JSCR 17 2 291 298 2003 TF e artes marciais

Prévia do material em texto

291
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2003, 17(2), 291–298
q 2003 National Strength & Conditioning Association
The Effect of Attempted Ballistic Training on the
Force and Speed of Movements
PETER D. OLSEN AND WILL G. HOPKINS
School of Physical Education and Department of Physiology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
ABSTRACT
Athletes in sports requiring explosive movements might ben-
efit from a unique form of training in which a limb is re-
strained while the athlete attempts ballistic (explosive) move-
ments. We investigated the effects of such ballistic training
and conventional resistance training on force and speed of
front kicks, side kicks, and palm strikes of martial artists.
We assigned subjects randomly to an experimental group (n
5 13) or a control (normal martial art training) group (n 5
9). Conventional resistance training produced a gain of 12%
(95% likely limits 6 13%) in front kick force relative to the
control group. Overall ballistic training and conventional re-
sistance training decreased side kick force by 15% (614%),
but movement speeds increased by 11–21% (613–17%). Re-
sponses to ballistic training were generally more marked in
more highly skilled athletes. Attempted ballistic training
may be a beneficial adjunct to resistance training for skilled
athletes in sports where speed rather than force is critical.
Key Words: martial arts, power, resistance, strength,
skill and specificity
Reference Data: Olsen, P.D., and W.G. Hopkins. The
effect of attempted ballistic training on the force and
speed of movements. J. Strength Cond. Res. 17(2):291–
298. 2003.
Introduction
Resistance training that enhances the initial rate offorce development could increase performance in
explosive sports such as karate (21). However, resis-
tance training interventions have produced inconsis-
tent results for kicking or punching performance in the
martial arts. Conventional resistance training and
heavy-bag training increased punching speed in un-
trained and moderately trained subjects (26). In con-
trast, conventional resistance training did not enhance
kicking performance in elite martial arts athletes (29).
The absence of improvement for the elite martial art-
ists could be due to the use of a conventional resis-
tance training program. Training status or skill level
of the subject affects the transference of resistance
training adaptations to the performance of sporting
movements. General or conventional resistance train-
ing programs typically enhance the performance of
sporting movements in untrained subjects (9, 15, 16,
23, 25). In contrast, more specific or specialized resis-
tance training programs are needed to facilitate an in-
crease in performance of trained or elite athletes (1, 2,
16–18, 22).
Muller et al. (16) suggested improved performance
for elite athletes would be achieved through special-
ized technique-specific exercises. Behm and Sale (3)
found a unique form of resistance training where a
subject attempts to perform a ballistic movement (ex-
plosive muscular contractions with minimal move-
ment). This approach produced gains similar to those
achieved with high-velocity resistance training for dor-
siflexion of the foot. Martial arts athletes might benefit
from specialized attempted ballistic training that sim-
ulates the explosive muscle contractions that occur pri-
or to a kick or punch. Beraud and Gahery (6) found
that the force of the muscular contractions that occur
prior to a kick is correlated with the acceleration and
force of the kick. Therefore, specialized attempted bal-
listic training could enhance the performance of a mar-
tial arts movement. However, Wilson et al. (27) found
that fast or slow isometric training enhanced maximal
isometric force but not the performance of a dynamic
elbow extension. The contrasting findings of Wilson et
al. (27) and Behm and Sale (3) were probably due to
the type of muscle actions used in the training pro-
grams. Behm and Sale (3) emphasized a high rate of
force development followed by rapid relaxation, with
the attempted ballistic movement lasting approximate-
ly 0.5 seconds, whereas Wilson et al. (27) instructed
subjects to contract the triceps as hard and fast as pos-
sible and to maintain peak force for 1 second. Brown
and Gilleard (7) found that movement times shorter
than 400 ms were more likely to display the charac-
teristics of a ballistic movement. Consequently, the
muscle actions observed in the Behm and Sale (3)
study would be more likely to produce training ad-
aptations that enhanced the performance of a ballistic
movement. The aim of the present study was to in-
vestigate the effect of such attempted ballistic training
292 Olsen and Hopkins
Table 1. Subject characteristics (mean 6 SD) at the start
of the study.
Characteristic
Control group
Women Men
Experimental group
Women Men
Sample size
Age (y)
Height (cm)
Weight (kg)
2
27 6 2
171 6 10
61 6 4
7
27 6 11
184 6 9
81 6 3
2
27 6 4
161 6 6
62 6 6
11
25 6 6
179 6 12
80 6 19
Impact force (N·kg21)
Front kick
Palm strike
Side kick
16 6 4
13 6 4
13 6 5
20 6 5
20 6 4
20 6 7
14 6 1
11 6 2
13 6 1
19 6 4
19 6 6
19 6 3
Response time (ms)
Front kick
Palm strike
Side kick
839 6 30
650 6 60
740 6 70
810 6 80
670 6 70
750 6 120
830 6 120
740 6 180
780 6 170
830 6 70
690 6 90
760 6 50
Table 2. Training programs in the base, transition, and ballistic phases for the experimental and control groups.
Phase Week Experimental group Control group
Base 1–8 Normal martial arts training
Resistance training (3 d per wk)
2 sets in week 1
3 sets in weeks 2–8
Normal martial arts training
Transition 9 Normal martial arts training Normal martial arts training
Ballistic 10–19 Normal martial arts training
Resistance training (2 d per wk)
2 sets per wk
Attempted ballistic movements (3 d per wk)
Weeks 10–11: 4 sets of 10 repetitions per leg
Weeks 12–19: 5 sets of 10 repetitions per leg
Normal martial arts training
Extra front kicks (3 d per wk)
Weeks 10–11: 4 sets of 10 repetitions per leg
Weeks 12–19: 5 sets of 10 repetitions per leg
on the speed and impact force of martial arts front
kicks, palm strikes, and side kicks. This study also rep-
resents the first investigation of the effect of attempted
ballistic movements on the performance of sport-spe-
cific movements.
Methods
Subjects
Thirty subjects with at least 1 year of martial arts
training and no previous experience in weight training
were recruited from martial arts clubs. Prior to the
study, subjects typically participated in 2–4 martial
arts sessions per week. All subjects gave written in-
formed consent in accordance with our institutional
ethical guidelines. After initial testing, subjects were
randomly assigned to the control or normal martial
arts training group (11 subjects) or the experimental
group (19 subjects) in a manner designed to balance
average front-kick and side-kick force between the
groups. Eight subjects withdrew from the study: 2 in
the base phase and 2 in the ballistic phase because of
injury, 1 in the base phase and 1 in the ballistic phase
because of illness; and 2 in the ballistic phase because
of other commitments. Therefore, 22 subjects complet-
ed both phases of the study. A loaded or weighted
kicking intervention simulating a front kick was to be
included in the ballistic phase. However, because of the
small sample size for the base phase, only the attempt-
ed ballistic training was initiated in the ballistic phase.
Consequently, the number of subjects in the experi-
mental group was higher than that in the control
group. Table 1 shows the initial characteristics of the
subjects who completed the study. The proportions of
subjects at each skill level for front kick, palm strike,
and side kick,respectively, were as follows: low: 17,
13, and 25%; moderate: 42, 75, and 50%; and high: 42,
13, and 25%. At the start of the study, subjects with
high skill had 26–36% higher impact forces than those
with moderate skill, but there was little difference
(67%) between subjects with moderate and low skill.
Subjects with higher skill tended to be slightly slower
(0–5%) for the front kick and side kick; subjects with
high skill for the palm strike were substantially slower
than those with moderate skill (by 20%) or low skill
(by 28%).
Training Programs
Strength training is generally recommended before
power or explosive training to strengthen muscle and
connective tissue and to decrease the likelihood of in-
jury in training (10). Therefore, prior to the attempted
ballistic training, an 8-week base training phase was
undertaken during which the experimental group per-
formed conventional resistance training in addition to
normal martial arts training (Table 2). When a subject
could perform 10 repetitions of a resistance training
movement, the resistance was increased by 5% or to a
weight the subject could lift for no more than 8 repe-
titions. Each set of resistance training movements was
separated by a 1- to 2-minute rest period. To maintain
a standard speed in the training movements, subjects
Attempted Ballistic Training 293
Figure 1. Martial artist in position for an attempted
ballistic movement in the front stance.
were instructed to count to 3 while lowering a weight
and to 2 when lifting. All resistance training subjects
received instructions on correct lifting technique in the
first 2 weeks. Subjects also performed 3 sets of 25–50
sit-ups (crunches) 3 days per week during the base
phase.
After a 1-week transition period during which all
subjects performed their normal martial arts training,
the ballistic phase was initiated. In this phase, the ex-
perimental group performed attempted ballistic train-
ing, conventional weight training, and 2 sets of 25–50
sit-ups 2 days per week. The number of sets and rep-
etitions for the ballistic training program was based
on the training program used by Behm and Sale (3).
The control group performed their normal martial arts
training and extra front kicks to match the extra train-
ing represented by the attempted ballistic training in
the experimental group (Table 2). The inclusion of the
extra front kicks was an attempt to control the volume
of training in both groups during the ballistic phase.
A verbal assessment of training compliance was made
every 2 weeks in both phases.
To perform an attempted ballistic movement, an
athlete assumed a front stance with a strap placed
above the ankle on the rear leg (Figure 1). The strap
was fastened to an immovable object at floor level. The
athlete pulled on the strap to remove any slack, re-
laxed, and then generated an explosive muscular se-
quence from the lower limbs to the shoulders, followed
by a rapid relaxation. The subjects were told to simu-
late a movement pattern that would typically occur
before a kick or punch. Additionally, subjects were in-
structed to push the body upward rather than pulling
horizontally on the strap and to avoid excessive twist-
ing during the exercise. The contraction time was ap-
proximately 0.5 seconds, and each contraction was
separated by a 1- to 2-second rest period. Each set was
separated by a 1- to 2-minute rest period. The training
was performed with both legs.
Performance Tests
To measure the response time and impact force of the
martial arts movements, a custom-made force plate
system was developed, which was capable of with-
standing 5,000-N impacts and had a sampling fre-
quency of 1,000 Hz. The force plate was mounted ver-
tically on a wall. Subjects directed kicks and palm
strikes at the plate as they would at an opponent. Re-
sponse time represented the time for a subject to hit
the force plate after an audible cue, which was pro-
duced after the experimenter pressed a hand-held trig-
ger. Impact force was the maximal force produced for
a kick or palm strike. In an 8-week reliability study
(data not shown), the coefficients of variation for the
impact force and response time of the martial arts
movements were similar (;6–8%).
Before the start of the study, subjects attended an
orientation session to learn how to strike the force
plate. During the orientation, the experimenter also re-
corded the position of each subject’s feet to ensure a
similar stance was adopted in the kicks and palm
strikes in each test. Before each test, the subject per-
formed a 5-minute warm-up on a cycle ergometer at
100–150 W and performed 3–5 practice front kicks
against the force plate at approximately 70% of per-
ceived maximal intensity. To start a test, the subject
assumed a fighting stance. The experimenter then pro-
duced the audible cue. The procedure was repeated
until the subject completed 10 rear-foot front kicks.
After a 2-minute rest, the subject performed 3–5 prac-
tice rear-hand palm strikes followed by a set of 10
palm strikes at maximal intensity. After another 2-mi-
nute rest, the subject performed 3–5 practice front-foot
side kicks and a set of 10 maximal side kicks in a sim-
ilar manner. All kicks and palm strikes were per-
formed with the subject’s dominant limb, and all sub-
jects were instructed to strike the force plate as hard
and as fast as possible. The front kick and the palm
strike were performed from a front stance, and the side
kick was performed from a side stance.
Testing was performed prior to the start of the base
phase (week 0), at weeks 2, 4, 6, and 8 of the base
phase, and at weeks 11, 13, 15, 17, and 19 of the bal-
listic phase. Tests using the force plate at weeks 0, 8,
and 19 were also filmed using a Panasonic M40 video
camera operating at 50 Hz. Video footage was used to
discount movements in which the subject started the
kick or palm strike before the audible stimulus. A
Third Dan black-belt instructor also viewed the video
for week 0 and ranked each subject on their ability or
skill in performing each of the martial arts movements.
The instructor graded each subject’s skill as low, mod-
erate, or high for the kicks and palm strikes. The rank-
294 Olsen and Hopkins
Figure 2. Changes in the impact force of the front kick
for the experimental group and control group during the
19-week training intervention. Data are expressed as
means and between-subject SD (large bar) and within-
subject SD (small bar).
ing was based on the instructor’s perception of the
speed and force of the movements and the subject’s
technical ability. This method of skill assessment is
similar to that used when a martial arts athlete com-
petes to advance to a higher belt ranking.
The isometric leg strength of the dominant limb
was tested on an isokinetic dynamometer (KIN-COM
125 E, Chattecx Corporation, Chattanooga, TN) at
weeks 0, 8, and 19 on a separate day from the force-
plate test. The quadriceps was selected for testing be-
cause this muscle group was involved in the attempted
ballistic training and in the martial arts movements
tested. The subjects were tested in the standard seated
position with the body stabilized by straps around the
thigh, waist, and chest, with arms folded across the
chest, and with a knee angle of 908 (19). Torque mea-
surements were adjusted for gravity, and the length of
the lever arm was recorded to ensure consistency in
further tests. Using the dominant leg, each subject per-
formed 3 submaximal contractions as a warm-up and
then 3 maximal isometric contractions for 5 seconds,
each separated by a 1-minute rest period. The trial
with the largest torque was identified, and torque at
100 ms and maximal torque were recorded.
Standardized field tests were included as another
measure of the effect of conventional resistance train-
ing and attempted ballisticmovements on athletic per-
formance. At weeks 0, 8, and 19, subjects performed 3
countermovement vertical jumps followed by 3 static
(no countermovement) vertical jumps. The static and
countermovement jumps were selected because they
have a movement pattern similar to that of the martial
arts movements. For the countermovement jumps, sub-
jects stood with feet shoulder-width apart and arms
crossed so that each hand was almost touching the
contralateral shoulder. When ready, subjects rapidly
performed trunk and knee flexion and then propelled
themselves upward as high as possible. The static
jumps were performed from the same stance, but be-
fore the jump, subjects lowered themselves to an angle
of approximately 908 at the knee joints, paused, and
then jumped as high as possible. Each vertical jump
was followed by a 1-minute rest period. The vertical
jumps were filmed with a Panasonic M40 video cam-
era, and the PEAK system was used to determine the
average height of the jumps.
Statistical Analyses
We compared changes in performance of the experi-
mental and control groups across the base phase
(weeks 0 and 8), the ballistic phase (weeks 8 and 19),
and both phases combined (weeks 0 and 19) using
Proc Mixed in the Statistical Analysis System (version
6.12, SAS Institute, Cary, NC) to perform repeated-
measures analyses. Analyses were performed on the
natural logarithm of mean force and response time be-
cause variation in human performance is better mod-
eled as a percentage of a subject’s performance rather
than as an absolute value (14). For each subject, all
measures of force were divided by body mass before
analysis. We also analyzed the effect of initial skill
on changes in performance by including skill appro-
priate to the performance measure as a covariate in the
model.
Subject characteristics are shown as means and
SDs. Precision of estimates of all effects are shown as
95% likely limits (the interval within which the true
value of the effect is 95% likely to fall) without ad-
justment for inflation of the studywise chance of any
true effect being outside its confidence interval.
Results
Impact Force and Movement Speed
Figure 2 shows the time course for change in front-
kick impact force for the experimental and control
groups. Front-kick force increased substantially in the
experimental group relative to the control group dur-
ing the base phase, but in the ballistic phase the dif-
ference between the groups was small. The changes in
impact force for the front kick, palm strike, and side
kick over each phase and overall for the experimental
group relative to the control group are shown in Fig-
ure 3, along with corresponding changes in movement
speed. The most noticeable effects are the gains in
speed of the experimental group relative to the control
group in all movements, mostly in the ballistic phase,
and a substantial drop in side-kick impact force for
the experimental group over the course of the study.
One Repetition Maximum Strength, Torque, Jump
Height, and Body Weight
The experimental group had larger gains in 1 repeti-
tion maximum (1RM) strength compared with the
Attempted Ballistic Training 295
Figure 3. Changes in the experimental group relative to
the control group for the impact force and speed of the
martial arts movements during the base phase, ballistic
phase, and overall. Data are expressed as means. Bars are
95% confidence intervals.
control group in the base phase. Further changes in
the ballistic phase were minimal, so that by the end of
the study the increase in 1RM strength of the experi-
mental group relative to the control group was 27%
(210 to 64%) for the lunge and 14% (26 to 36%) for
the bench press. Substantial increases (typically 20%)
in maximal and 100-ms isometric torque occurred in
both groups in both phases, but at completion of the
study there were no substantial differences between
the groups.
By the end of the study, the experimental group
showed a reduction in static jump height of 18% (25
to 40%) relative to the control group; this loss in per-
formance occurred mainly in the ballistic phase. Rel-
ative changes in countermovement jump height be-
tween the 2 groups were minimal in either phase.
Body mass of the experimental group increased by
;1% relative to controls in both phases, for an overall
gain of 2.4% (20.90 to 5.6%).
Effect of Skill on Impact Force and Movement Speed
In the base phase, impact force of the front kick in-
creased more in low-skill subjects (low, 39%; moderate,
19%; high, 1%; 625%); skill had minimal effect on
change in impact force of the side kick and palm strike.
In the ballistic phase, skill had a considerable effect on
changes in impact force of the palm strike (low, 30%;
moderate, 210%; high, 238%; 620%) but little effect
on change in impact force of the front kick or side kick.
Over both phases combined, skill had minimal effect
on the change in impact force of any movement.
During the base phase, front-kick speed increased
in low-skill subjects (low, 18%; moderate, 9%; high,
22%; 613%); a similar effect occurred for the palm
strike (low, 19%; moderate, 2%; high, 219%; 615%),
but the effect of skill on changes in side-kick speed
was minimal. In the ballistic phase, high-skill subjects
had larger increases in palm-strike speed (low, 5%;
moderate, 20%; high, 33%; 615%) and side-kick speed
(low, 213%; moderate, 7%; high, 24%; 615%), but
there was little effect of skill on changes in front-kick
speed. Over both phases combined, the effect of skill
on the speed of the 3 movements was relatively small.
Effect of Skill on 1RM Strength, Torque, and Jump
Height
Subjects more skilled in the palm strike had larger in-
creases in 1RM bench press in the base phase (low, 4%;
moderate, 17%; high, 32%; 625%). A similar result oc-
curred in the side kick (low, 13%; moderate, 17%; high,
22%; 625%). In contrast, less skilled subjects for the
front kick had the largest increases in 1RM bench-
press performance in the base phase (low, 27%; mod-
erate, 19%; high, 12%; 625%). Skill for any of the 3
martial arts movements did not have a substantial ef-
fect on 1RM bench press in the power phase or in both
phases combined, and skill had minimal effect on
1RM lunge performance throughout the study.
Skill level did not have clear-cut effects on changes
in maximal isometric torque or 100-ms torque during
the base or ballistic phases. However, when both phas-
es were combined, low-skill subjects had large gains
in torque, whereas high-skill subjects had large losses
in torque. For example, for front-kick skill and maxi-
mum isometric torque, torque for low-skill subjects in-
creased by 109% (6150%) and that for high-skill sub-
jects decreased by 41% (635%). A similar pattern
emerged for the effect of side-kick skill and static-jump
performance in the ballistic phase (low, 12%; moderate,
211%; high, 241%; 635%) and both phases combined
(low, 4%; moderate, 216%; high, 228%; 6 40%). In
contrast, there were no substantial effects of skill on
countermovement jump height.
Discussion
Improvements in the speed and force of the martial
arts movements depended on the type of the resistance
training performed during the study. Attempted bal-
listic training markedly increased the speed of the
palm strike and side kick, whereas general resistance
training increased the force of the front kick. Skill of
the athletes also had an effect on changes in perfor-
mance throughout the study. In the base phase, the
speed of the palm strike and the force and speed of
the front kick of low-skill subjects increased to values
comparable to those of high-skill subjects at the start
of the study. In contrast, during the ballistic phase, the
speed of the palm strikes and side kicks increased in
the more highly skilled subjects. Overall, the interven-
tion increased the speed of all 3 movementsby 11–
21% but reduced side-kick force by 15% relative to
control training. The precision of our estimates of
296 Olsen and Hopkins
these effects is consistent with true effects that range
from trivial to approximately twice the observed ef-
fects.
During the ballistic phase, the speed of side kick
and palm strike in the experimental group increased
substantially, but minimal change occurred in the
speed of the front kick. Specificity can explain why the
major changes occurred in the side kick and palm
strike. The explosive sequence of muscular contrac-
tions at the start of a side kick and palm strike appears
to be similar to the pattern of movement performed in
an attempted ballistic movement. In contrast, initiation
of a front kick involves a different pattern of move-
ment, in which the weight of the body is transferred
to the front leg, thereby producing passive knee ex-
tension in the rear kicking leg. Therefore, training ad-
aptations from the attempted ballistic movements
probably transferred more readily to the palm strike
and side kick. Other researchers have found that im-
provements were specific to the type of movements
performed, with explosive training generally increas-
ing performance in movements that require a high rate
of force development rather than maximal strength (4,
11, 13, 18). Additionally, the response times of the
palm strike and side kick were considerably shorter
than that of the front kick. Brown and Gilleard (7)
found that faster movements were more likely to dis-
play the characteristics of a ballistic movement. Con-
sequently, attempted ballistic training probably en-
hanced palm-strike and side-kick speed because of the
high speeds of these movements.
In the experimental group, general resistance train-
ing in the base phase substantially increased the front-
kick impact force. In contrast, minimal change oc-
curred for the impact force of the palm strike and side
kick, although we cannot exclude the possibility of real
changes of 610–16%. Once again, specificity of train-
ing can explain why only the impact force of the front
kick was enhanced. The resistance-training program
included 2 lower limb exercises: the lunge and the
knee curl. The lunge strengthens the hip flexors and
quadriceps, which are prime movers in the front kick,
whereas the knee curl strengthens the hamstrings. Pie-
ter and Taaffe (20) suggested that strengthening the
hamstrings would cause a later activation of the ham-
strings and therefore more force during a kick. Sub-
sequently, stronger hip flexors, quadriceps, and ham-
strings probably increased the impact force of the front
kick. These muscles are also important in the palm
strike and side kick, but their role is supplementary to
that of other muscle groups. To our knowledge, this is
the first report of an increase in the impact force of a
martial arts kick from a resistance training program.
When both phases of the study were combined, the
experimental group was faster for all the martial arts
movements. The increase in the speed of the front kick
was mainly due to general resistance training, whereas
ballistic training caused the increase in the speed of
the side kick and palm strike. The only substantial
change in force was a decrease in the impact force of
the side kick. The observed increase in speed should
give a martial arts athlete an advantage over an equal-
ly matched opponent. Whether the increased speed of
the side kick would compensate for the loss of side-
kick force is uncertain.
The skill of the subject had a considerable effect on
changes in performance of the martial arts movements
in all phases. In the base phase, subjects with less skill
had larger increases in front-kick speed, palm-strike
speed, and front-kick impact force. A possible expla-
nation for these effects is that low-skill subjects had
more potential for improvement than did more highly
skilled subjects. General resistance training increases
performance in field tests and sporting movements in
moderately trained or untrained subjects (23, 24, 26).
In contrast, there was little change in performance of
martial arts movements by the more highly skilled
subjects, even though these subjects recorded the larg-
est increases in the 1RM bench press. Zacho et al. (29)
also found that large increases in strength from con-
ventional resistance training did not enhance kicking
performance in highly skilled martial arts athletes. A
more specific training program or a longer period of
conventional resistance training might be necessary to
enhance performance in skilled martial arts athletes.
An unexpected finding was that highly skilled sub-
jects were considerably slower in the palm strike after
conventional resistance training. The reason for this
decrease in speed is unclear. One possibility is that the
highly skilled subjects focused on producing maximal
force during the palm strike rather than performing
the movement as fast and as hard as possible, thus
sacrificing speed for force. However, if a change in
movement strategy did occur, the change was specific
to the palm strike; minimal change occurred in the
speed of the front kick or side kick during the base
phase.
The better coordination of the highly skilled sub-
jects may have caused larger increases in the speed of
the palm strike and side kick relative to those for low-
skill subjects in the ballistic phase and both phases
combined. The attempted ballistic training was de-
signed to simulate the explosive muscle contractions
that occur prior to a martial arts movement. The high-
ly skilled subjects might have been more capable of
simulating the pattern of movement that occurs prior
to a kick or punch. Yiou and Do (28) found that inter-
national class fencers were more able to take advan-
tage of the forces generated prior to a movement to
produce a higher velocity during a touche´ movement.
The muscular contractions that occur prior to a kick
are also correlated with the peak acceleration and im-
pact force of a kick (6). Attempted ballistic training
may have produced specific training adaptations that
Attempted Ballistic Training 297
increased the rate of force development at the start of
the side kick and palm strike and enhanced the speed
of the movements in the skilled subjects. However, re-
search utilizing techniques such as electromyography
and a force platform is needed to determine the sim-
ilarities between the pattern of movement in attempted
ballistic training and the martial arts movements.
The increase in the speed of the palm strike and
side kick for the highly skilled subjects in the ballistic
phase and both phases combined coincided with a de-
crease in palm-strike force, static jump height, isomet-
ric torque, and side-kick force. The decrement in per-
formance was specific to field tests that featured ex-
plosive isometric or concentric movements. In contrast,
in the experimental group performance of movements
that involved stretching-shortening (i.e., eccentric-con-
centric) muscle contractions such as the front kick,
1RM strength tests, and the countermovement jump
did not decrease relative to the control group in the
ballistic phase. Carroll et al. (8) indicated that negative
transfer or a decrease in performance might occur if
muscle recruitment during resistance training move-
ments retarded performance in the transfer task. The
decrease in force, strength, and jump height could be
related to a change in the subject’s intention when per-
forming these movements. Bemben et al. (5) found that
the instructions given prior to an isometric strength
test affected maximal torque and the rate of force de-
velopment. Instructions emphasizing maximal force
output produced substantially larger torque, whereas
instructions emphasizing speed increased the rate of
force development but decreased torque. Althoughthe
instructions for the performance tests were consistent
throughout our study, the more highly skilled subjects
may have focused on performing the field tests as fast
as possible or explosively because the ballistic training
was performed in this manner. Performing the move-
ments as fast as possible could have resulted in less
time to generate force, causing a decrease in palm-
strike and side-kick force, maximal isometric torque,
and static jump height.
General resistance training and attempted ballistic
training enhanced performance of these sport-specific
movements. The enhancement of performance de-
pended on the type of resistance training and the sub-
ject’s level of martial arts skill. Therefore, skill level
should be considered when designing a resistance
training program. Future research could be performed
on the effect of attempted ballistic training on other
sporting movements, where speed rather than maxi-
mal force is critical, for example static jumping and
goal keeping in high-speed sports.
Practical Applications
Adaptations from combined resistance training and at-
tempted ballistic movements enhanced mainly the
speed of martial arts movements. We recommend that
less skilled athletes use conventional weight training
to increase the speed and force of movements. In con-
trast, more skilled or elite athletes should perform at-
tempted ballistic training after a strength-training
phase to increase the explosiveness of movements.
When prescribing exercise, an instructor should select
conventional weight-training movements that train
muscle groups utilized during kicking and punching.
Attempted ballistic training should consist of explo-
sive muscle actions followed by a rapid relaxation. The
training should also simulate the muscle actions or
movement patterns that occur at the start of a move-
ment. This type of training is more suited to move-
ments that are performed at high speed from a pre-
dominately static position (e.g., a reflexive catch or
block in high-speed ball sports). Attempted ballistic
training may also be useful for elite or highly skilled
athletes in a rehabilitation setting where maintenance
of the rate of force development is important but in-
jury prevents substantial limb movement, such as
throwing.
References
1. AAGAARD, P., E.B, SIMONSEN., M. TROLLE, J. BANGSBO, AND K.
KLAUSEN. Effects of different strength training regimes on mo-
ment and power generation during dynamic knee extension.
Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 69:382–386. 1994.
2. BAKER, D. Improving vertical jump performance through gen-
eral, special and specific strength training: A brief review. J.
Strength Cond. Res. 10:131–136. 1996.
3. BEHM, D.G., AND D.G. SALE. Velocity specificity in resistance
training is determined by intended rather than actual contrac-
tion velocity. J. Appl. Physiol. 74:359–368. 1993.
4. BELL, G.J., S.R. PETERSEN, I. MACLEAN, D.C. REID, AND H.A.
QUINNEY. Effect of high-velocity resistance training on peak
torque, cross sectional area and myofibrillar ATPase activity. J.
Sports Med. Phys. Fitness 32:10–18. 1992.
5. BEMBEN, M.G., J.L. CLASEY, AND B.H. MASSEY. The effect of the
rate of muscle contraction on the force-time curve parameters
of male and female subjects. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport 61:96–99. 1990.
6. BERAUD, P., AND Y. GAHERY. Relationships between the force
of voluntary leg movements and the associated postural mus-
cles. Neurosci. Lett. 194:177–180. 1995.
7. BROWN, J.M., AND W. GILLEARD. Transition from slow to bal-
listic movement: Development of triphasic electromyogram
patterns. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 63:381–386. 1991.
8. CARROLL, T.C., S. RIEK, AND R.G. CARSON. Neural adaptations
to resistance training. Implications for movement control.
Sports Med. 31:829–840. 2001.
9. CHESTNUT, J.L., AND D. DOCHERTY. The effects of 4 and 10 rep-
etition maximum weight-training protocols on neuromuscular
adaptations in untrained men. J. Strength Cond. Res. 13:353–359.
1999.
10. FLECK, S., AND W. KRAEMER. Designing Resistance Training Pro-
grams. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1997.
11. HAFF, G.G., AND J.A. POTTEIGER. A brief review: Explosive ex-
ercises and sports performance. Strength Cond. J. 23(3):13–20.
2001.
12. HAKKINEN, K., P. KOMI, AND M. ALEN. Effect of explosive type
strength-training on isometric force production and relaxation
time, electromyographic and muscle fibre characteristics of leg
extensor muscles. Acta Physiol. Scand. 125:587–600. 1985.
298 Olsen and Hopkins
13. HARRIS, G.R., M.H. STONE, H.S. O’BRYANT, C.M. PROULX, AND
R.L. JOHNSON. Short-term performance effects of high power,
high force, or combined weight-training methods. J. Strength
Cond. Res. 14:14–20. 2000.
14. HOPKINS, W.G., J.A. HAWLEY, AND L.M. BURKE. Design and
analysis of research on sport performance enhancement. Med.
Sci. Sports Exerc. 31:472–485. 1999.
15. KRAEMER, W.J., S.J. FLECK, AND W.J. EVANS. Strength and power
training: Physiological mechanisms of adaptation. Exerc. Sport
Sci. Rev. 24:363–397. 1996.
16. MULLER, E., U. BENKO, C. RASCHNER, AND H. SCHWAMEDER.
Specific fitness training and testing in competitive sports. Med.
Sci. Sports Exerc. 32:216–220. 2000.
17. NEWTON, R.U., AND W.J. KRAEMER. Developing explosive mus-
cular power: Implications for mixed methods training strategy.
Strength Cond. J. 16:20–31. 1994.
18. NEWTON, R.U., W.J. KRAEMER, AND K. HAKKINEN. Effects of
ballistic training on preseason preparation of elite volleyball
players. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 31:323–330. 1999.
19. PERRIN, D.H. Isokinetic Exercise and Assessment. Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics, 1993.
20. PIETER, W., AND D. TAAFFE. Peak torque and strength ratios of
elite taekwondo athletes. In: Conference Proceedings (vol. 3), Sport
Science, Commonwealth and International Conference on Physical Ed-
ucation, Sport, Dance, Recreation and Leisure. Auckland, New Zea-
land, 1990. pp. 67–79.
21. SCHMIDTBLEICHER, D. Training for power events in strength
and power in sport. In: Strength and Power in Sport P.V. Komi
(ed.). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1992.
22. SCHMIDTBLEICHER, D., AND G. HARALAMBIE. Changes in con-
tractile properties of muscle after strength training in man. Eur.
J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 46:221–228. 1981.
23. SLEIVERT, G.G., R.D. BACKUS, AND H.A. WENGER. The influence
of strength-sprint training sequence on multijoint power out-
put. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 27:1655–1665. 1995.
24. STONE, M.H., D. COLLINS, S. PLISK, G. HAFF, AND M.E. STONE.
Training principles: Evaluation of modes and methods of re-
sistance training. Strength Cond. J. 22(3):65–76. 2000.
25. STONE, M.H., S. PLISK, M.E. STONE, B.K. SCHILLING, AND K.C.
PIERCE. Athletic performance development: Volume load—1 set
vs. multiple sets, training velocity and training variation.
Strength Cond. J. 20(6):22–31. 1998.
26. VOIGHT, M., AND K. KLAUSEN. Changes in muscle strength and
speed of an unloaded movement after various training pro-
grammes. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 60:370–376. 1990.
27. WILSON, G.J., W.B. YOUNG, G. HURNALL, K.P. HOOD, AND M.
STEINEBRONN. The effect of slow versus fast rate of force de-
velopment on resistance training induced changes in perfor-
mance. J. Hum. Mov. Stud. 27:75–88. 1994.
28. YIOU, E., AND M.C. DO. In fencing, does intensive practice
equally improve the speed performance of the touche´ when it
is performed alone and in combination with the lunge? Int. J.
Sports Med. 21:122–126. 2000.
29. ZACHO, M., H. SORENSEN, J. BANGSBO, AND J.L. ANDERSEN.
Changes in muscle MHC-composition and kicking perfor-
mance after heavy resistance training in taekwondo athletes.
In: Book of Abstracts, First Annual Congress, Frontiers in Sport
Science, The European Perspective. P. Marconnet., J. Gaulard., I.
Margaritis, and F. Tessier (eds.). Nice, France, 1996.
Acknowledgments
This researchwas funded by a research grant from Sport
Science New Zealand. The authors thank Chan’s Martial Arts
New Zealand and the International Taekwon-Do Foundation
of New Zealand for their participation and support in this
study.
Address correspondence to Peter Olsen, p.olsen@tees.
ac.uk.