is marked by the suffix s in the third person singular but otherwise has no marking at all. 
The past tense refers to a time before the moment of speaking. With most English verbs, the 
past tense is marked by the suffix ed, though a number of verbs have an irregular past tense. 
The future tense correlates with time later than the time of speaking. 
Each of these three main tenses has four forms: the simple, the progressive, the perfect and 
the perfect progressive. 
Simple Present (Present Simple) 
 The simple present expresses an action in the present taking place once, never or 
several times. It is also used for actions that take place one after another and for actions 
that are set by a timetable or schedule. The simple present also expresses facts in the 
present. 
 ForM 
 
Affirmative Negative Question 
I write. 
She writes. 
You write. 
I do not write. 
She does not write. 
You do not write. 
Do I write? 
Does she write? 
Do you write? 
Uses of the simple present tense 
We use the simple present tense to talk about permanent situations, or about things that 
happen regularly, repeatedly or all the time. 
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 He goes for a walk every morning. 
 I get up at 6.30. 
 Ann works for an insurance company. 
 John writes with his left hand. 
timeless truths 
We use the simple present tense to express timeless truths. 
 The earth revolves round the sun. 
 Heat expands bodies. 
 Mongooses kill snakes. 
series of events 
When we talk about completed actions and events that happen as we speak or write, we 
usually use the simple present. This happens, for example, in demonstrations and 
commentaries. 
 The two boxers sparred for some time. Suddenly Joe Louis jumps at his opponent and 
with a terrific upper cut knocks him out for the full count. 
here comes etc. 
Note the structure here comes and there goes 
 There goes the dinner bell. 
 Here comes the villain of the piece. 
Pronoun subjects come directly after here and there. 
 Here she comes. 
 There it goes. 
talkingabout the future 
The simple present is used to refer to future events which are time tabled. 
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 Her train leaves at 3 o' clock. 
 The next flight is at 5 o' clock tomorrow morning. 
 The match begins at 9 am. 
 I start my new job tomorrow. 
The simple present is often used instead of will in subordinate clauses that refer to the 
future. 
 I will phone you when I get home. 
 
2. The present progressive tense 
 
Affirmative Negative Question 
I am writing. 
She is writing. 
You are writing. 
I am not writing. 
She is not writing. 
You are not writing. 
Am I writing? 
Is she writing? 
Are you writing? 
formal correspondence 
Some fixed phrases that are used in letter-writing can be expressed either in the simple present 
(more formal) or in the present progressive (less formal). 
 We look forward to hearing from you. (less formal: We are looking forward to 
hearing from you.) 
 I enclose my cheque for $100. (less formal: I am enclosing ) 
Uses of the present progressive tense 
to denote time around now 
We use the present progressive to talk about temporary actions and situations that are going 
on around now. 
 It is raining. 
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 I am writing letters. 
 She is having a bath at the moment. 
 Hurry up! We are all waiting for you. 
 What are you doing? I am doing my homework. 
 The kettle is boiling. 
The present progressive suggests that the action began before the moment of speaking; it is 
going on at the moment of speaking and will probably go on after the moment of speaking. 
developing and changing situations 
The present progressive can be used to talk about developing and changing situations. 
 The universe is expanding. 
 It is getting darker. 
 The climate is getting warmer. 
 You are getting younger every day. 
talking about the future 
We often use the present progressive to talk about the future. 
 She is leaving for Mumbai on Monday. 
 What are you doing tomorrow evening? 
 Janet is coming soon. 
physical feelings 
Verbs that refer to physical feelings (e.g. hurt, ache, feel) can often be used in simple or 
progressive tenses without much difference of meaning. 
 My tooth aches. OR My tooth is aching. 
 How do you feel? OR How are you feeling? 
verbs not used in progressive forms 
There are some verbs which are never or hardly ever used in progressive forms. 
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Examples are: believe, love, doubt, hate, suppose, prefer, imagine, realise, understand, know, 
want, remember, wish, like, need etc. 
 I like his attitude. (NOT I am liking ) 
 I rang her up because I needed to talk. (NOT because I was needing to talk.) 
 I have only known her for two days. (NOT I have only been knowing her ) 
Some other verbs are not used in progressive forms when they have certain meanings. 
Examples are: feel (= have an opinion), see (= understand), think (= have an opinion), look (= 
seem) 
 I am seeing the doctor at eight oclock. 
 I see (= understand) what you mean. (NOT I am seeing what ) 
 I am feeling fine. OR I fell fine. 
 I feel (= have an opinion) we shouldnt do it. (NOT I am feeling we shouldnt do it.) 
 I think (= have an opinion) she is right. (NOT I am thinking ) 
 
 3.The present perfect tense 
 
 
 
 
Affirmative Negative Question 
I have written 
She has written. 
You have written. 
I have not written. 
She has not written. 
You have not written. 
Have I written? 
Has she written? 
Have you written? 
Uses of the present perfect tense 
past events connected with the present 
We can use the present perfect tense to say that a finished action or event is connected with 
the present in some way. 
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 He has broken his leg. (His leg is broken now.) 
 Somebody has let the cat in. (The cat is in now.) 
 Our dog has died. (Our dog is dead.) 
recent events 
We normally use the present perfect for giving news of recent events. 
And here are the main points of the news again. The rupee has fallen against the dollar. The 
number of unemployed has reached ten million. There has been a plane crash 
Note that after using the present perfect to announce a piece of news, we usually change to 
simple or progressive tenses to give the details. 
The present perfect is not used to talk about a finished event, if we say when it happened. 
Compare: 
 There has been a plane crash near Tokyo. 
 There was a plane crash near Tokyo last night. 
 I have had a word with the boss. 
 I had a word with the boss today. 
with indefinite time adverbs 
We often use the present perfect tense for past events when we are thinking of a period of 
time continuing up to the present, for example when we use indefinite time adverbs like ever, 
before, never, yet and already. 
 I am sure we have met before. 
 Have you ever seen a ghost? 
 Has he come yet? 
With more definite expressions of time up to now (e.g. today, this week) we usually prefer a 
simple past tense in affirmative clauses. In questions and negatives, we use the present 
perfect. 
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 I have spoken to him about my holiday. 
 I spoke to him today about my holiday. (more natural than I have spoken to him today 
...) 
 Have you seen Alice this week? 
 I havent seen Alice this week. 
 I saw Alice this week. (more natural than I have seen Alice this week) 
past events that cannot be attributed to a definite time 
The present perfect is used to talk about past events that cannot be attributed to a definite 
time. 
 I have visited Africa and Latin America. 
 He has done a lot for me. 
 I have never known him to be angry. 
 I have been to Europe twice. 
continuation up to now 
We often use the present perfect to talk about how long present situations have lasted. 
 We have known each other for ten years. 
 We have lived in this city since 1995. 
 I have studied hard for years. 
present perfect and simple past: differences 
We do not use the present perfect with expressions that refer to a completely finished period 
of time, like yesterday, last week, when, then, five years ago, in 1995. The simple past is 
used with this meaning. 
 I saw Alice yesterday. (NOT I have seen Alice yesterday.) 
 I was born in 1979. 
 She died three years ago. 
 John left ten minutes ago. 
American English 
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In American English, the simple past is often used to give news. 
 Did you hear? France declared/has declared war on Britain. 
 (GB Have you heard? France has declared war on Britain.) 
 Lucy just called. (GB Lucy has just called.) 
 Honey, I lost/ have lost the keys. (GB Honey, I have lost the keys.) 
this is the first time etc. 
We use a present perfect tense in sentences constructed with this/it/that is the 
first/second/third/only/best/worst/etc. 
 This is the fifth time you have asked me the same question. 
 It is one of the most interesting books I have ever read. 
 This is the first time I have heard her sing. 
 
4.The present perfect progressive tense 
 
Affirmative Negative Question 
I have been writing 
She has been 
writing. 
You have been 
writing. 
I have not been 
writing. 
She has not been 
writing. 
You have not been 
writing. 
Have I been 
writing? 
Has she been 
writing? 
Have you been 
writing? 
 
 
 Uses of the present perfect progressive tense 
We use the present perfect progressive to talk about situations which started in the past and 
are still going on, or which have just stopped and have present results. 
 I have seen reading