Wood handbook - v 2010

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Centennial Edition
Wood Handbook
Wood as an Engineering Material
United States
Department of
Agriculture
Forest Service
Forest
Products
Laboratory
General
Technical
Report
FPL–GTR–190
Centennial Edition
Wood Handbook
Wood as an Engineering Material
Forest Products Laboratory • United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service • Madison, Wisconsin
April 2010
Forest Products Laboratory. 2010. Wood handbook—Wood as an engineer-
ing material. General Technical Report FPL-GTR-190. Madison, WI: U.S. 
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 
508 p.
A limited number of free copies of this publication are available to the 
public from the Forest Products Laboratory, One Gifford Pinchot Drive, 
Madison, WI 53726–2398. This publication is also available online at 
www.fpl.fs.fed.us. Laboratory publications are sent to hundreds of libraries 
in the United States and elsewhere.
The Forest Products Laboratory is maintained in cooperation with the 
University of Wisconsin. 
The use of trade or firm names in this publication is for reader information 
and does not imply endorsement by the United States Department of 
Agriculture (USDA) of any product or service.
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and employer.
Abstract
Summarizes information on wood as an engineering mate-
rial. Presents properties of wood and wood-based products 
of particular concern to the architect and engineer. Includes 
discussion of designing with wood and wood-based prod-
ucts along with some pertinent uses.
Keywords: wood structure, physical properties (wood), 
mechanical properties (wood), lumber, wood-based com-
posites, plywood, panel products, design, fastenings, wood 
moisture, drying, gluing, fire resistance, finishing, decay, 
preservation, wood-based products, heat sterilization, sus-
tainable use
Pesticide Precautionary Statement
This publication reports research involving pesticides. 
It does not contain recommendations for their use, nor 
does it imply that the uses discussed here have been 
registered. All uses of pesticides must be registered by 
appropriate State and/or Federal agencies before they 
can be recommended.
Caution: Pesticides can be injurious to humans, 
domestic animals, desirable plants, and fish or other 
wildlife, if they are not handled or applied properly. 
Use all pesticides selectively and carefully. Follow 
recommended practices for the disposal of surplus 
pesticides and pesticide containers.
iii
Chapter 6 Commercial Lumber, 
Round Timbers, and Ties
 Hardwood Lumber 6–2
 Softwood Lumber 6–6
 Purchase of Lumber 6–12
 Round Timbers and Ties 6–18
 Commonly Used Lumber, Round Timber, and Tie 
 Abbreviations 6–23
 References 6–25
Chapter 7 Stress Grades and Design Prop-
erties for Lumber, Round Timber, and Ties
 Lumber 7–1
 Round Timbers and Ties 7–13
 Literature Cited 7–14
 Additional References 7–15
Chapter 8 Fastenings
 Nails 8–1
 Spikes 8–9
 Staples 8–9
 Drift Bolts 8–10
 Wood Screws 8–10
 Lag Screws 8–12
 Bolts 8–14
 Connector Joints 8–19
 Metal Plate Connectors 8–25
 Joist Hangers 8–25
 Fastener Head Embedment 8–26
 Literature Cited 8–27
 Additional References 8–27
Chapter 9 Structural Analysis Equations
 Deformation Equations 9–1
 Stress Equations 9–4
 Stability Equations 9–7
 Literature Cited 9–10
 Additional References 9–10
Chapter 10 Adhesives with Wood Materials 
Bond Formation and Performance
 Surface Properties of Wood for Bonding 10–2
 Physical Properties of Wood for Bonding 10–5
 Adhesives 10–8
 Bonding Process 10–14
 Bonded Joints 10–18
 Testing and Performance 10–19
 Standards 10–22
 References 10–23
CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Wood as a Sustainable 
Building Material
 Wood as a Green Building Material 1–1
 Forest Certification Programs 1–3
 Literature Cited 1–5
Chapter 2 Characteristics and Availability 
of Commercially Important Woods
 Timber Resources and Uses 2–2
 Species Descriptions 2–3
 Imported Woods 2–18
 Scientific Name Index 2–41
 Literature Cited 2–45
 Additional References 2–45
Chapter 3 Structure and Function of Wood
 Biological Structure of Wood at Decreasing Scales 3–2
 Microscopic Structure of Softwoods and Hardwoods 3–9
 Wood Technology 3–12
 Juvenile Wood and Reaction Wood 3–13
 Appearance of Wood as Sawn Lumber 3–13
 Wood Identification 3–16
 Literature Cited 3–16
Chapter 4 Moisture Relations and 
Physical Properties of Wood
 Wood–Moisture Relationships 4–1
 Thermal Properties 4–10
 Electrical Properties 4–15
 Friction Properties 4–17
 Nuclear Radiation Properties 4–17
 Literature Cited 4–18
 Additional Reference 4–19
Chapter 5 Mechanical Properties of Wood
 Orthotropic Nature of Wood 5–1
 Elastic Properties 5–2
 Strength Properties 5–3
 Vibration Properties 5–17
 Mechanical Properties of Clear Straight-Grained 
 Wood 5–21
 Natural Characteristics Affecting Mechanical 
 Properties 5–26
 Literature Cited 5–44
 Additional References 5–44
iv
Chapter 11 Wood-Based Composite Ma-
terials Panel Products, Glued-Laminated 
Timber, Structural Composite Lumber, and 
Wood–Nonwood Composite Materials
 Scope 11–2
 Conventional Wood-Based Composite Panels 11–2
 Glulam Timber 11–17
 Structural Composite Lumber 11–20
 Wood–Nonwood Composite Materials 11–22
 Literature Cited 11–26
Chapter 12 Mechanical Properties of 
Wood-Based Composite Materials
 Elastic Properties 12–2
 Strength Properties 12–3
 Panel Products 12–3
 Timber Elements/Structural Composite Lumber 12–5
 Wood–Nonwood Composites 12–7
 Testing Standards 12–9
 Literature Cited 12–10
Chapter 13 Drying and Control of Moisture 
Content and Dimensional Changes
 Determination of Moisture Content 13–1
 Recommended Moisture Content 13–3
 Drying of Wood 13–5
 Moisture Control during Transit and Storage 13–13
 Dimensional Changes in Wood 13–15
 Design Factors Affecting Dimensional Change 13–17
 Wood Care and Installation during Construction 13–18
 Literature Cited 13–19
Chapter 14 Biodeterioration of Wood
 Fungus Damage and Control 14–1
 Bacteria 14–9
 Insect Damage and Control 14–9
 Marine Borer Damage and Control 14–13
 References 14–15
Chapter 15 Wood Preservation
 Wood Preservatives 15–1
 Selecting Preservatives 15–13
 Evaluating New Preservatives 15–13
 Preservative Effectiveness 15–13
 Effect of Species on Penetration 15–15
 Preparation of Wood for Treatment 15–15
 Application of Preservatives 15–18
 QualityAssurance for Treated Wood 15–25
 Effects on the Environment 15–26
 Recycling and Disposal of Treated Wood 15–26
 References 15–27
Chapter 16 Finishing of Wood
 Factors Affecting Finish Performance 16–2
 Exterior Wood Finishes 16–16
 Application of Finishes, Special Uses 16–24
 Finish Failure or Discoloration 16–25
 Finishing Interior Wood 16–32
 Wood Cleaners and Brighteners 16–34
 Paint Strippers 16–35
 Lead-Based Paint 16–36
 Literature Cited 16–37
 Additional References 16–37
Chapter 17 Use of Wood in Buildings 
and Bridges
 Light-Frame Buildings 17–1
 Post-Frame and Pole Buildings 17–4
 Log Buildings 17–6
 Heavy Timber Buildings 17–6
 Considerations for Wood Buildings 17–9
 Literature Cited 17–12
Chapter 18 Fire Safety of Wood 
Construction
 Fire Safety Design and Evaluation 18–1
 Fire-Performance Characteristics of Wood 18–8
 Fire-Retardant-Treated Wood 18–15
 Literature Cited 18–18
 Additional References 18–18
Chapter 19 Specialty Treatments
 Plasticizing Wood 19–1
 Modified Woods 19–4
 Paper-Based Plastic Laminates 19–12
 References 19–14
Chapter 20 Heat Sterilization of Wood
 Heat Treatment Standards 20–1
 Factors Affecting Heating Times 20–2
 Methods for Estimating Heating Times 20–5
 American Lumber Standard Committee (ALSC)
 Enforcement Regulations 20–9
 Quality Mark 20–11
 Other Considerations 20–11
 Literature Cited 20–13
Glossary 
Index 
v
FOREWORD
We are proud to present this edition of the Wood 
Handbook—Wood as an Engineering Material, pre-
pared and updated to include fascinating new develop-
ments in the field of wood utilization and released as 
part of the celebration of the Forest Products Labora-
tory’s first 100 years of service to the public. 
Efficient use of our nation’s timber is of critical impor-
tance. This handbook is intended to serve as a primary 
reference on the use of wood in a variety of applica-
tions—from general construction to use of wood for 
decorative purposes. It provides engineers, architects, 
and others who use wood with a source of information 
on the various properties of wood, its relationship with 
moisture, and characteristics of various wood-based 
materials. Continuing research holds promise for wider 
and more efficient utilization of wood in an increasing 
number of applications.
This handbook was prepared by the Forest Products 
Laboratory (FPL), a research unit within the USDA 
Forest Service. The FPL, first established in 1910 in 
Madison, Wisconsin, was the first institution in the 
world to conduct general research on wood and its 
utilization. The information that resulted from many 
of its scientific investigations of wood and wood prod-
ucts over the past century is the primary basis for this 
handbook. 
The Wood Handbook was first issued in 1935, and 
slightly revised in 1939, as an unnumbered publica-
tion. Further revisions in 1955, 1974, and 1987 were 
published by the U.S. Department of Agriculture as 
Agriculture Handbook No. 72. The 1999 revision was 
published by the FPL as General Technical Report 
FPL–GTR–113 and reprinted for broader distribution 
by the Forest Products Society.
The audience for the Wood Handbook is broad. Con-
sequently, the coverage of each chapter is aimed at 
providing a general discussion of the topic, with refer-
ences included for additional information. Thousands 
more publications are available on the FPL website 
(www.fpl.fs.fed.us). 
Wood resources continue to play an important role 
in the world, from packaging materials to buildings 
to transportation structures. Wood has been useful to 
human societies for thousands of years; archeologi-
cal discoveries have shown wood was used by ancient 
civilizations as a construction material, as a substrate 
for ornate decorative objects, and for providing the 
final resting place for royalty. These discoveries 
highlight the unique, long-lasting performance char-
acteristics of wood, as many of these artifacts have 
survived for thousands of years. FPL continues on its 
journey of discovery and public service; working with 
cooperators from around the world, we are discovering 
information that covers the entire spectrum of wood 
science—from the use of wood in ancient societies to 
developing new theories that describe the fundamen-
tal structure of wood based on the emerging field of 
nanoscience. If our forests are managed wisely, and if 
we continue to build our intellectual capacity to meet 
the challenges of evolving human needs and chang-
ing wood characteristics, this amazing material that is 
wood will serve the public well for years to come. 
Christopher D. Risbrudt, Director 
Michael A. Ritter, Assistant Director 
Theodore H. Wegner, Assistant Director
USDA Forest Service
Forest Products Laboratory
vii
PREFACE
This edition of the Wood Handbook—Wood as an 
Engineering Material builds upon past editions, in 
particular the 1999 version, with some important addi-
tions and modifications:
•	 A chapter has been added that highlights the im-
portance of wood as an environmentally respon-
sible, sustainable material (Chapter 1). 
•	 Low-magnification micrographs of cross sections 
of commercial wood species have been added 
(Chapter 2).
•	 An extensive discussion on the microscopic struc-
ture of wood and its foundational elements are 
presented (Chapter 3).
•	 Reference to the most recent research on proper-
ties of the wood cell wall, at the nanoscale, has 
been included (Chapter 5). 
•	 To address the need to find uses for wood obtained 
from trees killed by invasive insect species as they 
propagate through various regions of the United 
States, a chapter has been added on heat-treating 
and sterilization procedures for wood products 
(Chapter 20).
•	 Important updates are included on wood–mois-
ture interactions and wood preservation practices 
(Chapters 4 and 15). 
The Wood Handbook originally focused on construc-
tion practices that utilized solid-sawn wood. Since its 
first printing, the state-of-the-art in wood construc-
tion practices and the range of wood-based products 
available to the consumer have changed considerably. 
Excellent printed reference and websites have been 
developed by various trade associations and wood 
products manufacturers that document, in detail, cur-
rent design information for the ever-changing range of 
products available. We have made a concerted effort 
to include the most current references, in addition to 
many historic ones, to help guide the reader to appro-
priate sources of information. 
This 2010 edition was reviewed by numerous individ-
uals from industry, academia, and government. Several 
dozen industry, university, and government colleagues 
reviewed various sections and chapters of this edition 
during various stages of revision. We gratefully ac-
knowledge their contributions. 
The following individuals provided in-depth technical 
reviews of this edition in its entirety: Donald Bender 
(Washington State University), David Green (USDA 
Forest Products Laboratory, retired), John Erickson 
(USDA Forest Products Laboratory, retired), Howard 
Rosen (USDA Forest Service, retired), World Nieh 
(USDA Forest Service), Robert White (USDA Forest 
Products Laboratory), and staff of the American Wood 
Council, American Forest & Paper Association. We 
gratefully acknowledge their contributions. 
Although listing every technical author and contributor 
to the Wood Handbook would be nearly impossible—
early editions did not even list individual contributors 
by name—we do acknowledge the authors of previous 
editions; they all made significant, noteworthy contri-
butions.Finally, we thank our many research cooperators from 
industry, academia, and other government agencies. 
By working with you we are able to continue develop-
ing the technical base for using wood, wood-based 
materials, and wood structural systems in a technically 
sound manner. 
Robert J. Ross, Editor
USDA Forest Service
Forest Products Laboratory 
CHAPTER 1
Wood as a Sustainable Building Material
Robert H. Falk, Research General Engineer
1–1
Few building materials possess the environmental benefits 
of wood. It is not only our most widely used building mate-
rial but also one with characteristics that make it suitable 
for a wide range of applications. As described in the many 
chapters of this handbook, efficient, durable, and useful 
wood products produced from trees can range from a mini-
mally processed log at a log-home building site to a highly 
processed and highly engineered wood composite manufac-
tured in a large production facility. 
As with any resource, we want to ensure that our raw ma-
terials are produced and used in a sustainable fashion. One 
of the greatest attributes of wood is that it is a renewable 
resource. If sustainable forest management and harvesting 
practices are followed, our wood resource will be available 
indefinitely.
Wood as a Green Building Material
Over the past decade, the concept of green building1 has 
become more mainstream and the public is becoming aware 
of the potential environmental benefits of this alternative 
to conventional construction. Much of the focus of green 
building is on reducing a building’s energy consumption 
(such as better insulation, more efficient appliances and 
heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems) 
and reducing negative human health impacts (such as con-
trolled ventilation and humidity to reduce mold growth). 
However, choosing building materials that exhibit positive 
environmental attributes is also a major area of focus. Wood 
has many positive characteristics, including low embodied 
energy, low carbon impact, and sustainability. These charac-
teristics are important because in the United States, a little 
more than half the wood harvested in the forest ends up as 
building material used in construction.
Embodied Energy
Embodied energy refers to the quantity of energy required to 
harvest, mine, manufacture, and transport to the point of use 
a material or product. Wood, a material that requires a mini-
mal amount of energy-based processing, has a low level 
1Green building is defined as the practice of increasing the effi-
ciency with which buildings use resources while reducing building 
impacts on human health and the environment—through better 
siting, design, material selection, construction, operation, mainte-
nance, and removal—over the complete building life cycle.
Contents 
Wood as a Green Building Material 1–1
 Embodied Energy 1–1
 Carbon Impact 1–2
 Sustainability 1–3
Forest Certification Programs 1–3
 Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) 1–4
 Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI) 1–4
 American Tree Farm System (ATFS) 1–4
 Canadian Standards Association (CSA) 1–5
 Programme for the Endorsement of Forest 
 Certification (PEFC) Schemes 1–5
 Additional Information 1–5
Literature Cited 1–5
1–2
Their calculations show that the energy consumed in the 
manufacture of building materials (mining iron and coal for 
steel or harvesting wood for lumber) and the construction 
of a steel-framed house in Minneapolis is 17% greater than 
for a wood-framed house (Lippke and others 2004). The 
difference is even more dramatic if one considers the use 
of bioenergy in the manufacture of wood products. By this 
comparison, the steel-framed house uses 281% more non-
bioenergy than the wood-framed house (Perez-Garcia and 
others 2005). Global warming potential, air emission index, 
and water emission index are all higher for steel construc-
tion than for wood construction (Table 1–2).
These analyses indicate that the amount of energy necessary 
to produce wood products is much less than comparable 
products made from other materials. If wood is substituted 
for these other materials (assuming similar durability allows 
equal substitution), energy is saved and emissions avoided 
each time wood is used, giving it a distinct environmental 
advantage over these other materials (Bowyer and others 
2008). 
Carbon Impact
The role of carbon in global climate change and its projected 
negative impact on ecosystem sustainability and the general 
health of our planet have never been more elevated in the 
public’s consciousness. 
Forests play a major role in the Earth’s carbon cycle. The 
biomass contained in our forests and other green vegeta-
tion affects the carbon cycle by removing carbon from the 
atmosphere through the photosynthesis process. This pro-
cess converts carbon dioxide and water into sugars for tree 
growth and releases oxygen into the atmosphere:
energy (sunlight) + 6H2O + 6CO2  C6H12O6 + 6O2
A substantial amount of carbon can be sequestered in forest 
trees, forest litter, and forest soils. Approximately 26 billion 
metric tonnes of carbon is sequestered within standing trees, 
forest litter, and other woody debris in domestic forests, and 
another 28.7 billion tonnes in forest soils (Birdsey and 
Lewis 2002). According to Negra and others (2008), be-
tween 1995 and 2005 the rate of carbon sequestration in 
U.S. forests was about 150 million tonnes annually (not in-
cluding soils), a quantity of carbon equivalent to about 10% 
of total carbon emissions nationally.
Unfortunately, deforestation in tropical areas of the world is 
responsible for the release of stored carbon, and these for-
ests are net contributors of carbon to the atmosphere. Tropi-
cal deforestation is responsible for an estimated 20% of total 
human-caused carbon dioxide emissions each year (Schimel 
and others 2001).
Carbon in wood remains stored until the wood deteriorates 
or is burned. A tree that remains in the forest and dies re-
leases a portion of its carbon back into the atmosphere as the 
woody material decomposes. On the other hand, if the tree 
General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190
of embodied energy relative to many other materials used in 
construction (such as steel, concrete, aluminum, or plastic). 
The sun provides the energy to grow the trees from which 
we produce wood products; fossil fuels are the primary en-
ergy source in steel and concrete manufacture. Also, over 
half the energy consumed in manufacturing wood products 
in the United States is from biomass (or bioenergy) and is 
typically produced from tree bark, sawdust, and by-products 
of pulping in papermaking processes. The U.S. wood prod-
ucts industry is the nation’s leading producer and consumer 
of bioenergy, accounting for about 60% of its energy needs 
(Table 1–1) (Murray and others 2006, EPA 2007). Solid-
sawn wood products have the lowest level of embodied 
energy; wood products requiring more processing steps (for 
example, plywood, engineered wood products, flake-based 
products) require more energy to produce but still require 
significantly less energy than their non-wood counterparts.
In some plantation forest operations, added energy costs 
may be associated with the use of fertilizer, pesticides, and 
greenhouses to grow tree seedlings. During the harvesting 
operation, energy is used to power harvesting equipment and 
for transporting logs to the mill. Lumber milling processes 
that consume energy include log and lumber transport, saw-
ing, planing, and wood drying. Kiln drying is the most 
energy-consumptive process of lumber manufacture; how-
ever, bioenergy from a mill’s waste wood is often used to 
heat thekilns. Unlike burning fossil fuels, using bioenergy 
for fuel is considered to be carbon neutral. Also, advances in 
kiln technologies over the past few decades have significant-
ly reduced the amount of energy required in wood drying. 
Overall, the production of dry lumber requires about twice 
the energy of producing green (undried) lumber. 
The Consortium for Research on Renewable Industrial 
Materials (CORRIM) found that different methods of forest 
management affect the level of carbon sequestration in trees 
(Perez-Garcia and others 2005). They found that shorter ro-
tation harvests can sequester more total carbon than longer 
rotation harvests. 
CORRIM also calculated differences in energy consumed 
and environmental impacts associated with resource extrac-
tion, materials production, transportation, and disposal of 
homes built using different materials and processes. 
Table 1–1. Wood products industry 
fuel sourcesa
Fuel source 
Proportion used 
(%)
Net electricity 19 
Natural gas 16 
Fuel oil 3 
Other (primarily biomass) 61 
aEPA (2007). 
1–3
is used to produce a wood or paper product, these products 
store carbon while in use. For example, solid wood lumber, 
a common wood product used in building construction (the 
building industry is the largest user of sawn wood in the 
United States), sequesters carbon for the life of the building. 
At the end of a building’s life, wood can be recovered for 
re-use in another structure, chipped for use as fuel or mulch, 
or sent to a landfill (usual fate). If burned or mulched, stored 
carbon is released when the wood decomposes, essentially 
the reverse process of photosynthesis:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
Carbon contained in wood products currently in-use and as 
wood debris in landfills is estimated at 2.5 billion tonnes and 
accumulates at a rate of about 28 million tonnes per year 
(Skog 2008). Much of the carbon contained within wood 
products resides in the nation’s housing stock, estimated 
at 116 million units in 2000. Skog (2008) estimated that in 
2001, about 680 million tonnes of carbon was stored in the 
nation’s housing stock, nearly a third of the total carbon (2.5 
billion tonnes) cited above. 
As indicated in Table 1–3, carbon emitted to produce a 
tonne of concrete is about eight times that emitted to pro-
duce a tonne of framing lumber. A similar comparison for 
steel indicates that its production emits about 21 times as 
much carbon as an equal weight of framing lumber. Wood 
products also mitigate carbon emissions to the degree that 
they substitute for steel or concrete, which emit more green-
house gases in their production.
Also, because wood products have this low level of em-
bodied energy compared with other building products and 
because wood is one-half carbon by weight, wood products 
can actually be carbon negative (Bowyer and others 2008). 
Comparisons of the environmental impact of various wood 
products have also been made using life cycle analysis 
software (Calkins 2009). The more processing involved in 
the manufacture of wood products (such as flaking, veneer 
cutting, added heat for pressing, gluing, kiln drying), the 
more impact on energy use, solid waste production, pollu-
tion production, and global warming potential (carbon).
Sustainability
Unlike metals and fossil-fuel-based products (such as 
plastics), our forest resource is renewable and with proper 
management a flow of wood products can be maintained 
indefinitely. The importance of forest-based products to our 
economy and standard of living is hard to overemphasize—
half of all major industrial raw materials we use in the Unit-
ed States come from forests. However, the sustainability of 
this resource requires forestry and harvesting practices that 
ensure the long-term health and diversity of our forests. Un-
fortunately, sustainable practices have not always been ap-
plied in the past, nor are they universally applied around the 
world today. Architects, product designers, material speci-
fiers, and homeowners are increasingly asking for building 
products that are certified to be from a sustainable source. 
For the forest products sector, the result of this demand has 
been the formation of forest certification programs. These 
programs not only ensure that the forest resource is harvest-
ed in a sustainable fashion but also that issues of biodiver-
sity, habitat protection, and indigenous peoples’ rights are 
included in land management plans.
Forest Certification Programs
More than 50 different forest certification systems in the 
world today represent nearly 700 million acres of forestland 
and 15,000 companies involved in producing and 
Table 1–2. Environmental performance indices for above-grade wall 
designs in residential constructiona
Wood
frame
Steel 
frame Difference
Changeb
(%)
Minneapolis design 
 Embodied energy (GJ) 250 296 46 +18 
 Global warming potential (CO2 kg) 13,009 17,262 4,253 +33 
 Air emission index (index scale) 3,820 4,222 402 +11 
 Water emission index (index scale) 3 29 26 +867 
 Solid waste (total kg) 3,496 3,181 –315 –0.9 
Atlanta design 
 Embodied energy (GJ) 168 231 63 +38 
 Global warming potential (CO2 kg) 8,345 14,982 6,637 +80 
 Air emission index (index scale) 2,313 3,373 1,060 +46 
 Water emission index (index scale) 2 2 0 0 
 Solid waste (total kg) 2,325 6,152 3,827 +164 
aLippke and others (2004). 
b% change = [(Steel frame – Wood frame)/(Wood frame)] × 100.
Chapter 1 Wood as a Sustainable Building Material
productivity while allowing for conservation of resources 
(Howe and others 2004). The growing trends in green 
building are helping drive certification in the construction 
market in the United States.
Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)
FSC is an independent, non-governmental 
organization established to promote respon-
sible management of the world’s forests 
and is probably the most well-known for-
est certification program worldwide. More 
than 280 million acres of forest worldwide are certified to 
FSC standards and are distributed over 79 countries. The 
FSC program includes two types of certifications. The For-
est Management Certification applies FSC standards of 
responsible forestry to management of the forest land. A 
Chain-of-Custody (COC) certification ensures that forest 
products that carry the FSC label can be tracked back to 
the certified forest from which they came. More than 9,000 
COC certifications are in use by FSC members. The FSC 
has certified 18 certification bodies around the world. Four 
are located in the United States, including the non-profit 
Rainforest Alliance’s SmartWood program and the for-profit 
Scientific Certification Systems. Both organizations provide 
up-to-date lists of FSC-certified wood suppliers across the 
country. 
Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI) 
The SFI program was established 
in 1994 and currently certifies over 
152 million acres in the United 
States and Canada. This program 
has a strong wood industry focus 
and has been adopted by most of the major industrial forest 
landowners in the United States. It is based on the premise 
that responsible forest practices and sound business deci-
sions can co-exist. The SFI program includes third-party 
certification, which verifies the requirements of the SFI 
2010–2014 Standard. Independent certification bodies eval-
uate planning, procedures, and processes in the forest and in 
wood processing operations. Annual surveillance audits are 
mandatory on all certified operations, and a full recertifica-
tion audit is required for forest operations every 3 years.
American Tree Farm System (ATFS) 
The American Tree Farm System, a 
program of the American Forest Founda-
tion’s Center for Family Forests, is the 
oldest offorest certification programs 
and was established in 1941. The ATFS 
focuses its program on private family 
forest landowners in the United States. Currently, ATFS 
has certified 24 million acres of privately owned forestland 
and more than 90,000 family forest owners. The ATFS for-
est certification standard requires forest owners to develop 
1–4
marketing certified products. These programs represent 
about 8% of the global forest area and 13% of managed 
forests. From 2007 to 2008, the world’s certified forest area 
grew by nearly 9%. North America has certified more than 
one-third of its forests and Europe more than 50% of its for-
ests; however, Africa and Asia have certified less than 0.1%. 
Approximately 80% to 90% of the world’s certified forests 
are located in the northern hemisphere, where two thirds 
of the world’s roundwood is produced (UNECE 2008). In 
North America, five major certification systems are used:
•	 Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) 
•	 Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI) 
•	 American Tree Farm System (ATFS)
•	 Canadian Standards Association (CSA)
•	 Programme for the Endorsement of Forest 
 Certification (PEFC) schemes 
In terms of forest acreage under certification, the Forest 
Stewardship Council and the Sustainable Forestry Initia- 
tive dominate in the United States. These two systems 
evolved from different perspectives of sustainability. The 
FSC’s guidelines are geared more to preserve natural 
systems while allowing for careful harvest, whereas 
the SFI’s guidelines are aimed at encouraging fiber 
Table 1–3. Net carbon emissions in producing a 
tonne of various materials 
Material 
Net carbon 
emissions
(kg C/t)a,b
Near-term net carbon 
emissions including 
carbon storage 
within material 
(kg C/t)c,d
Framing lumber 33 –457 
Medium-density 
fiberboard (virgin fiber) 
60 –382 
Brick 88 88 
Glass 154 154 
Recycled steel 
(100% from scrap) 
220 220 
Concrete 265 265 
Concretee 291 291 
Recycled aluminum 
(100% recycled content) 
309 309 
Steel (virgin) 694 694 
Plastic 2,502 2,502 
Aluminum (virgin) 4,532 4,532 
aValues are based on life-cycle assessment and include gathering and 
processing of raw materials, primary and secondary processing, and 
transportation.
bSource: EPA (2006). 
cFrom Bowyer and others (2008); a carbon content of 49% is assumed 
for wood. 
dThe carbon stored within wood will eventually be emitted back to the 
atmosphere at the end of the useful life of the wood product. 
eDerived based on EPA value for concrete and consideration of 
additional steps involved in making blocks.
General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190
a management plan based on strict environmental standards 
and pass an inspection by an ATFS inspecting forester. 
Third-party certification audits, conducted by firms ac-
credited by the ANSI–ASQ National Accreditation Board 
(ANAB) or the Standards Council of Canada (SCC), are 
required for all certifications of the ATFS.
Canadian Standards Association (CSA)
The Canadian Standards Association is a 
non-profit organization and has developed 
over 2,000 different standards for a vari-
ety of industries. The CSA first published 
Canada’s National Standard for Sustain-
able Forest Management (SFM) CAN/CSA-Z809 in 1996. 
The SFM program has four components: the SFM Standard 
itself, a Chain-of-Custody program, product marking, and 
the CSA International Forest Products Group, which pro-
motes the program. The CSA Standard has been adopted by 
the major industrial forestland managers in Canada. As 
of June 2007, about 60% (198 million acres) of Canadian 
forests were certified under the CAN/CSA-Z809 SFM 
Standard.
Programme for the Endorsement of 
Forest Certification (PEFC) Schemes 
The multitude of certification programs 
with competing standards and claims has 
made it difficult for land managers, mem-
bers of the wood industry, and consumers 
to determine which certification program 
fits their needs (Fernholz and others 2004). 
The Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certifica-
tion schemes was developed to address this issue and serves 
as an umbrella endorsement system that provides interna-
tional recognition for national forest certification programs. 
Founded in 1999, the PEFC represents most of the world’s 
certified forest programs and the production of millions of 
tons of certified timber. The FSC, SFI, and ATFS programs 
have received official PEFC endorsement.
Additional Information
Helpful online tools provide more information and data on 
forest certification, including the Forest Certification Re-
source Center (www.metafore.org), which identifies forests, 
manufacturers, distributors, importers, and retailers certi-
fied under FSC, SFI, and CSA programs. The database is 
searchable by product, location, and certification system. 
Another helpful resource is the Forest Products Annual 
Market Review (www.unece.org), which provides general 
and statistical information on forest products markets in 
the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe 
(UNECE) and covers the regions of Europe, North Ameri-
ca, and the Commonwealth of Independent States.
Literature Cited 
Birdsey, R.; Lewis, G. 2002. Carbon in U.S. forests and 
wood products, 1987–1997: state by state estimates. Gen. 
Tech. Rep. GTR–NE–310. Washington, DC: U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Forest Service.
Bowyer, J.; Bratkovich, S.; Lindberg, A.; Fernholz, K. 2008. 
Wood products and carbon protocols: carbon storage and 
low energy intensity should be considered. Minneapolis, 
MN: Dovetail Partners, Inc. www.dovetailinc.org. (28 April 
2008). 13 p.
Calkins, M. 2009. Materials for sustainable sites: a complete 
guide to the evaluation, selection, and use of sustainable 
construction materials. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. 
457 p.
EPA. 2006. Solid waste management and greenhouse gas-
es—a life cycle assessment of emissions and sinks. 3rd Ed. 
Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
EPA. 2007. Energy trends in selected manufacturing sectors: 
opportunities and challenges for environmentally preferable 
energy outcomes. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental 
Protection Agency, Office of Policy, Economics and Innova-
tion. (March 2007).
Fernholz, K.; Howe, J.; Guillery, P.; Bowyer, J. 2004. Be-
ginner’s guide to third-party forest certification: shining a 
light on the programme for the endorsement of forest certi-
fication schemes (PEFC). Minneapolis, MN: Dovetail Part-
ners, Inc. www.dovetailinc.org.
Fernholz, K.; Howe, J.; Guillery, P.; Bowyer, J. 2005. Be-
ginner’s guide to third-party forest certification: shining a 
light on the Canadian Standards Association (CSA). Minne-
apolis, MN: Dovetail Partners, Inc. www.dovetailinc.org. 
(18 January 2005). 10 p.
Howe, J.; Fernholz, K.; Guillery, P.; Bowyer, J. 2004. A land 
manager’s guide to FSC & SFI—to certify or not to certify: 
is that a question? Minneapolis, MN: Dovetail Partners, Inc. 
www.dovetailinc.org. (15 September 2004). 13 p.
Lippke, B.; Wilson, J.; Perez-Garcia, J.; Bowyer, J.; Meil, J. 
2004. CORRIM: life-cycle environmental performance of 
renewable building materials. Forest Products Journal. 
54(6): 13. (June 2004).
Murray, B.; Nicholson, R.; Ross, M.; Holloway, T.; Patil, S. 
2006. Biomass energy consumption in the forest products 
industry. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy; Re-
search Triangle Park, NC: RTI International. 81 p.
Negra, C.; Sweedo, C.; Cavender-Bares, K.; O’Malley, R. 
2008. Indicators of carbon storage in U.S. ecosystems: base-
line for terrestrial carbon accounting. Journal of Environ-
mental Quality. 37: 1376–1382.
1–5
Chapter 1 Wood as a Sustainable Building Material
1–6
Perez-Garcia, J.; Lippke, B.; Briggs, D.; Wilson, J.; Bowyer, 
J.;Meil, J. 2005. The environmental performance of renew-
able building materials in the context of residential con-
struction. Wood and Fiber Science. (37)12: 3–17.
Schimel, D.S.; House, J.I.; Hibbard, K.A.; Bousquet, P.; 
Ciais, P.; Peylin, P.; Braswell, B.H.; Apps, M.J.; Baker, 
D.; Bondeau, A.; Canadell, J.; Churkina, G.; Cramer, W.; 
Denning, A.S.; Field, C.B.; Friedlingstein, P.; Goodale, C.; 
Heimann, M.; Houghton, R.A.; Melillo, J.M.; Moore, B., 
III; Murdiyarso, D.; Noble, I.; Pacala, S.W.; Prentice, I.C.; 
Raupach, M.R.; Rayner, P.J.; Scholes, R.J.; Steffen, W.L.; 
Wirth, C. 2001. Recent patterns and mechanisms of carbon 
exchange by terrestrial ecosystems. Nature. 414: 169–172.
Skog, K. 2008. Sequestration of carbon in harvested wood 
products for the United States. Forest Products Journal. 
58(6): 56–72.
UNECE / FAO. 2008. Forest products annual market review 
2007–2008. Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations Economic 
Commission for Europe / Food and Agriculture Organiza-
tion. www.unece.org/trade/timber. 
General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190
CHAPTER 2
Characteristics and Availability of Commercially 
Important Woods
Michael C. Wiemann, Research Botanist
2–1
Throughout history, the unique characteristics and abun-
dance of wood have made it a natural material for homes 
and other structures, furniture, tools, vehicles, and decora-
tive objects. Today, for the same reasons, wood is prized for 
a multitude of uses.
All wood is composed of cellulose, lignin, hemicelluloses, 
and minor amounts (usually less than 10%) of extraneous 
materials contained in a cellular structure. Variations in the 
characteristics and proportions of these components and 
differences in cellular structure make woods heavy or light, 
stiff or flexible, and hard or soft. The properties of a single 
species are relatively constant within limits; therefore, selec-
tion of wood by species alone may sometimes be adequate. 
However, to use wood to its best advantage and most effec-
tively in engineering applications, specific characteristics or 
physical properties must be considered.
Historically, some species filled many purposes, whereas 
other less available or less desirable species served only 
one or two needs. For example, because white oak is tough, 
strong, and durable, it was highly prized for shipbuilding, 
bridges, cooperage, barn timbers, farm implements, railroad 
crossties, fence posts, and flooring. Woods such as black 
walnut and cherry were used primarily for furniture and 
cabinets. Hickory was manufactured into tough, hard, and 
resilient striking-tool handles, and black locust was prized 
for barn timbers. It was commonly accepted that wood from 
trees grown in certain locations under certain conditions was 
stronger, more durable, more easily worked with tools, or 
finer grained than wood from trees in other locations. Mod-
ern research on wood has substantiated that location and 
growth conditions do significantly affect wood properties.
This chapter presents brief descriptions of many species; 
current and, in many cases, historic uses are cited to illus-
trate the utility of the wood.
Gradual reductions in use of old-growth forests in the 
United States have reduced the supply of large clear logs for 
lumber and veneer. However, the importance of high-quality 
logs has diminished as new concepts of wood use have been 
introduced. Second-growth wood, the remaining old-growth 
forests, and imports continue to fill the needs for wood in 
the quality required. Wood is as valuable an engineering 
material as ever, and in many cases, technological advances 
have made it even more useful.
Inherent factors that keep wood in the forefront of raw 
materials are many and varied, but a chief attribute is its 
Contents 
Timber Resources and Uses 2–2
 Hardwoods and Softwoods 2–2
 Commercial Sources of Wood Products 2–2
 Use Classes and Trends 2–2
Species Descriptions 2–3
 U.S. Hardwoods 2–3
 U.S. Softwoods 2–11
Imported Woods 2–18 
 Imported Hardwoods 2–19
 Imported Softwoods 2–38
Scientific Name Index 2–41
 U.S. Wood Species—Hardwoods 2–41
 U.S. Wood Species—Softwoods 2–42
 Imported Woods—Hardwoods 2–43
 Imported Woods—Softwoods 2–44
Literature Cited 2–45
Additional References 2–45
2–2
Botanically, softwoods are gymnosperms or conifers; their 
seeds are not enclosed in the ovary of the flower. Ana-
tomically, softwoods are nonporous (they do not contain 
vessels). Softwoods are usually cone-bearing plants with 
needle- or scale-like evergreen leaves. Some softwoods, 
such as larches and baldcypress, lose their needles during 
autumn or winter.
Major resources of softwood species are spread across the 
United States, except for the Great Plains, where only small 
areas are forested. The hardwood resource is concentrated in 
the eastern United States, with only a few commercial spe-
cies found in Washington, Oregon, and California. Softwood 
and hardwood species of the continental United States are 
often loosely grouped in three general regions, as shown in 
Table 2–1.
Commercial Sources of Wood Products
Softwoods are available directly from sawmills, wholesale 
and retail yards, or lumber brokers. Softwood lumber and 
plywood are used in construction for forms, scaffolding, 
framing, sheathing, flooring, moulding, paneling, cabinets, 
poles and piles, and many other building components. 
Softwoods may also appear in the form of shingles, sashes, 
doors, and other millwork, in addition to some rough prod-
ucts such as timber and round posts.
Hardwoods are used in construction for flooring, architectur-
al woodwork, interior woodwork, and paneling. These items 
are usually available from lumberyards and building supply 
dealers. Most hardwood lumber and dimension stock are 
remanufactured into furniture, flooring, pallets, containers, 
dunnage, and blocking. Hardwood lumber and dimension 
stock are available directly from manufacturers, through 
wholesalers and brokers, and from some retail yards. Both 
softwood and hardwood products are distributed throughout 
the United States. Local preferences and the availability of 
certain species may influence choice, but a wide selection 
of woods is generally available for building construction, 
industrial uses, remanufacturing, and home use.
Use Classes and Trends
Major wood-based industries include those that convert 
wood to thin slices (veneer), particles (chips, flakes), or fiber 
pulps and reassemble the elements to produce various types 
of engineered panels such as plywood, particleboard, orient-
ed strandboard, laminated veneer lumber, paper, paperboard, 
and fiberboard products. Another newer wood industry is the 
production of laminated wood products. The lumber indus-
try has also produced smaller amounts of railroad crossties, 
cooperage, shingles, and shakes.
General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190
availability in many species, sizes, shapes, and conditions to 
suit almost every demand. Wood has a high ratio of strength 
to weight and a remarkable record for durability and perfor-
mance as a structural material. Dry wood has good insulat-
ing properties against heat, sound, and electricity. It tends 
to absorb and dissipate vibrations under some conditions 
of use, and yet it is an incomparable material for musical 
instruments. The grain patterns and colors of wood make 
it an esthetically pleasing material, and its appearance may 
be easily enhanced by stains, varnishes, lacquers, and other 
finishes. It is easily shaped with tools and fastened with ad-
hesives, nails, screws, bolts, and dowels. Damaged wood is 
easily repaired, and wood structures are easily remodeled or 
altered. In addition, wood resists oxidation,acid, saltwater, 
and other corrosive agents, has high salvage value, has good 
shock resistance, can be treated with preservatives and fire 
retardants, and can be combined with almost any other ma-
terial for both functional and aesthetic uses.
Timber Resources and Uses
In the United States, more than 100 wood species are avail-
able to the prospective user; about 60% of these are of major 
commercial importance. Another 30 species are commonly 
imported in the form of logs, cants, lumber, and veneer for 
industrial uses, the building trade, and crafts.
A continuing program of timber inventory is in effect in the 
United States through the cooperation of Federal and State 
agencies, and new information on wood resources is pub-
lished in State and Federal reports. Two of the most valuable 
sourcebooks are An Analysis of the Timber Situation in the 
United States: 1952 to 2050 (Haynes 2003) and The 2005 
RPA Timber Assessment Update (Haynes and others 2007). 
Current information on wood consumption, production, im-
ports, and supply and demand is published periodically by 
the Forest Products Laboratory (Howard 2007).
Hardwoods and Softwoods
Trees are divided into two broad classes, usually referred to 
as hardwoods and softwoods. These names can be confus-
ing because some softwoods are actually harder than some 
hardwoods, and conversely some hardwoods are softer than 
some softwoods. For example, softwoods such as longleaf 
pine and Douglas-fir are typically harder than the hard-
woods basswood and aspen. Botanically, hardwoods are 
angiosperms; their seeds are enclosed in the ovary of the 
flower. Anatomically, hardwoods are porous; that is, they 
contain vessel elements. A vessel element is a wood cell 
with open ends; when vessel elements are set one above an-
other, they form a continuous tube (vessel), which serves as 
a conduit for transporting water or sap in the tree. Typically, 
hardwoods are plants with broad leaves that, with few ex-
ceptions in the temperate region, lose their leaves in autumn 
or winter. Most imported tropical woods are hardwoods. 
2–3
Species Descriptions
In this chapter, each species or group of species is described 
in terms of its principal location, characteristics, and uses. 
More detailed information on the properties of these and 
other species is given in various tables throughout this 
handbook. Information on historical and traditional uses is 
provided for some species to illustrate their utility. A low-
magnification micrograph of a representative cross-section 
of each species or species group accompanies each descrip-
tion. The slides for these micrographs are from the Forest 
Products Laboratory collection. The micrographs are printed 
at magnifications of approximately 15×. Their color is a 
consequence of the stains used to accentuate anatomical fea-
tures and is not indicative of the actual wood color.
U.S. Hardwoods
Alder, Red
Red alder (Alnus rubra) 
grows along the Pacific 
coast between Alaska and 
California. It is the principal 
hardwood for commercial 
manufacture of wood 
products in Oregon and 
Washington and the most 
abundant commercial hardwood species in these two 
states.
The wood of red alder varies from almost white to pale 
pinkish brown, and there is no visible boundary between 
heartwood and sapwood. Red alder is moderately light in 
weight and intermediate in most strength properties but low 
in shock resistance. It has relatively low shrinkage.
The principal use of red alder is for furniture, but it is also 
used for sash and door panel stock and other millwork.
Ash (Black Ash Group)
The black ash group includes 
black ash (Fraxinus nigra) 
and pumpkin ash (F. profun‑
da). Black ash grows in the 
Northeast and Midwest, and 
pumpkin ash in the South.
The heartwood of black ash 
is a darker brown than that of 
American white ash; the sapwood is light-colored or nearly 
white. The wood of the black ash group is lighter in weight 
(basic specific gravity of 0.45 to 0.48) than that of the white 
ash group (basic specific gravity greater than 0.50). 
Principal uses for the black ash group are decorative veneer, 
cabinets, millwork, furniture, cooperage, and crates.
Ash (White Ash Group)
Important species of the 
white ash group are Ameri-
can white ash (Fraxinus 
americana), green ash 
(F. pennsylvanica), blue 
ash (F. quadrangulata), and 
Oregon ash (F. latifolia). 
The first three species grow 
in the eastern half of the United States. Oregon ash grows 
along the Pacific Coast.
The heartwood of the white ash group is brown, and the 
sapwood is light-colored or nearly white. Second-growth 
trees are particularly sought after because of the inherent 
qualities of the wood from these trees: it is heavy, strong, 
hard, and stiff, and it has high resistance to shock. Oregon 
ash has somewhat lower strength properties than American 
Table 2–1. Major resources of U.S. woods according to 
region 
Western 
Northern 
and Appalachian Southern
Hardwoods 
Alder, red Ash Ash 
Ash, Oregon Aspen Basswood 
Aspen Basswood Beech 
Birch, paper Beech Butternut 
Cottonwood Birch Cottonwood 
Maple, bigleaf Buckeye Elm 
Oak, California black Butternut Hackberry 
Oak, Oregon white Cherry Hickory 
Tanoak Cottonwood Honeylocust 
 Elm Locust, black 
 Hackberry Magnolia 
 Hickory Maple, soft 
 Honeylocust Oak, red and white 
 Locust, black Sassafras 
 Maple, hard Sweetgum 
 Maple, soft Sycamore 
 Oak, red and white Tupelo 
 Sycamore Walnut 
 Walnut Willow 
 Yellow-poplar Yellow-poplar 
Softwoods 
Douglas-fir Cedar, northern white Baldcypress 
Fir, western Fir, balsam Cedar, Atlantic white
Hemlock, western 
 and mountain 
Hemlock, eastern 
Pine, eastern white 
Fir, Fraser 
Pine, southern 
Incense-cedar Pine, Jack Redcedar, eastern 
Larch, western Pine, red 
Pine, lodgepole Redcedar, eastern 
Pine, ponderosa Spruce, eastern 
Pine, sugar Tamarack 
Pine, western white 
Port-Orford-cedar 
Redcedar, western 
Redwood 
Spruce, Engelmann 
Spruce, Sitka 
Yellow-cedar 
Chapter 2 Characteristics and Availability of Commercially Important Woods
2–4
of either species. Basswood grows in the eastern half of 
North America from the Canadian provinces southward. 
Most basswood lumber comes from the Lake, Middle At-
lantic, and Central States.
The heartwood of basswood is pale yellowish brown with 
occasional darker streaks. Basswood has wide, creamy 
white or pale brown sapwood that merges gradually into 
heartwood. When dry, the wood is without odor or taste. 
It is soft and light in weight, has fine, even texture, and is 
straight grained and easy to work with tools. Shrinkage in 
width and thickness during drying is rated as high; however, 
basswood seldom warps in use.
Basswood lumber is used mainly in venetian blinds, sashes 
and door frames, moulding, apiary supplies, wooden ware, 
and boxes. Some basswood is cut for veneer, cooperage, ex-
celsior, and pulpwood, and it is a favorite of wood carvers.
Beech, American
Only one species of 
beech, American beech 
(Fagus grandifolia), is 
native to the United States. 
It grows in the eastern 
one-third of the United 
States and adjacent 
Canadian provinces. 
The greatest production 
of beech lumber is in the Central and Middle Atlantic 
States.
In some beech trees, color varies from nearly white sap-
wood to reddish-brown heartwood. Sometimes there is no 
clear line of demarcation between heartwood and sapwood. 
Sapwood may be roughly 7 to 13 cm (3 to 5 in.) wide. The 
wood has little figure and is of close, uniform texture. It has 
no characteristic taste or odor. The wood of beech is classed 
as heavy, hard, strong, high in resistance to shock, and high-
ly suitable for steam bending. Beech shrinks substantially 
and therefore requirescareful drying. It machines smoothly, 
is an excellent wood for turning, wears well, and is rather 
easily treated with preservatives.
Most beech is used for flooring, furniture, brush blocks, 
handles, veneer, woodenware, containers, and cooperage. 
When treated with preservative, beech is suitable for rail-
way ties.
Birch
The three most important 
species are yellow birch 
(Betula alleghaniensis), 
sweet birch (B. lenta), and 
paper birch (B. papyrifera). 
These three species are the 
source of most birch lumber 
and veneer. Other birch 
species of some commercial 
white ash, but it is used for similar purposes on the West 
Coast.
American white ash (F. americana) and green ash (F. penn‑
sylvanica) that grow in southern river bottoms, especially 
in areas frequently flooded for long periods, produce but-
tresses that contain relatively lightweight and brash wood.
American white ash is used principally for nonstriking tool 
handles, oars, baseball bats, and other sporting and athletic 
goods. For handles of the best grade, some handle specifi-
cations call for not less than 2 nor more than 7 growth rings 
per centimeter (not less than 5 nor more than 17 growth 
rings per inch). The additional weight requirement of 
690 kg m–3 (43 lb ft–3) or more at 12% moisture content 
ensures high-quality material. Principal uses for the white 
ash group are decorative veneer, cabinets, furniture, floor-
ing, millwork, and crates.
Aspen
Aspen is a generally 
recognized name that is 
applied to bigtooth 
(Populus grandidentata) 
and quaking (P. tremuloides) 
aspen. Aspen lumber 
is produced principally in 
the northeastern and Lake 
States, with some production 
 in the Rocky Mountain States.
The heartwood of aspen is grayish white to light gray-
ish brown. The sapwood is lighter colored and generally 
merges gradually into the heartwood without being clearly 
marked. Aspen wood is usually straight grained with a 
fine, uniform texture. It is easily worked. Well-dried aspen 
lumber does not impart odor or flavor to foodstuffs. The 
wood of aspen is lightweight and soft. It is low in strength, 
moderately stiff, and moderately low in resistance to shock 
and has moderately high shrinkage.
Aspen is cut for lumber, pallets, boxes and crating, pulp-
wood, particleboard, strand panels, excelsior, matches, ve-
neer, and miscellaneous turned articles. Today, aspen 
is one of the preferred species for use in oriented 
strandboard, a panel product that dominates the sheathing 
market.
Basswood
American basswood (Tilia 
americana) is the most 
important of the native 
basswood species; next in 
importance is white bass-
wood (T. heterophylla), 
and no attempt is made 
to distinguish between 
these species in lumber form. In commercial usage, “white 
basswood” is used to specify the white wood or sapwood 
General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190
2–5
importance are river birch (B. nigra), and gray birch 
(B. populifolia). Paper birch is transcontinental, whereas 
yellow and sweet birch grow principally in the North- 
east and the Lake States; yellow and sweet birch also 
grow along the Appalachian Mountains to northern 
Georgia.
Yellow birch has white sapwood and light reddish-brown 
heartwood. Sweet birch has light-colored sapwood and 
dark brown heartwood tinged with red. For both yellow and 
sweet birch, the wood is heavy, hard, and strong, and has 
good shock-resisting ability. The wood is fine and uniform 
in texture. Paper birch is lower in weight, softer, and lower 
in strength than yellow and sweet birch. Birch shrinks con-
siderably during drying.
Yellow and sweet birch lumber is used primarily for the 
manufacture of furniture, boxes, baskets, crates, wooden 
ware, cooperage, interior woodwork, and doors; veneer 
plywood is used for doors, furniture, paneling, cabinets, 
aircraft, and other specialty uses. Paper birch is used for 
toothpicks, tongue depressors, ice cream sticks, and turned 
products, including spools, bobbins, small handles, and 
toys.
Buckeye
Buckeye consists of two spe-
cies, yellow buckeye (Aes‑
culus octandra) and Ohio 
buckeye (A. glabra). These 
species range from the Ap-
palachians of Pennsylvania, 
Virginia, and North Carolina 
westward to Kansas, Okla-
homa, and Texas. Buckeye is 
not customarily separated from other species when manu-
factured into lumber and can be used for the same purposes 
as aspen (Populus), basswood (Tilia), and sapwood of 
yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera).
The white sapwood of buckeye merges gradually into the 
creamy or yellowish white heartwood. The wood is uniform 
in texture, generally straight grained, light in weight, soft, 
and low in shock resistance. It is rated low on machinability 
such as shaping, mortising, boring, and turning.
Buckeye is suitable for pulping for paper; in lumber form, 
it has been used principally for furniture, boxes and crates, 
food containers, wooden ware, novelties, and planing mill 
products.
Butternut
Also called white walnut, 
butternut (Juglans cinerea) 
grows from southern New 
Brunswick and Maine west 
to Minnesota. Its southern 
range extends into northeast-
ern Arkansas and eastward 
to western North Carolina.
The narrow sapwood is nearly white and the heartwood is 
light brown, frequently modified by pinkish tones or darker 
brown streaks. The wood is moderately light in weight, 
rather coarse textured, moderately weak in bending and 
endwise compression, relatively low in stiffness, moderate-
ly soft, and moderately high in shock resistance. Butternut 
machines easily and finishes well. In many ways, butternut 
resembles black walnut, especially when stained, but it does 
not have the same strength or hardness.
Principal uses are for lumber and veneer, which are further 
manufactured into furniture, cabinets, paneling, interior 
woodwork, and miscellaneous rough items.
Cherry, Black
Black cherry (Prunus sero‑
tina) is sometimes known 
as cherry, wild black cherry, 
and wild cherry. It is the 
only native species of the 
genus Prunus that produces 
commercial lumber. Black 
cherry is found from south-
eastern Canada throughout the eastern half of the United 
States. Production is centered chiefly in the Middle Atlantic 
States.
The heartwood of black cherry varies from light to dark 
reddish brown and has a distinctive luster. The nearly white 
sapwood is narrow in old-growth trees and wider in second-
growth trees. The wood has a fairly uniform texture and 
very good machining properties. It is moderately heavy, 
strong, stiff, and moderately hard, with high shock resis-
tance. Although it has moderately high shrinkage, it is very 
dimensionally stable after drying.
Black cherry is used principally for furniture, fine veneer 
panels, and architectural woodwork. Other uses include 
burial caskets, wooden ware, novelties, patterns, and 
paneling.
Chestnut, American
American chestnut (Casta‑
nea dentata) is also known 
as sweet chestnut. Before 
this species was attacked by 
a blight in the 1920s, it grew 
in commercial quantities 
from New England to north-
ern Georgia. Practically all 
standing chestnut has been killed by blight, and most sup-
plies of the lumber come from salvaged timbers. Because 
of the species’ natural resistance to decay, standing dead 
trees in the Appalachian Mountains continued to provide 
substantial quantities of lumber for several decades after the 
blight, but this source is now exhausted.
The heartwood of chestnut is grayish brown or brown and 
darkens with age. The sapwood is very narrow and almost 
Chapter 2 Characteristics and Availability of Commercially Important Woods
2–6
September (U. serotina) elm. American elm is also known 
as white elm, slippery elm as redelm, rock elm as cork 
elm, and winged elm as wahoo. American elm is threatened 
by two diseases, Dutch Elm disease and phloem necrosis, 
which have killed hundreds of thousands of trees.
Sapwood of elm is nearly white and heartwood light brown, 
often tinged with red. Elm may be divided into two general 
classes, soft and hard, based on the weight and strength of 
the wood. Soft elm includes American and slippery elm. 
It is moderately heavy, has high shock resistance, and is 
moderately hard and stiff. Hard elm includes rock, winged, 
cedar, and September elm. These species are somewhat 
heavier than soft elm. Elm has excellent bending qualities.
Historically, elm lumber was used for boxes, baskets, 
crates, slack cooperage, furniture, agricultural supplies and 
implements, caskets and burial boxes, and wood compo-
nents in vehicles. Today, elm lumber and veneer are used 
mostly for furniture and decorative panels. Hard elm is pre-
ferred for uses that require strength.
Hackberry
Hackberry (Celtis occi‑
dentalis) and sugarberry 
(C. laevigata) supply the 
lumber known in the trade 
as hackberry. Hackberry 
grows east of the Great 
Plains from Alabama, Geor-
gia, Arkansas, and Oklaho-
ma northward, except along the Canadian boundary. Sugar-
berry overlaps the southern part of the hackberry range and 
grows throughout the Southern and South Atlantic States.
Sapwood of both species varies from pale yellow to green-
ish or grayish yellow. The heartwood is commonly darker. 
The wood resembles elm in structure. Hackberry lumber is 
moderately heavy. It is moderately strong in bending, mod-
erately weak in compression parallel to grain, moderately 
hard to very hard, and high in shock resistance, but low in 
stiffness. Hackberry has high shrinkage but keeps its shape 
well during drying.
Most hackberry is cut into lumber; small amounts are used 
for furniture parts, dimension stock, and veneer.
Hickory (Pecan Hickory Group)
Species of the pecan hick-
ory group include bitternut 
hickory (Carya cordifor‑
mis), pecan hickory 
(C. illinoensis), water 
hickory (C. aquatica), 
and nutmeg hickory 
(C. myristiciformis). Bitter-
nut hickory grows through-
out the eastern half of the United States; pecan hickory, 
from central Texas and Louisiana to Missouri and Indiana; 
white. The wood is coarse in texture; growth rings are made 
conspicuous by several rows of large, distinct pores at the 
beginning of each year’s growth. Chestnut wood is moder-
ately light in weight, moderately hard, moderately low in 
strength, moderately low in resistance to shock, and low in 
stiffness. It dries well and is easy to work with tools.
Chestnut was once used for flooring, poles, railroad cross-
ties, furniture, caskets, boxes, shingles, crates, and core-
stock for veneer panels. At present, it appears most fre-
quently as wormy chestnut for paneling, interior woodwork, 
and picture frames.
Cottonwood
Cottonwood includes sev-
eral species of the genus 
Populus. Most important are 
eastern cottonwood (P. del‑
toides and its varieties), also 
known as Carolina poplar 
and whitewood; swamp cot-
tonwood (P. heterophylla), 
also known as river cottonwood and swamp poplar; black 
cottonwood (P. trichocarpa); and balsam poplar (P. balsam‑
ifera). Eastern and swamp cottonwood grow throughout 
the eastern half of the United States. Greatest production 
of lumber is in the Southern and Central States. Black cot-
tonwood grows on the West Coast and in western Montana, 
northern Idaho, and western Nevada. Balsam poplar grows 
from Alaska across Canada and in the northern Great Lakes 
States.
The heartwood of cottonwood is grayish white to light 
brown. The sapwood is whitish and merges gradually with 
the heartwood. The wood is comparatively uniform in tex-
ture and generally straight grained. It is odorless when well 
dried. Eastern cottonwood is moderately low in bending 
and compressive strength, moderately stiff, moderately soft, 
and moderately low in ability to resist shock. Most strength 
properties of black cottonwood are slightly lower than those 
of eastern cottonwood. Both eastern and black cottonwood 
have moderately high shrinkage. Some cottonwood is dif-
ficult to work with tools because of its fuzzy surface, which 
is mainly the result of tension wood.
Cottonwood is used principally for lumber, veneer, pulp-
wood, excelsior, and fuel. Lumber and veneer are used pri-
marily for boxes, crates, baskets, and pallets.
Elm
Six species of elm grow 
in the eastern United 
States: American (Ulmus 
americana), slippery 
(U. rubra), rock (U. thoma‑
sii), winged (U. alata), 
cedar (U. crassifolia), and 
General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190
2–7
water hickory, from Texas to South Carolina; and nutmeg 
hickory, in Texas and Louisiana.
The sapwood of this group is white or nearly white and rel-
atively wide. The heartwood is somewhat darker. The wood 
is heavy and sometimes has very high shrinkage.
Heavy pecan hickory is used for tool and implement 
handles and flooring. The lower grades are used for pallets. 
Many higher grade logs are sliced to provide veneer for fur-
niture and decorative paneling.
Hickory (True Hickory Group)
True hickories are found 
throughout the eastern half 
of the United States. The 
species most important 
commercially are shagbark 
(Carya ovata), pignut 
(C. glabra), shellbark 
(C. laciniosa), and mock-
ernut (C. tomentosa). The greatest commercial production 
of the true hickories for all uses is in the Middle Atlantic 
and Central States, with the Southern and South Atlantic 
States rapidly expanding to handle nearly half of all hickory 
lumber.
The sapwood of the true hickory group is white and usu-
ally quite wide, except in old, slow-growing trees. The 
heartwood is reddish. The wood is exceptionally tough, 
heavy, hard, and strong, and shrinks considerably in drying. 
For some purposes, both rings per centimeter (or inch) and 
weight are limiting factors where strength is important.
The major use for high quality hickory is for tool handles 
that require high shock resistance. It is also used for lad-
der rungs, athletic goods, agricultural implements, dowels, 
gymnasium apparatuses, poles, and furniture. Lower grade 
hickory is not suitable for the special uses of high quality 
hickory because of knottiness or other growth features and 
low density. However, the lower grade is useful for pallets 
and similar items. Hickory sawdust, chips, and some solid 
wood are used to flavor meat by smoking.
Honeylocust
The wood of honeylocust 
(Gleditsia triacanthos) has 
many desirable qualities, 
such as attractive figure 
and color, hardness, and 
strength, but it is little used 
because of its scarcity. This 
species is found most com-
monly in the eastern United States, except for New England 
and the South Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains.
Sapwood is generally wide and yellowish, in contrast to the 
light red to reddish-brown heartwood. The wood is very 
heavy, very hard, strong in bending, stiff, resistant to shock, 
and durable when in contact with the ground.
When available, honeylocust is primarily used locally for 
fence posts and general construction. It is occasionally used 
with other species in lumber for pallets and crating.
Locust, Black
Black locust (Robinia 
pseudoacacia) is some-
times called yellow locust. 
This species grows from 
Pennsylvania along the 
Appalachian Mountains 
to northern Georgia and 
Alabama. It is also native 
to western Arkansas and 
southern Missouri. The greatest production of black locust 
timber is in Tennessee, Kentucky, West Virginia, and 
Virginia.
Locust has narrow, creamy white sapwood. The heartwood, 
when freshly cut, varies from greenish yellow to dark 
brown. Black locust is very heavy, very hard, very resistantto shock, and very strong and stiff. It has moderately low 
shrinkage. The heartwood has high decay resistance.
Black locust is used for round, hewn, or split mine timbers 
as well as fence posts, poles, railroad crossties, stakes, and 
fuel. Other uses are for rough construction and crating. 
Historically, black locust was important for the manufacture 
of insulator pins and wooden pegs used in the construction 
of ships, for which the wood was well adapted because of 
its strength, decay resistance, and moderate shrinkage and 
swelling.
Magnolia
Commercial magnolia 
consists of three species: 
southern magnolia (Mag‑
nolia grandiflora), sweet-
bay (M. virginiana), 
and cucumbertree 
(M. acuminata). Other 
names for southern 
magnolia are evergreen 
magnolia, big laurel, and bull bay. Sweetbay is sometimes 
called swamp magnolia. The lumber produced by all three 
species is simply called magnolia. The natural range of 
sweetbay extends along the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts from 
Long Island to Texas, and that of southern magnolia ex-
tends from North Carolina to Texas. Cucumbertree grows 
from the Appalachians to the Ozarks northward to Ohio. 
Louisiana leads in the production of magnolia lumber.
Sapwood of southern magnolia is yellowish white, and 
heartwood is light to dark brown with a tinge of yellow or 
green. The wood, which has close, uniform texture and is 
Chapter 2 Characteristics and Availability of Commercially Important Woods
2–8
Heartwood and sapwood are similar in appearance to hard 
maple. Heartwood of soft maple is somewhat lighter in 
color than the sapwood and somewhat wider. The wood of 
soft maple, primarily silver and red maple, resembles that 
of hard maple but is not as heavy, hard, and strong.
Soft maple is used for railroad crossties, boxes, pallets, 
crates, furniture, veneer, wooden ware, and novelties.
Oak, Live
See Oak (Tropical)
Oak (Red Oak Group)
Most red oak comes 
from the Eastern States. 
The principal species are 
northern red (Quercus ru‑
bra), scarlet (Q. coccinea), 
Shumard (Q. shumardii), 
pin (Q. palustris), Nuttall 
(Q. nuttallii), black 
(Q. velutina), southern 
red (Q. falcata), cherrybark (Q. falcata var. pagodaefolia), 
water (Q. nigra), laurel (Q. laurifolia), and willow (Q. phel‑
los) oak.
The sapwood is nearly white and roughly 2 to 5 cm (1 to 
2 in.) wide. The heartwood is brown with a tinge of red. 
Sawn lumber of the red oak group cannot be separated by 
species on the basis of wood characteristics alone. Red oak 
lumber can be separated from white oak by the size and 
arrangement of pores in latewood and because it generally 
lacks tyloses in the pores. The open pores of red oak make 
this species group unsuitable for tight cooperage, unless the 
barrels are lined with sealer or plastic. Quartersawn lumber 
of the oaks is distinguished by its broad and conspicuous 
rays. Wood of the red oaks is heavy. Rapidly grown second-
growth wood is generally harder and tougher than finer 
textured old-growth wood. The red oaks have fairly high 
shrinkage upon drying.
The red oaks are primarily cut into lumber, railroad cross-
ties, mine timbers, fence posts, veneer, pulpwood, and 
fuelwood. Ties, mine timbers, and fence posts require pre-
servative treatment for satisfactory service. Red oak lumber 
is remanufactured into flooring, furniture, general millwork, 
boxes, pallets and crates, agricultural implements, caskets, 
wooden ware, and handles. It is also used in railroad cars 
and boats.
Oak (White Oak Group)
White oak lumber comes 
chiefly from the South, 
South Atlantic, and Cen-
tral States, including the 
southern Appalachian 
area. Principal species 
are white (Quercus alba), 
generally straight grained, closely resembles yellow-poplar 
(Liriodendron tulipifera). It is moderately heavy, moder-
ately low in shrinkage, moderately low in bending and com-
pressive strength, moderately hard and stiff, and moderately 
high in shock resistance. Sweetbay is much like southern 
magnolia. The wood of cucumbertree is similar to that of 
yellow-poplar (L. tulipifera). Cucumbertree that grows in 
the yellow-poplar range is not separated from that species 
on the market.
Magnolia lumber is used principally in the manufacture of 
furniture, boxes, pallets, venetian blinds, sashes, doors, ve-
neer, and millwork.
Maple (Hard Maple Group)
Hard maple includes 
sugar maple (Acer sac‑
charum) and black maple 
(A. nigrum). Sugar maple 
is also known as rock 
maple, and black maple 
as black sugar maple. 
Maple lumber is manu-
factured principally in 
the Middle Atlantic and Great Lake States, which together 
account for about two-thirds of production.
The heartwood is usually light reddish brown but some-
times considerably darker. The sapwood is commonly white 
with a slight reddish-brown tinge. It is usually 8 to 12 cm 
(3 to 5 in.) wide. Hard maple has a fine, uniform texture. 
It is heavy, strong, stiff, hard, and resistant to shock and 
has high shrinkage. The grain of sugar maple is generally 
straight, but birdseye, curly, or fiddleback grain is often se-
lected for furniture or novelty items.
Hard maple is used principally for lumber and veneer. A 
large proportion is manufactured into flooring, furniture, 
cabinets, cutting boards and blocks, pianos, billiard cues, 
handles, novelties, bowling alleys, dance and gymnasium 
floors, spools, and bobbins.
Maple (Soft Maple Group)
Soft maple includes silver 
maple (Acer sacchari‑
num), red maple 
(A. rubrum), boxelder 
(A. negundo), and bigleaf 
maple (A. macrophyl‑
lum). Silver maple is also 
known as white, river, 
water, and swamp maple; 
red maple as soft, water, scarlet, white, and swamp maple; 
boxelder as ash-leaved, three-leaved, and cut-leaved maple; 
and bigleaf maple as Oregon maple. Soft maple is found in 
the eastern United States except for bigleaf maple, which 
comes from the Pacific Coast.
General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190
2–9
chestnut (Q. prinus), post (Q. stellata), overcup (Q. lyrata), 
swamp chestnut (Q. michauxii), bur (Q. macrocarpa), 
chinkapin (Q. muehlenbergii), and swamp white 
(Q. bicolor). The most important western oak species, Or-
egon white oak (Q. garryana), is a member of this group.
The sapwood of the white oaks is nearly white and roughly 
2 to 5 cm (1 to 2 in.) wide. The heartwood is generally 
grayish brown. Heartwood pores are usually plugged with 
tyloses, which tend to make the wood impenetrable to liq-
uids. Consequently, most white oaks are suitable for tight 
cooperage, although many heartwood pores of chestnut oak 
lack tyloses. The wood of white oak is somewhat heavier 
than the wood of red oak. Its heartwood has good decay 
resistance.
White oaks are usually cut into lumber, railroad crossties, 
cooperage, mine timbers, fence posts, veneer, fuelwood, 
and many other products. High-quality white oak is es-
pecially sought for tight cooperage. An important use of 
white oak is for planking and bent parts of ships and boats; 
heartwood is often specified because of its decay resistance. 
White oak is also used for furniture, flooring, pallets, agri-
cultural implements, railroad cars, truck floors, furniture, 
doors, and millwork.
Sassafras
Sassafras (Sassafras albi‑
dum) ranges from south-
eastern Iowa and eastern 
Texas eastward. Sassafras 
is easily confused with 
black ash, which it re-
sembles in color, grain, 
and texture. Sapwood is 
light yellow, and heartwood varies from dull grayish brown 
to dark brown, sometimes with a reddish tinge. Freshly cut 
surfaces have a characteristic odor. The wood is moderately 
heavy, moderately hard, moderately weak in bending and 
endwise compression, quite high in shock resistance, and 
resistant to decay.
Sassafras was highly prized by the native Americans for 
dugout canoes, and some