1 Birth of a Language

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BRAGG: This is the South Bank
in London.
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2,000 years ago, if you'd heard
a human voice around here,
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the language would have been
incomprehensible.
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00:00:36,357 --> 00:00:37,790
1,000 years ago,
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the English language had
established its first base camp.
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Today English circles the globe.
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It inhabits the air we breathe.
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What started as a guttural,
tribal dialect,
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seemingly isolated
in a small island,
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is now the language of well over
a thousand million people
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around the world.
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Subtitling made possible by
Acorn Media
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The story
of the English language
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is an extraordinary one.
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It has the characteristics of a
bold and successful adventure...
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tenacity, luck, near extinction
on more than one occasion,
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dazzling flexibility,
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and an extraordinary power
to absorb.
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And it's still going on.
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New dialects, new Englishes
are evolving all the time,
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all over the world.
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Successive invasions introduced
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then threatened to destroy
our language.
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Our first programme tells
that story.
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For 300 years,
English was forced underground.
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Our second programme
tells how it survived
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and how it fought back.
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Our third programme will tell
how the English language
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took on the power blocks
of church and state.
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Our fourth, how it became
the language of Shakespeare.
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In later programmes,
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we're going to leave
these shores, as English did,
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to tell the story of how,
in America,
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the language of one great empire
became that of another.
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We'll go to the Caribbean,
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where a variety of new
part-English dialects took root.
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India, where English became
a commanding, unifying language
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in a country
of a thousand tongues.
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And Australia,
where a confident new English
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was invented by a people,
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many of whom had been expelled
from their mother country.
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We'll travel through time, too,
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to explore how English
in the 2 1 st century
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has become the international
language of business,
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the language in which the
world's citizens communicate.
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Over the last 1,500 years,
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these small islands
have achieved much
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that is remarkable.
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But in my view,
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England's greatest success story
of all
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is the English language.
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These programmes are about the
words we think in, talk in,
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write in, sing in, the words
that describe the life we live.
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This is where we can begin...
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just after dawn
in a foreign country,
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on a flat shore
by the North Sea,
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in what we now call
the Netherlands.
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[Birds chirping]
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This is Friesland,
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and it's in this part
of the world
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that we can still hear
the modern language
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that we believe sounds closest
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to what the ancestor of English
sounded like
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1,500 years ago.
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PAULUSMA: En as we dan Maart
noch even besjoche,
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Maart hawwe we toch in oantal
dagen oan de froast
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en friezen diet it toch sa'n
njoggen dagen,
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dat foaral oan'e grun.
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BRAGG: In Friesland,
many people start their day
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listening
to the weather forecast
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from popular weatherman
Piet Paulusma.
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En dan, moandei, tiisdei
en woansdei. : it wurden dagen...
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BRAGG: Some of his words
might sound familiar,
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like "three" and "four",
"frost" and "freeze"...
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In temperatuur sa om en naby
de trije of de fjour graden.
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Gjin froast, it sil net frieze.
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BRAGG:
..."mist" and "blue".
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En fierders, de kans op mist.
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En dan moarn,
en dan mei flink wat sinne.
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Blau yn'e loft...
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BRAGG: The reason
we can recognise these words
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is that modern Frisian
and modern English
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can both be traced back
to the same family...
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the Germanic family
of languages,
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and some words have stayed
more or less the same
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down the centuries.
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Butter, bread,
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cheese, meal,
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sleep, boat,
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snow, sea, storm.
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[Wind howling]
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The West Germanic tribes
who invented these words
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were a warlike,
adventurous people.
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They'd been on the move
through Europe
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for the best part of 1,000 years
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and now had settlements
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in what we would call the
lowlands of northern Europe...
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Holland, Germany, and Denmark.
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But they were still greedy
for land, ready to move on.
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This is the island
of Terschelling.
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The English coast is about
250 miles to the southwest
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behind me.
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It is from these islands and
the low-lying Frisian mainland
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that, in the 5th century,
a Germanic tribe...
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part of the family
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that also contained Jutes,
Angles, and Saxons...
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made sail to look
for a better life.
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And they took their language...
our language... with them.
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[Man speaking
Germanic language]
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The Germanic tribes weren't
the first to invade our shores.
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More than 500 years before,
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the Romans had also come by sea
to impose their will.
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Now their empire had crumbled
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and they'd abandoned
these islands,
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leaving the native tribes...
the Britons or Celts...
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to their fate.
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This is Pevensey Castle,
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an ancient Roman fort
that used to stand
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on the very shoreline
of the south coast.
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The chronicle of the period
reports that in the year 491,
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Germanic invaders laid siege
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and slaughtered the Celts
who had taken refuge here.
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Not one of them was left alive.
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Other Celts did survive
the invasion,
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a million or more of them
in England.
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But they were a broken people.
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The clue to their fate lies
in the word the Germanic tribes
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used to describe them.
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It was "wealas",
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a name that lives on in our
modern language as "Welsh".
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1,500 years ago, it meant both
"foreigner" and "slave".
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The Celts became servants
and followers,
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second-class citizens.
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The only way up was to become
part of the invaders' tribes,
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to adopt their culture
and their language.
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The Celts and their language
were pushed to the margins.
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Only a handful of words
from the Celtic languages
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survive into modern English.
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In the north, where I come from,
we have "crag", meaning "rock",
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"coombe", meaning "deep valley",
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and dialect words like "brat"
and "brock" for "badger".
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There are traces in place names.
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The "tor" in Torpenhow,
spelled as Torpenhow,
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a neighbouring village
to my own,
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that comes from the Celtic
for "peak".
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[Sirens wailing]
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The "car-" of "Carlisle"
means "a fortified place".
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In the south, they left us
the names of Thames and Avon,
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Dover and London,
but these were fragments.
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The language that prevailed
was that of the victors.
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By the end of the 6th century,
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these Germanic tribes occupied
half of mainland Britain.
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They had divided
into a number of kingdoms.
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Kent, Sussex, Essex, and Wessex,
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denoting the settlements
of southern, eastern,
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and western Saxon tribes;
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East Anglia,
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named after the Angles
who gave England its name;
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Mercia in midlands;
Northumbria in the north.
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Throughout these areas,
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many modern place names come
from that settlement
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or use the words they brought.
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We live with them.
We live in them every day.
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The "-ing" in modern place names
means "the people of".
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"-ton", as in Wigton,
where I come from,
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means "enclosure" or "village".
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"-ham" means "farm",
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which might surprise
one or two Tottenham supporters.
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MEN: # Glory, glory,
Tottenham Hotspurs #
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# Glory, glory,
Tottenham Hotspurs #
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00:09:59,653 --> 00:10:02,816
# Glory, glory,
Tottenham Hotspurs #
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00:10:02,923 --> 00:10:07,383
# And the Spurs
go marching on #
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# Tottenham are the greatest
team the world has ever seen #
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The Germanic tribes,
now settled around the country,
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all spoke their own dialects.
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From among them would emerge
one language...
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00:10:16,971 --> 00:10:19,166
Anglo-Saxon, or Old English...
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00:10:19,273 --> 00:10:21,332
and we all speak it every day.
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I mean, out of five strikers,
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none of them can really finish,
Armstrong...
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Not natural-born, are they?
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We just need some youth
and pace, really.
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BRAGG: Examine the language
you use today,
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and you'll still find
hundreds of words
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from a language
over 1,500 years old,
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key words ranging from the names
we give family members
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to numbers.
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What are we drinking to?
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00:10:41,395 --> 00:10:42,987
I think we'll win 2-1 today.
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I'll drink to that.
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00:10:45,499 --> 00:10:47,296
I live in like
a West Ham sort of area
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and I've got
a lot of West Ham friends,
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but, for this game,
we'll be enemies.
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00:10:50,838 --> 00:10:54,137
For the home games, I would go
with the guys we meet up
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from the Topspurs website
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00:10:55,809 --> 00:10:57,970
or with my daughter
to other games.
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I mean, she's 5 at the moment.
Loves it.
198
00:11:00,714 --> 00:11:03,114
She loves singing the songs.
The nice ones, anyway.
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00:11:03,217 --> 00:11:04,844
I was coming with my son.
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So we just go and get
something to eat first,
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00:11:07,721 --> 00:11:08,881
go into the grounds,
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00:11:08,989 --> 00:11:10,854
savour the atmosphere,
and watch the game.
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00:11:10,958 --> 00:11:12,391
There has been
a few high-scoring games
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over the years.
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00:11:13,494 --> 00:11:15,359
I think the highest
we ever beat them was 6-1.
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00:11:15,462 --> 00:11:17,157
A repeat today
wouldn't go amiss.
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00:11:17,264 --> 00:11:20,461
BRAGG: Most of those words
were from Old English,
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nouns like "youth", "son",
"daughter", "field", "friend",
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00:11:25,172 --> 00:11:26,400
"home", and "ground",
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00:11:26,507 --> 00:11:30,637
prepositions like "in" and "on",
"into", "by", and "from".
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00:11:30,744 --> 00:11:33,577
"And" and "the"
are from Old English.
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00:11:33,681 --> 00:11:37,947
All the numbers and verbs like
"drink", "come", and "go",
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00:11:38,052 --> 00:11:40,714
"sing", "like", and "love".
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00:11:40,821 --> 00:11:42,880
But would these words
have sounded different
215
00:11:42,990 --> 00:11:44,218
all those years ago?
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00:11:44,324 --> 00:11:45,689
In a slightly quieter pub,
217
00:11:45,793 --> 00:11:48,284
I asked language expert
Katie Lowe.
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00:11:48,395 --> 00:11:49,692
They sound a little different.
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00:11:49,797 --> 00:11:52,129
I mean, the Old English
for "sun" is "sunu".
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00:11:52,232 --> 00:11:54,166
That's not so very different.
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00:11:54,268 --> 00:11:55,633
"Game" is "gamen".
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00:11:55,736 --> 00:11:58,204
"Ground" is "grund".
223
00:11:58,305 --> 00:12:03,265
And I notice that Steve says his
daughter loves singing songs.
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00:12:03,377 --> 00:12:04,571
If you said that in Old English,
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00:12:04,678 --> 00:12:08,671
it would be "His dochter luvath
tha sange singen".
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00:12:08,782 --> 00:12:12,013
And you can see that that sounds
pretty much like modern English.
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00:12:12,119 --> 00:12:14,178
So, in fact, you can have a good
conversation in Old English.
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00:12:14,288 --> 00:12:15,585
Oh, yes, you can, indeed.
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00:12:15,689 --> 00:12:19,557
I mean, each word I'm saying now
is from Old English.
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00:12:19,660 --> 00:12:22,629
Have you any estimate how many
words there were swirling around
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00:12:22,730 --> 00:12:24,459
compared with how many words
we have now?
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00:12:24,565 --> 00:12:27,659
We think it was in the region
of 25,000 words.
233
00:12:27,768 --> 00:12:29,463
Compare that
with an average desk dictionary,
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00:12:29,570 --> 00:12:32,004
which maybe contains
something like 1 00,000 words.
235
00:12:32,106 --> 00:12:33,539
It sounds pretty small.
236
00:12:33,640 --> 00:12:34,664
But if you think about the fact
237
00:12:34,775 --> 00:12:36,572
that an averagely educated
person
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00:12:36,677 --> 00:12:38,406
would probably have
about 1 0,000 words
239
00:12:38,512 --> 00:12:39,570
in their active vocabulary,
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00:12:39,680 --> 00:12:41,204
there are plenty of words
to go round.
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00:12:41,315 --> 00:12:44,910
[Chanting]
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00:12:45,018 --> 00:12:48,681
BRAGG: English took its first
steps away from its tribal roots
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00:12:48,789 --> 00:12:51,417
with a revival of Christianity.
244
00:12:51,525 --> 00:12:54,255
[Man speaking Old English]
245
00:13:00,534 --> 00:13:03,230
MAN: Let us praise
the king of Heaven,
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00:13:03,337 --> 00:13:06,966
the power of the Creator
and His conception,
247
00:13:07,074 --> 00:13:08,905
the work of the glorious Father,
248
00:13:09,009 --> 00:13:13,946
who created every wonder,
the eternal Lord.
249
00:13:26,660 --> 00:13:29,993
BRAGG: In 597,
the monk and prior Augustine
250
00:13:30,097 --> 00:13:32,395
led a mission from Rome to Kent.
251
00:13:32,499 --> 00:13:34,262
Around the same time,
252
00:13:34,368 --> 00:13:36,029
Irish monks of the Celtic church
253
00:13:36,136 --> 00:13:38,570
were establishing a presence
in the north.
254
00:13:40,674 --> 00:13:44,405
Within a century, Christians
built churches and monasteries.
255
00:13:44,511 --> 00:13:46,376
This is St. Paul's in Jarrow,
256
00:13:46,480 --> 00:13:49,608
parts of which date
from the 7th century.
257
00:13:56,323 --> 00:13:59,190
Faith and stone
weren't the only things
258
00:13:59,293 --> 00:14:01,420
the Christian missionaries
brought to the country.
259
00:14:01,528 --> 00:14:03,086
They brought
the international language
260
00:14:03,197 --> 00:14:05,529
of the Christian religion...
Latin.
261
00:14:05,632 --> 00:14:08,829
Latin terms became part
of the English word hoard.
262
00:14:08,936 --> 00:14:10,563
"Altare" became "altar".
263
00:14:10,671 --> 00:14:12,263
"Apostolus" became "apostle".
264
00:14:12,372 --> 00:14:14,363
"Mass", "monk",
and "verse" and many others
265
00:14:14,474 --> 00:14:15,964
all come from the Latin.
266
00:14:16,076 --> 00:14:18,010
This would become a pattern
of English,
267
00:14:18,111 --> 00:14:21,979
the layering of words, taken
from different source languages.
268
00:14:22,082 --> 00:14:25,347
And from Latin, too,
the English took their script.
269
00:14:30,257 --> 00:14:32,191
The Angles, Saxons, Frisians,
270
00:14:32,292 --> 00:14:34,192
and Jutes
who would become the English
271
00:14:34,294 --> 00:14:36,626
hadn't brought script
as we know it with them,
272
00:14:36,730 --> 00:14:39,130
but runes.
273
00:14:45,172 --> 00:14:48,300
The runic alphabet
was made up of symbols
274
00:14:48,408 --> 00:14:50,069
formed mainly of straight lines
275
00:14:50,177 --> 00:14:53,908
so that the letters could be
carved into stone or wood.
276
00:14:54,014 --> 00:14:58,451
Those were their media,
rather than parchment or paper.
277
00:14:59,386 --> 00:15:01,718
Though this is a short poem,
278
00:15:01,822 --> 00:15:03,949
most examples of runic writing
that survive
279
00:15:04,057 --> 00:15:07,686
suggest runes were mainly used
for short, practical messages
280
00:15:07,794 --> 00:15:10,092
or graffiti.
281
00:15:11,331 --> 00:15:14,596
[Man singing in Latin]
282
00:15:21,441 --> 00:15:23,170
The Latin alphabet
was different.
283
00:15:23,277 --> 00:15:24,574
With its curves and bows,
284
00:15:24,678 --> 00:15:27,738
it allowed words to be easily
written, using pen and ink,
285
00:15:27,848 --> 00:15:30,112
onto pages of parchment
or vellum,
286
00:15:30,217 --> 00:15:32,082
which,
gathered together into a book,
287
00:15:32,185 --> 00:15:35,052
could be widely circulated.
288
00:15:49,036 --> 00:15:52,563
Christianity brought the book
to these shores.
289
00:15:53,707 --> 00:15:56,835
"Verbum" ..."the word".
290
00:16:04,685 --> 00:16:07,848
Soon, a native culture
of scholarship began to flower,
291
00:16:07,955 --> 00:16:11,288
a culture based on Latin
and on writing.
292
00:16:15,295 --> 00:16:17,559
The magnificent
Lindisfarne Gospels
293
00:16:17,664 --> 00:16:19,131
were created in the 8th century
294
00:16:19,232 --> 00:16:23,532
on the island of Lindisfarne,
just off the northeast coast.
295
00:16:24,438 --> 00:16:26,099
A few miles south,
296
00:16:26,206 --> 00:16:28,470
at the monastery of St. Paul's
in Jarrow,
297
00:16:28,575 --> 00:16:31,203
the great English monk
and scholar Bede,
298
00:16:31,311 --> 00:16:33,176
born and educated
in Northumbria,
299
00:16:33,280 --> 00:16:35,305
began writing
the first-ever history
300
00:16:35,415 --> 00:16:38,145
of the English-speaking people.
301
00:16:39,786 --> 00:16:44,155
He wrote, of course, in Latin,
the language of scholarship.
302
00:16:45,158 --> 00:16:46,887
The prevailing language
among the people
303
00:16:46,994 --> 00:16:48,655
was still Old English,
304
00:16:48,762 --> 00:16:52,163
but Latin, this powerful medium,
was now amongst them.
305
00:16:52,265 --> 00:16:56,361
Now Old English was written down
using the Latin alphabet,
306
00:16:56,470 --> 00:16:59,303
while retaining some of
the old runes as letters.
307
00:16:59,406 --> 00:17:00,566
From the 7th century,
308
00:17:00,674 --> 00:17:03,006
we find English itself written
on parchment
309
00:17:03,110 --> 00:17:04,338
in a language and a script
310
00:17:04,444 --> 00:17:08,437
which we can just about
recognise as our own.
311
00:17:11,351 --> 00:17:14,320
[Man reciting "The Lord's
Prayer" in Old English]
312
00:17:39,046 --> 00:17:41,446
With writing,
Old English stole a march
313
00:17:41,548 --> 00:17:44,016
on other languages spoken
in Europe at the time.
314
00:17:44,117 --> 00:17:47,245
Prayers were recorded and books
of the Bible translated.
315
00:17:47,354 --> 00:17:49,254
The laws of the land
were written down,
316
00:17:49,356 --> 00:17:51,221
and the language
soon became capable
317
00:17:51,324 --> 00:17:52,848
of recording and expressing
318
00:17:52,959 --> 00:17:56,690
an increasingly wide and subtle
range of human experience.
319
00:17:58,665 --> 00:17:59,996
And in the right hands,
320
00:18:00,100 --> 00:18:02,432
Old English was now powerful
and supple enough
321
00:18:02,536 --> 00:18:07,473
to take you to imaginary worlds,
fire the blood, be poetry.
322
00:18:07,574 --> 00:18:10,475
[Man speaking Old English]
323
00:18:15,148 --> 00:18:19,016
MAN: So, the Spear-Danes
in days gone by
324
00:18:19,119 --> 00:18:22,919
and the kings who ruled them
had courage and greatness.
325
00:18:23,023 --> 00:18:27,221
We have heard of those princes'
heroic campaigns.
326
00:18:29,529 --> 00:18:32,020
BRAGG: No one knows
who composed the epic "Beowulf"
327
00:18:32,132 --> 00:18:35,033
sometime between the mid 7th
and end of the 1 0th century.
328
00:18:35,135 --> 00:18:37,763
It's the first great poem
in the English language,
329
00:18:37,871 --> 00:18:39,463
the beginning
of a glorious tradition
330
00:18:39,573 --> 00:18:42,906
which will lead to Chaucer,
Shakespeare, and beyond.
331
00:18:43,009 --> 00:18:47,070
The poem celebrates the glory
days of the Germanic tribes,
332
00:18:47,180 --> 00:18:52,277
epitomised in the heroic warrior
who gives the poem its name.
333
00:18:52,385 --> 00:18:55,047
The power of the language
can be heard in this passage,
334
00:18:55,155 --> 00:19:00,183
which introduces Beowulf's
archenemy, the monster Grendel.
335
00:19:00,961 --> 00:19:04,021
[Man speaking Old English]
336
00:19:08,468 --> 00:19:12,336
MAN: In off the moors,
down through the mist bands,
337
00:19:12,439 --> 00:19:15,738
God-cursed Grendel
came greedily loping.
338
00:19:15,842 --> 00:19:18,436
[Man speaking Old English]
339
00:19:18,545 --> 00:19:21,446
The bane of the race of men
roamed forth,
340
00:19:21,548 --> 00:19:24,278
hunting for a prey
in the high hall.
341
00:19:24,384 --> 00:19:26,784
[Man speaking Old English]
342
00:19:26,887 --> 00:19:27,945
Spurned and joyless,
343
00:19:28,054 --> 00:19:31,387
he journeyed on ahead
and arrived at the bawn.
344
00:19:31,491 --> 00:19:34,983
[Man speaking Old English]
345
00:19:35,095 --> 00:19:37,086
Then his rage boiled over.
346
00:19:37,197 --> 00:19:40,394
He ripped open the mouth of the
building, maddening for blood.
347
00:19:43,703 --> 00:19:46,695
He grabbed and mauled a man
on his bench,
348
00:19:46,806 --> 00:19:50,435
bit into his bone-lappings,
bolted down his blood,
349
00:19:50,544 --> 00:19:52,808
and gorged on him in lumps,
350
00:19:52,913 --> 00:19:56,041
leaving the body
utterly lifeless,
351
00:19:56,149 --> 00:19:58,549
eaten up hand and foot.
352
00:19:58,652 --> 00:20:01,644
What does that tell us about
English at that time, Seamus?
353
00:20:01,755 --> 00:20:03,780
What sort of language was it
when you come to it?
354
00:20:03,890 --> 00:20:06,188
Do you think this is a fully
developed poetic language?
355
00:20:06,293 --> 00:20:09,023
It's certainly a fully developed
poetic language.
356
00:20:09,129 --> 00:20:13,031
It's very... It's capable
of great elaboration.
357
00:20:13,133 --> 00:20:16,159
But what struck me generally
about Old English,
358
00:20:16,269 --> 00:20:17,395
from the moment I read the bits
359
00:20:17,504 --> 00:20:19,802
of "The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle"
right through to "Beowulf",
360
00:20:19,906 --> 00:20:23,069
is it's terrific
for telling what happened.
361
00:20:23,176 --> 00:20:26,577
It's a wonderful sense of the
indicative mood all through it.
362
00:20:26,680 --> 00:20:30,013
It's terrific for action,
terrific for description.
363
00:20:32,619 --> 00:20:35,417
There's a wonderful
forthright capacity
364
00:20:35,522 --> 00:20:39,686
to make up extra language
in Anglo-Saxon.
365
00:20:42,162 --> 00:20:44,926
The words are very clear
and direct.
366
00:20:45,031 --> 00:20:46,555
"Bone" and "house", for example.
367
00:20:46,666 --> 00:20:47,598
"Bone-house"...
368
00:20:47,701 --> 00:20:51,660
There you have the house for the
the body, a word for the body.
369
00:20:52,906 --> 00:20:55,636
Beautiful words for instruments.
370
00:20:55,742 --> 00:21:00,975
The harp is called "gleo-beam",
the glee beam,
371
00:21:01,081 --> 00:21:02,639
the happy wood,
372
00:21:02,749 --> 00:21:08,278
or else the joy wood,
I think "gomen-wudu".
373
00:21:13,493 --> 00:21:19,489
Swords or shields... The shield
is the war-board, "wig-bord".
374
00:21:21,001 --> 00:21:24,698
That is a specific poetic energy
that's in the language,
375
00:21:24,804 --> 00:21:28,831
the ability to make compounds,
376
00:21:28,942 --> 00:21:30,910
which is still in German,
I guess,
377
00:21:31,011 --> 00:21:32,706
that gives it great beauty.
378
00:21:32,812 --> 00:21:34,677
How extensive is the vocabulary?
379
00:21:34,781 --> 00:21:39,218
I think there are 40,000 words
recorded in "Beowulf".
380
00:21:39,319 --> 00:21:42,584
But a lot of the words
repeat themselves in...
381
00:21:42,689 --> 00:21:46,250
Now, probably this is in poetry
more than in prose.
382
00:21:46,359 --> 00:21:49,089
If we heard an Anglo-Saxon
speaker speaking
383
00:21:49,195 --> 00:21:53,029
under his roof to his companion,
384
00:21:53,133 --> 00:21:55,931
we'd probably hear a very...
a quicker, a different,
385
00:21:56,036 --> 00:21:58,266
less elaborate language
from "Beowulf".
386
00:21:58,371 --> 00:22:01,602
Would you say it is very clearly
written to be read aloud?
387
00:22:01,708 --> 00:22:05,007
It's certainly written
to be read aloud.
388
00:22:05,111 --> 00:22:07,841
The question
that agitates some scholars
389
00:22:07,947 --> 00:22:09,881
is whether it was written,
you know?
390
00:22:09,983 --> 00:22:13,885
But I think
the general consensus now
391
00:22:13,987 --> 00:22:15,477
is that by the time
you get to "Beowulf",
392
00:22:15,588 --> 00:22:20,582
you have a writer dealing with
a traditional oral language.
393
00:22:20,694 --> 00:22:23,458
[Man speaking Old English]
394
00:22:32,038 --> 00:22:33,733
Certainly, you open the book.
395
00:22:33,840 --> 00:22:37,435
"Hwat! We gardena inyear dagum"
asks to be uttered,
396
00:22:37,544 --> 00:22:39,375
and there are many speeches
in it.
397
00:22:39,479 --> 00:22:43,677
And it comes off the tongue with
terrific directness, I think.
398
00:22:51,491 --> 00:22:54,654
Latin and Greek had created
great bodies of literature
399
00:22:54,761 --> 00:22:56,251
in the classical past.
400
00:22:56,363 --> 00:22:59,093
In the East, Arabic and Chinese
were being used
401
00:22:59,199 --> 00:23:00,530
in the 8th and 9th century
402
00:23:00,633 --> 00:23:02,123
as languages of poetry.
403
00:23:02,235 --> 00:23:03,361
But at that time,
404
00:23:03,470 --> 00:23:05,734
no other language
in the Christian world
405
00:23:05,839 --> 00:23:08,569
could match the achievement
of the "Beowulf" poet
406
00:23:08,675 --> 00:23:10,472
and
his
anonymous contemporaries.
407
00:23:10,577 --> 00:23:12,704
Old English was flourishing.
408
00:23:12,812 --> 00:23:15,178
The adventure was under way.
409
00:23:15,281 --> 00:23:16,873
But while the seeds of English
410
00:23:16,983 --> 00:23:20,077
had come from these Frisian
shores in the 5th century,
411
00:23:20,186 --> 00:23:22,450
so, now,
in the late 8th century,
412
00:23:22,555 --> 00:23:25,615
a potential destroyer
was preparing his battle fleet
413
00:23:25,725 --> 00:23:29,217
500 miles or so to the north.
414
00:23:59,826 --> 00:24:01,225
In the late 8th century,
415
00:24:01,327 --> 00:24:02,988
the Latin-based culture
of scholarship,
416
00:24:03,096 --> 00:24:05,121
which had grown up in places
like Lindisfarne
417
00:24:05,231 --> 00:24:07,893
and which had also been
the cradle of Old English,
418
00:24:08,001 --> 00:24:10,629
faced extinction
from across the sea.
419
00:24:20,980 --> 00:24:23,540
These ruins
are of the medieval monastery
420
00:24:23,650 --> 00:24:25,777
that stood
on the island of Lindisfarne.
421
00:24:25,885 --> 00:24:29,480
[Birds chirping]
422
00:24:29,589 --> 00:24:32,956
It was the Vikings who sacked
and burned the religious centre
423
00:24:33,059 --> 00:24:36,222
that stood here before.
424
00:24:36,329 --> 00:24:41,164
To these pagan pirates rampaging
out of their longships in 793,
425
00:24:41,267 --> 00:24:44,600
this great centre of Christian
piety and scholarship,
426
00:24:44,704 --> 00:24:48,572
a pivotal place in the survival
of the Word and the gospels,
427
00:24:48,675 --> 00:24:51,166
was no more than
an undefended treasure house.
428
00:24:51,277 --> 00:24:53,507
The jewels that graced
the books of the church
429
00:24:53,613 --> 00:24:56,411
became baubles
around a Viking's neck.
430
00:25:02,121 --> 00:25:04,851
Today the Vikings
may seem romantic,
431
00:25:04,958 --> 00:25:07,324
re-enacting their rituals
a good day out.
432
00:25:07,427 --> 00:25:11,386
Over 1 2 centuries ago, their
arrival was not so cheerful.
433
00:25:13,800 --> 00:25:18,260
To many, it seemed to signal
the end for civilisation.
434
00:25:21,674 --> 00:25:24,006
A year after razing Lindisfarne,
435
00:25:24,110 --> 00:25:27,079
the Vikings returned
and sacked Jarrow,
436
00:25:27,180 --> 00:25:29,614
the abbey where Bede had been
the greatest scholar
437
00:25:29,716 --> 00:25:33,652
in one of the finest libraries
in Christendom.
438
00:25:36,022 --> 00:25:38,252
This stronghold
of the Latin word,
439
00:25:38,358 --> 00:25:40,383
where English
was also being written down
440
00:25:40,493 --> 00:25:42,654
uniquely among
European dialects,
441
00:25:42,762 --> 00:25:46,789
was burned to the ground,
its books with it.
442
00:25:51,604 --> 00:25:55,199
[Man singing in Latin]
443
00:26:01,514 --> 00:26:03,573
It was the start
of 7 0 years of attack
444
00:26:03,683 --> 00:26:05,776
during which the Vikings savaged
445
00:26:05,885 --> 00:26:07,876
this eastern half
of the country.
446
00:26:07,987 --> 00:26:11,855
Few stories survive of exactly
where and when they attacked,
447
00:26:11,958 --> 00:26:15,450
perhaps, chillingly, because
few were left to tell the tale.
448
00:26:15,562 --> 00:26:18,895
At first, the raiders went home
with their plunder.
449
00:26:18,998 --> 00:26:21,558
Then, they decided
to take the land itself.
450
00:26:21,668 --> 00:26:25,160
In 1 865, the Vikings landed
a great army south of here,
451
00:26:25,271 --> 00:26:26,431
in East Anglia.
452
00:26:31,144 --> 00:26:33,408
Within five years,
the Viking invaders,
453
00:26:33,513 --> 00:26:34,912
who were now called Danes,
454
00:26:35,014 --> 00:26:38,006
controlled the north and east
of the country.
455
00:26:38,885 --> 00:26:43,151
Of the old Anglo-Saxon kingdoms,
only Wessex still held out.
456
00:26:43,256 --> 00:26:45,816
Old Norse,
the language of the conquerors,
457
00:26:45,925 --> 00:26:47,756
was spreading
throughout the land.
458
00:26:47,860 --> 00:26:50,590
Old English potentially faced
the same fate
459
00:26:50,697 --> 00:26:55,157
as the Celtic language it had
supplanted... virtual oblivion.
460
00:26:55,735 --> 00:26:58,704
English was in need
of a champion,
461
00:26:58,805 --> 00:27:01,069
and it found one.
462
00:27:12,819 --> 00:27:15,515
King Alfred's statue stands here
in Winchester,
463
00:27:15,622 --> 00:27:17,715
the capital of his
ancient kingdom of Wessex.
464
00:27:17,824 --> 00:27:19,587
He's the only monarch
in our history
465
00:27:19,692 --> 00:27:21,023
to be known as "the Great",
466
00:27:21,127 --> 00:27:24,062
and he's often been hailed
as the saviour of England.
467
00:27:24,163 --> 00:27:25,357
That may be debatable,
468
00:27:25,465 --> 00:27:28,696
as the idea of a single, unified
England didn't really exist
469
00:27:28,801 --> 00:27:30,029
in Alfred's day.
470
00:27:30,136 --> 00:27:31,262
What is certain
471
00:27:31,371 --> 00:27:34,829
is that he was a great defender
of the English language.
472
00:27:37,110 --> 00:27:40,705
It was the Victorians who had
dubbed Alfred "the Great".
473
00:27:40,813 --> 00:27:42,644
He was one of their darlings,
474
00:27:42,749 --> 00:27:45,650
an English hero whose exploits
were enthusiastically woven
475
00:27:45,752 --> 00:27:49,085
into the fabric
of national myth.
476
00:27:49,188 --> 00:27:51,452
But he very nearly
didn't make it.
477
00:27:53,359 --> 00:27:55,088
He'd come to the throne
of Wessex
478
00:27:55,194 --> 00:27:58,163
within a year of the first
Danish attacks in the southeast,
479
00:27:58,264 --> 00:28:01,199
and, at first, he could
hardly hold them back.
480
00:28:01,300 --> 00:28:05,031
In 8 7 8, the Danes won what
appeared to be a decisive battle
481
00:28:05,138 --> 00:28:07,572
at Chippenham in Wiltshire.
482
00:28:14,747 --> 00:28:16,840
Alfred,
with only a few followers,
483
00:28:16,949 --> 00:28:19,577
went on the run into the marshes
of Somerset,
484
00:28:19,686 --> 00:28:21,711
moving, as a contemporary wrote,
485
00:28:21,821 --> 00:28:24,085
"under difficulties,
through woods,
486
00:28:24,190 --> 00:28:26,249
and into inaccessible places".
487
00:28:28,061 --> 00:28:30,529
Legend has Alfred, unrecognised,
488
00:28:30,630 --> 00:28:33,155
taking shelter
in a poor woman's cottage
489
00:28:33,266 --> 00:28:35,234
and being scolded for burning
the wheaten cakes
490
00:28:35,334 --> 00:28:37,734
he'd been set to mind.
491
00:28:39,439 --> 00:28:42,169
But the reality was less cosy.
492
00:28:42,275 --> 00:28:46,075
His situation was desperate,
and if Alfred's kingdom fell,
493
00:28:46,179 --> 00:28:48,374
the whole country would be
controlled and settled
494
00:28:48,481 --> 00:28:53,418
by conquerors whose language
would inevitably crush English.
495
00:28:57,356 --> 00:28:59,916
But Alfred proved to be
an enterprising warrior
496
00:29:00,026 --> 00:29:01,288
and strategist.
497
00:29:01,394 --> 00:29:03,225
Running free
in the Somerset Levels,
498
00:29:03,329 --> 00:29:05,729
he discovered the arts
of irregular warfare
499
00:29:05,832 --> 00:29:07,299
and mounted guerilla attacks
500
00:29:07,400 --> 00:29:09,527
against the occupying forces
of Guthrun,
501
00:29:09,635 --> 00:29:11,102
the Danish invader.
502
00:29:11,204 --> 00:29:13,297
But he knew
that wasn't going to be enough.
503
00:29:13,406 --> 00:29:15,033
For Wessex to be regained,
504
00:29:15,141 --> 00:29:17,905
the Danes had to be brought
to battle and defeated.
505
00:29:18,010 --> 00:29:20,444
The fighting men of Wessex
had been scattered.
506
00:29:20,546 --> 00:29:21,808
But in the spring of 8 7 8,
507
00:29:21,914 --> 00:29:24,314
Alfred sent out a call for
the men of the Shire Fyrds...
508
00:29:24,417 --> 00:29:26,715
the county armies...
to join him.
509
00:29:26,819 --> 00:29:29,913
Around 4,000 men, mainly
from Wiltshire and Somerset,
510
00:29:30,022 --> 00:29:32,490
armed only with battle-axes
and throwing spears,
511
00:29:32,592 --> 00:29:34,184
responded to the call.
512
00:29:34,293 --> 00:29:36,158
They mustered at Egbert's Stone,
513
00:29:36,262 --> 00:29:38,287
where trackways
and ridgeways met.
514
00:29:38,397 --> 00:29:40,865
48 hours later, they advanced,
515
00:29:40,967 --> 00:29:44,266
shields drumming against
the Danish army of 5,000,
516
00:29:44,370 --> 00:29:46,463
holding high ground at Ethandune
517
00:29:46,572 --> 00:29:49,063
on the western edge
of Salisbury Plain.
518
00:29:49,175 --> 00:29:50,608
Contemporary English accounts
519
00:29:50,710 --> 00:29:53,178
describe the battle
that followed as a slaughter
520
00:29:53,279 --> 00:29:56,112
and a rout of the Danes
by the West Saxons.
521
00:29:56,215 --> 00:29:57,876
Modern historians question that,
522
00:29:57,984 --> 00:30:00,646
but there's no doubt
that Alfred prevailed.
523
00:30:00,753 --> 00:30:03,620
His crown and his kingdom
were secured.
524
00:30:03,723 --> 00:30:05,588
And, more importantly
for our story,
525
00:30:05,691 --> 00:30:08,251
so was the English language.
526
00:30:14,367 --> 00:30:15,527
The Danes surrendered,
527
00:30:15,635 --> 00:30:17,865
their leader was baptised
as a Christian,
528
00:30:17,970 --> 00:30:19,528
and Alfred's crucial victory
529
00:30:19,639 --> 00:30:21,368
was memorialised
here in Wiltshire
530
00:30:21,474 --> 00:30:23,908
in an earlier version
of a Great White Horse,
531
00:30:24,010 --> 00:30:27,537
carved into the land he'd saved.
532
00:30:35,454 --> 00:30:39,356
Alfred left an even more
significant mark on the country.
533
00:30:39,458 --> 00:30:41,255
He signed a peace treaty
with the Danes
534
00:30:41,360 --> 00:30:43,487
which established a border
running up through the country,
535
00:30:43,596 --> 00:30:47,623
from the Thames to the old
Roman road of Watling Street.
536
00:30:47,733 --> 00:30:50,930
The land to the north and east,
to be known as the Danelaw,
537
00:30:51,037 --> 00:30:52,527
would be under Danish rule.
538
00:30:52,638 --> 00:30:56,074
The land to the south and west
would be for the English.
539
00:30:56,175 --> 00:31:00,578
No one was to cross the line
unless to trade.
540
00:31:05,518 --> 00:31:08,282
In the course of time, because
of Alfred's peace treaty,
541
00:31:08,387 --> 00:31:11,652
when Danes and English met,
they didn't do so to fight,
542
00:31:11,757 --> 00:31:14,191
but to do business,
even to intermarry.
543
00:31:14,293 --> 00:31:16,557
- I'd have to see.
- Oh, yes.
544
00:31:16,662 --> 00:31:20,462
BRAGG: Communities mixed,
and so did the languages.
545
00:31:20,566 --> 00:31:24,024
And English, rather than being
engulfed by the Danes' language,
546
00:31:24,136 --> 00:31:26,104
began to absorb it.
547
00:31:29,775 --> 00:31:33,302
I'm in the market town of Hexham
in the northeast of England.
548
00:31:33,412 --> 00:31:36,142
Maps of the area show
just how widespread
549
00:31:36,249 --> 00:31:38,183
the Danish settlement was.
550
00:31:40,820 --> 00:31:42,447
Place names ending in "-by"
551
00:31:42,555 --> 00:31:44,113
reveal the Danish name
for "farm".
552
00:31:46,926 --> 00:31:51,556
"-thorpe" denotes a village,
"-thwaite" a portion of land.
553
00:31:57,904 --> 00:32:00,873
The Births, Marriages, and
Deaths pages of the local paper
554
00:32:00,973 --> 00:32:03,305
feature lots of names
ending in "-son".
555
00:32:03,409 --> 00:32:05,274
That was a Danish way
of making a name
556
00:32:05,378 --> 00:32:07,312
by adding to the name
of the father.
557
00:32:07,413 --> 00:32:09,745
Just on this page, I can see
558
00:32:09,849 --> 00:32:15,310
Harrison, Gibson-Hudson,
Robson, Sanderson,
559
00:32:15,421 --> 00:32:17,616
Dickinson, Simpson,
560
00:32:17,723 --> 00:32:20,248
Dickinson again, and Watson.
561
00:32:20,359 --> 00:32:22,759
In school where I was,
just across the country,
562
00:32:22,862 --> 00:32:25,092
there was a Pattinson,
a Johnson, a Rawlinson,
563
00:32:25,197 --> 00:32:26,425
and another Dickson.
564
00:32:26,532 --> 00:32:27,760
Outside on the street,
565
00:32:27,867 --> 00:32:32,099
you can see the same thing
on shop signs everywhere.
566
00:32:34,440 --> 00:32:37,034
Even given centuries of people
moving around the country,
567
00:32:37,143 --> 00:32:40,635
names ending in "-son" are still
far more common in what were
568
00:32:40,746 --> 00:32:43,078
the Danish territories
of the north and west
569
00:32:43,182 --> 00:32:44,911
than they are
in the south and east.
570
00:32:45,017 --> 00:32:46,712
Above all,
you can hear the echoes
571
00:32:46,819 --> 00:32:48,446
of the Danes' Old Norse language
572
00:32:48,554 --> 00:32:50,488
in the way people speak.
573
00:32:50,589 --> 00:32:53,080
- What breed did you say it is?
- Charollais.
574
00:32:53,192 --> 00:32:54,159
Out of?
575
00:32:54,260 --> 00:32:56,558
[Speaking indistinctly]
576
00:32:56,662 --> 00:32:58,425
It's a little field on its own.
577
00:32:58,531 --> 00:33:00,294
As Willy says, there's a beck
down by the side of it.
578
00:33:00,399 --> 00:33:02,333
It runs down
through a little wood.
579
00:33:02,435 --> 00:33:04,835
But it's such a lovely setting
down by the...
580
00:33:04,937 --> 00:33:06,700
you know, down by that garth,
isn't it?
581
00:33:06,806 --> 00:33:10,071
It's like a little
isolation field.
582
00:33:10,176 --> 00:33:12,235
It's only a couple of acres,
the whole field.
583
00:33:12,345 --> 00:33:14,939
It would be interesting to see
a few sheep sold with lambs.
584
00:33:15,047 --> 00:33:16,241
Are they allowed to be sold?
585
00:33:16,349 --> 00:33:17,714
BRAGG:
Some Old Norse words
586
00:33:17,817 --> 00:33:19,876
stayed in the local dialects
of the north,
587
00:33:19,986 --> 00:33:25,185
words like "beck" for "stream"
and "garth" for "paddock".
588
00:33:25,291 --> 00:33:27,987
As a boy in Wigton, I remember
hearing and using dialect words
589
00:33:28,094 --> 00:33:30,961
like "slattery" for "shower",
"slape" for "slippery",
590
00:33:31,063 --> 00:33:33,156
"yet" for "gate",
"lap" for "leap",
591
00:33:33,265 --> 00:33:35,062
"yek" for "oak",
and "yam" for "home",
592
00:33:35,167 --> 00:33:36,862
as in "I's gangen yam."
593
00:33:36,969 --> 00:33:40,166
Pure Norse, heard in Wigton
every night of the week.
594
00:33:40,272 --> 00:33:41,534
And there were many others.
595
00:33:43,709 --> 00:33:46,644
But the influence of Old Norse
wasn't just local.
596
00:33:46,746 --> 00:33:48,407
All around the country,
over time,
597
00:33:48,514 --> 00:33:51,506
hundreds of Norse words entered
the mainstream of English,
598
00:33:51,617 --> 00:33:54,518
and we still use them every day.
599
00:33:54,620 --> 00:33:58,078
The s-k sound is
a characteristic of Old Norse,
600
00:33:58,190 --> 00:34:02,388
and English borrowed words like
"score" and "sky" and "skive",
601
00:34:02,495 --> 00:34:04,224
as well as perhaps
a thousand others,
602
00:34:04,330 --> 00:34:09,233
including "anger", "bull",
"freckle", "knife", "neck",
603
00:34:09,335 --> 00:34:12,998
"root", "scowl", and "window".
604
00:34:16,742 --> 00:34:18,937
[Indistinct speaking]
605
00:34:19,045 --> 00:34:21,878
BRAGG: Sometimes where both
Old Norse and Old English
606
00:34:21,981 --> 00:34:23,539
had a word for the same thing,
607
00:34:23,649 --> 00:34:25,139
both words lived on in English,
608
00:34:25,251 --> 00:34:28,015
each taking on
a slightly different meaning.
609
00:34:28,120 --> 00:34:31,351
Where Old English said "craft",
Old Norse said "skill".
610
00:34:31,457 --> 00:34:35,052
For an English "hide",
the Norse said "skin".
611
00:34:35,161 --> 00:34:37,994
In Old English, you were "sick".
In Norse, you were "ill".
612
00:34:42,334 --> 00:34:43,460
Here was another example
613
00:34:43,569 --> 00:34:45,537
of English's extraordinary
ability to absorb,
614
00:34:45,638 --> 00:34:48,198
to take in words
from other languages,
615
00:34:48,307 --> 00:34:50,070
adding them to its word hoard,
616
00:34:50,176 --> 00:34:53,703
increasing the richness and
flexibility of the vocabulary.
617
00:34:53,813 --> 00:34:56,407
I think the point
about vocabulary
618
00:34:56,515 --> 00:34:59,575
is how much it astonishes
by its ordinary nature.
619
00:34:59,685 --> 00:35:01,915
Words like "law", "egg",
620
00:35:02,021 --> 00:35:07,015
"husband", "leg",
"ill", "die", "ugly"...
621
00:35:07,126 --> 00:35:08,821
all these words
are from Old Norse,
622
00:35:08,928 --> 00:35:10,555
and yet you wouldn't
necessarily think
623
00:35:10,663 --> 00:35:11,789
that they were foreign at all.
624
00:35:11,897 --> 00:35:13,387
Most astounding of all, I think,
625
00:35:13,499 --> 00:35:16,263
are the pronouns "they",
"their", and "them".
626
00:35:16,368 --> 00:35:18,063
Those are also from Old Norse.
627
00:35:18,170 --> 00:35:20,104
And in terms of grammar,
628
00:35:20,206 --> 00:35:22,299
in a way,
they simplified English.
629
00:35:22,408 --> 00:35:24,603
They took it away
from its Germanic roots.
630
00:35:24,710 --> 00:35:26,007
I think it's probably true
to say
631
00:35:26,112 --> 00:35:28,307
that Old Norse affects
the English language
632
00:35:28,414 --> 00:35:29,472
more than any other
633
00:35:29,582 --> 00:35:32,312
because it actually leads to
a restructuring of the language.
634
00:35:32,418 --> 00:35:37,754
Old English forms sentences
not by word order, as we do,
635
00:35:37,857 --> 00:35:40,325
but by tacking on endings
onto the ends of things,
636
00:35:40,426 --> 00:35:43,691
like articles and pronouns
and nouns.
637
00:35:43,796 --> 00:35:48,256
What happens is, through contact
with a pretty similar language,
638
00:35:48,367 --> 00:35:50,096
a lot of these
inflectional endings
639
00:35:50,202 --> 00:35:52,329
start to lose
their distinctive nature.
640
00:35:52,438 --> 00:35:54,463
And, actually, this is a process
we can see happening
641
00:35:54,573 --> 00:35:56,473
fairly early on
in the Anglo-Saxon period.
642
00:35:56,575 --> 00:35:58,702
So the language
is prone to do that,
643
00:35:58,811 --> 00:36:01,177
but contact with Norse languages
speeded it up,
644
00:36:01,280 --> 00:36:03,248
gave it a shove
towards modernity.
645
00:36:03,349 --> 00:36:05,408
Can you give us
a very simple example of that?
646
00:36:05,518 --> 00:36:06,416
Yes.
647
00:36:06,519 --> 00:36:08,077
Let's take a simple sentence
648
00:36:08,187 --> 00:36:11,350
like "The king gave horses
to his men."
649
00:36:11,457 --> 00:36:14,085
That would be something like,
in Old English...
650
00:36:17,763 --> 00:36:19,128
Now, in Old English,
651
00:36:19,231 --> 00:36:21,597
you didn't tend to have
a preposition like "to".
652
00:36:21,700 --> 00:36:23,964
Instead,
you could use a special ending,
653
00:36:24,069 --> 00:36:26,367
which kind of meant
"to his men".
654
00:36:26,472 --> 00:36:29,805
And that would be
a "-um" ending,
655
00:36:29,909 --> 00:36:33,538
and you just tack that onto
the end of the noun for "man".
656
00:36:33,646 --> 00:36:37,082
So you'd have "gumum"...
"-um" ending.
657
00:36:37,183 --> 00:36:39,276
Now, the plural for the word
for "horse",
658
00:36:39,385 --> 00:36:41,512
if you want to say,
"Gave horses to his men,"
659
00:36:41,620 --> 00:36:43,019
would have an "n" on it.
660
00:36:43,122 --> 00:36:44,419
So it would be "blancan".
661
00:36:44,523 --> 00:36:47,583
Unfortunately, towards the end
of the Old English period,
662
00:36:47,693 --> 00:36:49,923
we start to see
that "-um" ending
663
00:36:50,029 --> 00:36:53,021
becoming more and more
indistinct.
664
00:36:53,132 --> 00:36:57,159
And we see spellings like
"guman" ..."- An"...
665
00:36:57,269 --> 00:37:01,467
just the same as "blancan"...
"-an".
666
00:37:01,574 --> 00:37:03,633
It's obvious
that the king is more likely
667
00:37:03,742 --> 00:37:06,939
to give horses to his men
than men to his horses,
668
00:37:07,046 --> 00:37:08,946
but you can see
that there's a potential there
669
00:37:09,048 --> 00:37:10,276
for difficulties.
670
00:37:10,382 --> 00:37:14,375
And so we start to see
prepositions being used
671
00:37:14,486 --> 00:37:19,617
in place of those endings,
which had become indistinct.
672
00:37:20,192 --> 00:37:21,250
[Indistinct speaking]
673
00:37:21,327 --> 00:37:25,263
BRAGG: Spoken English survived
the Danish invasion.
674
00:37:25,364 --> 00:37:28,891
But as the 9th century drew
to a close,
675
00:37:29,001 --> 00:37:31,469
the written culture
was in a ruinous state,
676
00:37:31,570 --> 00:37:34,630
and King Alfred was concerned.
677
00:37:35,574 --> 00:37:38,839
When Alfred looked at the state
of his kingdom, he was appalled.
678
00:37:38,944 --> 00:37:41,469
The scholars in the monasteries
had once made England
679
00:37:41,580 --> 00:37:44,515
the greatest powerhouse
of Christian teaching in Europe.
680
00:37:44,617 --> 00:37:47,745
But 1 50 years had passed
since the high days of Bede,
681
00:37:47,853 --> 00:37:50,321
and the scholarly tradition
had declined,
682
00:37:50,422 --> 00:37:53,789
hastened on its way
by a century of Viking raids.
683
00:37:53,892 --> 00:37:54,916
In all the country,
684
00:37:55,027 --> 00:37:56,995
Alfred could barely find
a handful of priests
685
00:37:57,096 --> 00:37:59,291
who could read
and understand Lain.
686
00:37:59,398 --> 00:38:00,865
And if they couldn't
understand Latin,
687
00:38:00,966 --> 00:38:03,560
they couldn't pass on the
teachings of the religious books
688
00:38:03,669 --> 00:38:06,467
that told people
how to lead virtuous lives.
689
00:38:06,572 --> 00:38:08,472
They couldn't save souls.
690
00:38:08,574 --> 00:38:10,633
Where the written word
had once flourished,
691
00:38:10,743 --> 00:38:14,304
Alfred now found only
chronic spiritual sickness.
692
00:38:14,413 --> 00:38:16,278
He looked for a cure.
693
00:38:16,382 --> 00:38:19,215
One way was to educate
more clergy in Latin.
694
00:38:19,318 --> 00:38:21,013
But that wasn't enough.
695
00:38:21,120 --> 00:38:22,883
He hit on
a more radical solution,
696
00:38:22,988 --> 00:38:26,219
a solution that hinged
not on Latin, but on English,
697
00:38:26,325 --> 00:38:29,419
and he took English
to new heights of achievement.
698
00:38:31,930 --> 00:38:33,693
In the preface
to his own translation
699
00:38:33,799 --> 00:38:35,790
of Pope Gregory's
"Pastoral Care",
700
00:38:35,901 --> 00:38:38,301
Alfred wrote, "I remembered how,
701
00:38:38,404 --> 00:38:40,372
before it was all ravaged
and burned,
702
00:38:40,472 --> 00:38:42,940
I'd seen how the churches
throughout all England
703
00:38:43,042 --> 00:38:45,670
stood filled with treasures
and books.
704
00:38:45,778 --> 00:38:48,178
And there was also
a multitude of God's servants
705
00:38:48,280 --> 00:38:50,009
who had very little benefit
from those books
706
00:38:50,115 --> 00:38:52,549
because they couldn't understand
anything of them
707
00:38:52,651 --> 00:38:56,815
since they were not written
in their own language."
708
00:39:00,092 --> 00:39:02,458
Their own language was,
of course, English.
709
00:39:02,561 --> 00:39:04,495
Alfred didn't want to do away
with Latin,
710
00:39:04,596 --> 00:39:07,497
but he realised that it would be
far easier to teach people
711
00:39:07,599 --> 00:39:10,227
to read books written
in the language they spoke.
712
00:39:10,336 --> 00:39:12,964
The best scholars could then
go on to learn Latin
713
00:39:13,072 --> 00:39:14,596
and join holy orders.
714
00:39:14,707 --> 00:39:16,504
The rest would still have access
715
00:39:16,608 --> 00:39:18,633
to scholarship
and spiritual guidance,
716
00:39:18,744 --> 00:39:20,974
but it would be written
in English.
717
00:39:27,653 --> 00:39:30,247
Here in his capital city
of Winchester,
718
00:39:30,356 --> 00:39:32,984
Alfred drew up a plan.
719
00:39:33,092 --> 00:39:35,356
It was an extraordinarily
imaginative project
720
00:39:35,461 --> 00:39:39,898
to promote literacy and restore
the English language.
721
00:39:50,976 --> 00:39:52,307
"We should," he wrote,
722
00:39:52,411 --> 00:39:53,969
"translate certain books
723
00:39:54,079 --> 00:39:56,274
which are most necessary
for all men to know
724
00:39:56,382 --> 00:39:58,680
into the language
that we can all understand
725
00:39:58,784 --> 00:40:01,150
and also arrange it,
as with God's help
726
00:40:01,253 --> 00:40:03,153
we very easily can
if we have peace,
727
00:40:03,255 --> 00:40:06,713
so that all the youth of free
men now among the English people
728
00:40:06,825 --> 00:40:09,692
who have the means to be able
to devote themselves to it
729
00:40:09,795 --> 00:40:13,822
may be set to study for as long
as they're of no other use,
730
00:40:13,932 --> 00:40:18,198
until the time they're able
to read English writing well."
731
00:40:19,838 --> 00:40:22,272
Alfred had five books
of religious instruction,
732
00:40:22,374 --> 00:40:23,432
philosophy, and history
733
00:40:23,542 --> 00:40:25,373
translated from Latin
into English,
734
00:40:25,477 --> 00:40:28,571
a laborious
and costly undertaking.
735
00:40:30,816 --> 00:40:33,649
Copies were sent out to
the 1 2 bishops of his kingdom
736
00:40:33,752 --> 00:40:37,449
for their wisdom to be spread
as widely as possible.
737
00:40:39,258 --> 00:40:40,520
To each bishop,
738
00:40:40,626 --> 00:40:43,186
to emphasise the importance
and value of the project,
739
00:40:43,295 --> 00:40:47,698
Alfred sent a costly pointer,
used to underline the text.
740
00:40:49,301 --> 00:40:51,701
This is the Alfred Jewel.
741
00:40:51,804 --> 00:40:53,135
Many historians believe
742
00:40:53,238 --> 00:40:56,105
that it formed the head
of one of those pointers.
743
00:40:56,208 --> 00:40:58,699
Crafted in crystal enamel
and gold,
744
00:40:58,811 --> 00:41:01,644
it was discovered in 1 693
in Somerset
745
00:41:01,747 --> 00:41:04,978
and is now in show at the
Ashmolean Museum in Oxford.
746
00:41:05,083 --> 00:41:09,520
It's inscribed "Aelfred
had me made" in English.
747
00:41:11,457 --> 00:41:14,392
Alfred the Great had made
the English language
748
00:41:14,493 --> 00:41:17,257
the jewel in his crown.
749
00:41:17,362 --> 00:41:20,695
[Bells chiming]
750
00:41:23,435 --> 00:41:24,834
Here in Winchester,
751
00:41:24,937 --> 00:41:28,100
Alfred had established what was,
effectively, a publishing house.
752
00:41:28,207 --> 00:41:29,868
Other projects he undertook
753
00:41:29,975 --> 00:41:32,910
included the commissioning
of "The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle",
754
00:41:33,011 --> 00:41:35,479
detailing hundreds of years
of history.
755
00:41:35,581 --> 00:41:37,947
Alfred died in 899.
756
00:41:38,050 --> 00:41:39,950
One of his legacies
was an English language
757
00:41:40,052 --> 00:41:43,954
which was more prestigious and
widely read than ever before.
758
00:41:44,056 --> 00:41:46,524
There was nothing to compare
with this range
759
00:41:46,625 --> 00:41:49,253
of written vernacular,
history, philosophy, poetry
760
00:41:49,361 --> 00:41:51,261
anywhere else
in mainland Europe.
761
00:41:51,363 --> 00:41:53,490
English was out on its own.
762
00:41:53,599 --> 00:41:57,035
By the middle of the 1 1th
century, English seemed secure.
763
00:41:57,135 --> 00:42:00,002
But now other invaders
were waiting in the wings,
764
00:42:00,105 --> 00:42:05,042
and English was about to face
its greatest threat ever.
765
00:42:21,059 --> 00:42:23,857
This place,
the old Roman fort at Pevensey,
766
00:42:23,962 --> 00:42:26,294
was a fateful one
for the English language.
767
00:42:26,398 --> 00:42:28,093
It was here, among other places,
768
00:42:28,200 --> 00:42:30,134
that the Frisians
and other Germanic tribes
769
00:42:30,235 --> 00:42:31,964
had made landfall
in the 5th century
770
00:42:32,070 --> 00:42:34,038
and introduced
their own language.
771
00:42:34,139 --> 00:42:38,075
Now, in 1 066, another wave
of invaders was landing...
772
00:42:38,176 --> 00:42:39,803
the Normans.
773
00:42:39,912 --> 00:42:43,313
When, in 1 066,
William, Duke of Normandy,
774
00:42:43,415 --> 00:42:45,781
sailed with his army
to claim the English throne,
775
00:42:45,884 --> 00:42:48,876
he was sure he had right
on his side.
776
00:42:48,987 --> 00:42:51,922
The English king,
Edward the Confessor,
777
00:42:52,024 --> 00:42:53,787
had spent many years in Normandy
778
00:42:53,892 --> 00:42:56,258
and, in that time,
contemporary sources say,
779
00:42:56,361 --> 00:42:59,922
had come to regard William
as a brother or even a son
780
00:43:00,032 --> 00:43:03,160
and had named him
as his successor.
781
00:43:04,202 --> 00:43:07,797
Sensing his impending death
and fearing rebellion at home,
782
00:43:07,906 --> 00:43:10,807
the childless Edward
had dispatched Harold Godwinson,
783
00:43:10,909 --> 00:43:12,035
his wife's brother,
784
00:43:12,144 --> 00:43:13,133
and his Earl of Essex,
785
00:43:13,245 --> 00:43:15,645
the richest and most powerful
of the English lords,
786
00:43:15,747 --> 00:43:18,477
to Normandy to pledge loyalty
to William.
787
00:43:20,686 --> 00:43:26,181
This Harold did, swearing
on two caskets of holy relics.
788
00:43:28,927 --> 00:43:30,189
But when Edward did die,
789
00:43:30,295 --> 00:43:32,820
Harold, supported
by the English nobility,
790
00:43:32,931 --> 00:43:35,092
had himself crowned
in Westminster Abbey
791
00:43:35,200 --> 00:43:39,068
on the very day that Edward
was laid to rest there.
792
00:43:41,073 --> 00:43:44,668
To the truculent and ruthless
William, this was an affront,
793
00:43:44,776 --> 00:43:49,076
invasion with maximum force
the only possible response.
794
00:44:03,762 --> 00:44:07,220
The armies met here,
near Hastings.
795
00:44:10,969 --> 00:44:14,029
This is the spot where,
traditionally, Harold fell,
796
00:44:14,139 --> 00:44:16,733
fatally pierced through the eye
with an arrow.
797
00:44:22,047 --> 00:44:24,948
The site was later named
after the engagement,
798
00:44:25,050 --> 00:44:28,486
but it's named not with
an English word like "fight",
799
00:44:28,587 --> 00:44:29,554
but with a word
800
00:44:29,655 --> 00:44:31,555
from the language
of the Norman victors...
801
00:44:31,657 --> 00:44:34,421
"battle".
802
00:44:37,362 --> 00:44:40,092
Harold would be the last
English-speaking king of England
803
00:44:40,198 --> 00:44:41,893
for three centuries.
804
00:44:42,000 --> 00:44:44,025
On Christmas Day 1 066,
805
00:44:44,136 --> 00:44:46,366
William was crowned
in Westminster Abbey
806
00:44:46,471 --> 00:44:48,996
in a service conducted
in English and Latin.
807
00:44:49,107 --> 00:44:52,804
William spoke French throughout.
808
00:44:55,480 --> 00:45:00,474
A new king and a new language
were in authority in England.
809
00:45:02,287 --> 00:45:03,879
Enemy.
810
00:45:03,989 --> 00:45:05,854
Castle.
811
00:45:07,693 --> 00:45:09,991
"Castle" was one of
the first French words
812
00:45:10,095 --> 00:45:11,722
to enter the English language.
813
00:45:11,830 --> 00:45:13,092
The Normans built
a chain of them
814
00:45:13,198 --> 00:45:15,462
to impose their rule
on the country.
815
00:45:15,567 --> 00:45:18,195
This magnificent castle
at Rochester
816
00:45:18,303 --> 00:45:21,238
was one of the first to be
fortified in stone.
817
00:45:25,777 --> 00:45:30,009
By blood, the Normans were from
the same stock as the Norsemen
818
00:45:30,115 --> 00:45:32,083
who'd invaded
in earlier centuries.
819
00:45:32,184 --> 00:45:34,675
But they no longer spoke
a Germanic language...
820
00:45:34,786 --> 00:45:37,311
rather,
what we'd call Old French,
821
00:45:37,422 --> 00:45:39,515
which had grown
from Latin roots.
822
00:45:39,624 --> 00:45:40,886
Many of the words they spoke
823
00:45:40,992 --> 00:45:43,256
would have been very strange
to the native English,
824
00:45:43,361 --> 00:45:46,819
but would quickly become
unpleasantly familiar.
825
00:45:46,932 --> 00:45:49,423
Our words "army", "archer",
826
00:45:49,534 --> 00:45:52,230
"soldier", "garrison",
and "guard"
827
00:45:52,337 --> 00:45:55,500
all come from the conquering
Norman French.
828
00:45:55,607 --> 00:45:59,065
French was the language that
spelled out the architecture
829
00:45:59,177 --> 00:46:00,644
of the new social order...
830
00:46:00,746 --> 00:46:02,941
"crown", "throne", and "court",
831
00:46:03,048 --> 00:46:05,346
"duke", "baron", and "nobility",
832
00:46:05,450 --> 00:46:07,645
"peasant", "vassal", "servant".
833
00:46:07,753 --> 00:46:09,084
The word "govern"
comes from French,
834
00:46:09,187 --> 00:46:12,623
as do "liberty", "authority",
"obedience", and "traitor".
835
00:46:12,724 --> 00:46:15,921
The Normans took the law
into their own hands.
836
00:46:16,027 --> 00:46:17,688
"Felony", "arrest", "warrant",
837
00:46:17,796 --> 00:46:21,755
"justice", "judge", and "jury"
all come from French.
838
00:46:22,701 --> 00:46:24,669
And so do "accuse", "acquit",
839
00:46:24,770 --> 00:46:29,298
"sentence", "condemn",
"prison", and "jail".
840
00:46:29,975 --> 00:46:31,067
It's been estimated
841
00:46:31,176 --> 00:46:33,076
that in the three centuries
after the conquest,
842
00:46:33,178 --> 00:46:36,773
about 1 0,000 French words
colonised the English language.
843
00:46:36,882 --> 00:46:38,543
They didn't all come in
immediately,
844
00:46:38,650 --> 00:46:41,517
but the conquest opened
a conduit of French vocabulary
845
00:46:41,620 --> 00:46:44,214
that's remained open,
on and off, ever since.
846
00:46:44,322 --> 00:46:46,756
Today, French words
are all around us.
847
00:46:48,059 --> 00:46:49,026
City,
848
00:46:49,127 --> 00:46:50,617
market,
849
00:46:50,729 --> 00:46:51,661
porter.
850
00:46:51,763 --> 00:46:52,661
Here we are!
851
00:46:52,764 --> 00:46:55,164
Look, one fabulous salmon,
weighs about 1 4 pound.
852
00:46:55,267 --> 00:46:56,495
It is a fabulous fish.
853
00:46:56,601 --> 00:46:59,297
We got some fabulous mackerel.
They've come up from Aberdeen.
854
00:46:59,404 --> 00:47:01,872
Next to them are the oysters.
They come from the Essex coast.
855
00:47:01,973 --> 00:47:03,463
Sole.
856
00:47:03,575 --> 00:47:04,599
BRAGG:
Pork,
857
00:47:04,709 --> 00:47:05,903
sausage,
858
00:47:06,011 --> 00:47:07,205
bacon.
859
00:47:07,312 --> 00:47:11,043
MAN: Nice bit of fruit!
Oranges, they're juicy. Lemons!
860
00:47:11,149 --> 00:47:13,117
BRAGG:
Grape, tart,
861
00:47:13,218 --> 00:47:14,981
biscuit, sugar.
862
00:47:15,086 --> 00:47:15,745
Cream.
863
00:47:17,389 --> 00:47:19,414
BRAGG:
Fry.
864
00:47:20,892 --> 00:47:23,156
Vinegar.
865
00:47:23,261 --> 00:47:26,890
Nearly 500 words dealing with
food, cooking, and eating alone
866
00:47:26,998 --> 00:47:28,522
entered English from French...
867
00:47:28,633 --> 00:47:30,100
just a fraction of the imports
868
00:47:30,202 --> 00:47:32,193
which would enrich
the English word hoard
869
00:47:32,304 --> 00:47:34,636
in the centuries
after the Norman conquest.
870
00:47:41,913 --> 00:47:44,939
Within 20 years of taking
control of the country,
871
00:47:45,050 --> 00:47:48,747
William sent his officers out
to take stock of his kingdom.
872
00:47:48,854 --> 00:47:51,084
The monks of Peterborough,
873
00:47:51,189 --> 00:47:53,589
who were still recording
the events of history in English
874
00:47:53,692 --> 00:47:55,387
in "The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle",
875
00:47:55,493 --> 00:47:56,858
noted disapprovingly
876
00:47:56,962 --> 00:47:59,931
that not one piece of land
escaped the survey,
877
00:48:00,031 --> 00:48:04,127
"not even an ox or a cow
or a pig".
878
00:48:17,115 --> 00:48:19,982
The "Domesday Book"... there
are, in fact, two volumes...
879
00:48:20,085 --> 00:48:24,181
show us how complete the Norman
takeover of English land was
880
00:48:24,289 --> 00:48:28,453
and how widespread their
influence and their language.
881
00:48:29,995 --> 00:48:31,053
The Norman settlement
882
00:48:31,162 --> 00:48:32,686
had concentrated
the wealth of England
883
00:48:32,797 --> 00:48:34,731
more than ever before or since.
884
00:48:34,833 --> 00:48:36,926
The native ruling class
from before the conquest
885
00:48:37,035 --> 00:48:38,662
had been slaughtered, banished,
886
00:48:38,770 --> 00:48:41,739
or disinherited in favour
of William's followers.
887
00:48:41,840 --> 00:48:45,469
Half of the country was
in the hands of just 1 90 men.
888
00:48:45,577 --> 00:48:48,671
Half of that
was held by just 1 1 men.
889
00:48:50,282 --> 00:48:54,082
And not one of these great
landowners spoke English.
890
00:48:55,921 --> 00:48:59,152
MAN:
Gisleberti De Gand...
891
00:48:59,257 --> 00:49:01,384
Raoulh De Insula...
892
00:49:01,493 --> 00:49:03,461
BRAGG: When this record
of the country was drawn up,
893
00:49:03,561 --> 00:49:06,052
it was written in Latin,
not Norman French...
894
00:49:06,164 --> 00:49:08,325
MAN:
...David De Argent...
895
00:49:08,433 --> 00:49:10,731
BRAGG:
...and certainly not English.
896
00:49:10,835 --> 00:49:12,894
MAN:
...Rann Fris Ugeris...
897
00:49:13,004 --> 00:49:15,598
BRAGG: Between them, French and
Latin had become the languages
898
00:49:15,707 --> 00:49:17,868
of state, law, the church,
899
00:49:17,976 --> 00:49:20,945
and history itself in England.
900
00:49:25,183 --> 00:49:27,913
The writing of English
became increasingly rare.
901
00:49:28,019 --> 00:49:32,752
Even "The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle"
guttered into silence.
902
00:49:33,325 --> 00:49:34,485
MAN:
"Hwat!
903
00:49:34,592 --> 00:49:39,154
We gardena inyear dagum
feodcyninga, frym gefrunon..."
904
00:49:39,264 --> 00:49:41,755
BRAGG: The language of Alfred
and the "Beowulf" poet
905
00:49:41,866 --> 00:49:45,358
had lost all the prestige
that it had slowly built up.
906
00:49:45,470 --> 00:49:47,233
In a country of three languages,
907
00:49:47,339 --> 00:49:52,106
English was now a poor third,
bottom of the pile.
908
00:49:59,584 --> 00:50:02,417
The English
language
had been forced underground.
909
00:50:02,520 --> 00:50:05,318
It would take 300 years
for it to re-emerge,
910
00:50:05,423 --> 00:50:08,915
and when it did, it would have
changed dramatically.
911
00:50:09,027 --> 00:50:11,996
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