Fonética e fonologia da língua inglesa conteúdo online 2017

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Lesson 1, O caráter científico do estudo da fonética e fonologia. 
 
Ao final desta aula, o aluno será capaz de: 
 
1. Conhecer os aspectos e as particularidades do inglês quando oralmente utilizado pelos falantes. (Know the aspects 
and peculiarities of the English language when orally used by the speakers); 
2. Compreender a sistematização e a construção de um arcabouço teórico que permita a investigação minuciosa da 
manifestação sonora da língua. (Understand the systematizations and the construction of a theoretical understructure 
that allows a detailed sound manifestation of the language). 
 
Activity 
Now, state the words that have the same written group of the letters but sound differently: E.g.: tough and 
bough1 /baʊ/ and cough and dough2 /doʊ/ they all have -ough, but they sound differently 
 
SAY THIS IN ENGLISH 
I take it you already know 
Of tough and bough and cough and dough? 
others may stumble, but not you 
On hiccough /ˈhɪk.ʌp/, thorough, slough3 /slʌf/, and through? 
Well done! And now you wish, perhaps 
To learn of less familiar traps? 
Beware of heard, a dreadful word 
That looks like beard and sounds like bird. 
And dead; it's said like bed, not bead4 /biːd/; 
 
Objetivo da Questão: Levar o aluno a reflexão sobre o sistema fonológico do inglês quanto a fonemas e 
grafemas, de forma a atentar para as diferenças entre escrita e fala, além de tecer algumas considerações 
sobre o problema da pronuncia de uma língua estrangeira. (Lead the student to reflect about the English 
phonological system as for phonemes and graphemes, in a way to notice the differences between writing 
and speaking, besides weaving some considerations about the pronunciation problem that involves a foreign 
language) 
Posição: início da unidade (Position: at the beginning of the unit) 
 
Answer 
 
Hiccough X thorough X slough X through 
Heard X beard 
dead X bead; 
meat X great X threat 
moth X mother 
both X bother X broth5 
here X there 
dear X bear (dear X pear) 
fear X pear (fear X bear) 
 
1 Literary a large branch of a tree 
2 a thick mixture of flour and liquid used to make foods such as bread and pastry: massa 
3 biology (of some animals) to have a layer of skin come off: Snakes slough their skin regularly. 
4 a small, round ball of glass, plastic, or wood that is used for making jewellery 
5 /brɑːθ/ a thin soup, often with vegetables or rice in it = caldo 
6 /θwɔrt/to prevent someone from doing what they have planned to do 
dose X rose X lose 
goose X choose. 
cork X work 
card X ward /wɔrd/ 
font X front 
word X sword 
do X go 
thwart6 X cart. 
 
Without communicative intent, pronunciation is not true speech; it is not more than the manipulation 
/məˌnɪp.jəˈleɪ.ʃən/ of linguistic forms. The basic process whereby one learns to pronounce English, or any 
other language, is by imitating the pronunciation of those who speak the language natively. Direct imitation is 
most effective, but circumstances often make second-hand, indirect imitation necessary. And the imitation is 
also most effective if it takes place under conditions that approach as nearly as possible those of normal 
communication. Analyzing how sounds are produced is helpful but not basic. 
 
Phonetics and Phonology 
• Phonetics: 
Phonetics is the scientific study of speech. It has a long history, going back certainly to well over two thousand 
years ago. The central concerns in phonetics are the discovery of how speech sounds are produced, how they 
are used in spoken language, how we can record speech sounds with written symbols and how we hear and 
recognize different sounds. 
• Phonology 
The most basic activity in phonology is phonemic /foʊˈniː.mɪk, fə-/ analysis, in which the objective is to 
establish what the phonemes are and arrive at the phonemic inventory of the language. For some 
phonologists, the most important area is the relationships between the different phonemes - how they form 
groups, the nature of the oppositions between them and how those oppositions may be neutralized. 
 
Phoneme and Grapheme 
Phoneme /ˈfoʊ.niːm/ is the smallest unit of sound in a language that serves to distinguish two words. 
 
Virtually all theories of phonology hold that spoken language can be broken down into a string of sound units 
(phonemes), and that each language has a small, relatively fixed set of these phonemes. 
 
Most phonemes can be put into groups; for example, in English we can identify a group of plosive7 / ˈploʊ.sɪv/ 
phonemes p, t, k, b, d, g, a group of voiceless fricatives8 /ˈfrɪk.ə.t̬ɪv/ f, θ, s, h, and so on. 
 
EXEMPLE 1 
/pɪt/ pit and /bɪt/ bit are different words with different meanings. The only distinction relies on the manner of 
articulation of the bilabial9 /ˌbaɪˈleɪ.bi.əl/ consonant. Therefore /p/ and /b/ are different phonemes in English. 
Coincidentally /koʊˌɪn·sɪˈden·təl·i/ in Portuguese the bilabial consonant can also be realized in different ways to 
produce two different phonemes (ex: pico and bico). 
 
 EXEMPLE 2 
/biyt/ beet and /bɪt/ bit are also different words with different meanings. The only distinction relies on the 
manner of articulation of these high-front vowels. Therefore /iy/ and /ɪ/ are different phonemes in 
English. 
In Portuguese, however there is only one high-front vowel phoneme, as in vida or linda. Any variation in the 
highness or frontness of this vowel will be perceived simply as variations of the same phoneme. 
 
Conclusion: Different languages have different phonemes and have them in different numbers. In other 
words, they use different phonological matrixes. 
 
Graphemes /ˈɡræf.iːmz/ are the smallest units in a writing system capable of causing a contrast in meaning. 
There are about 40 distinctive phonemes in English, but 70 letters or letter combinations to symbolize 
phonemes. This makes pronouncing spellings easier than writing correct spellings. 
 
 
7 Specialized a consonant sound that is made by stopping air flowing out of the mouth, and then suddenly releasing it 
8 Specialized a consonant sound that is made by forcing air through a narrow space 
9 Specialized (of a sound) made using both lips 
Dialect and Accent 
 
It is usual to distinguish between dialect and accent. Both terms are used to identify different varieties of a 
particular language, but the word ‘accent’ is used for varieties which differ from each other only in matters of 
pronunciation while ‘dialect’ also covers differences in such things as vocabulary and grammar. 
Accents typically differ in quality of voice, pronunciation of vowels and consonants, stress, and prosody 
/ˈprɑː.sə.di, -zə-/. Although grammar, semantics, vocabulary, and other language characteristics often vary 
concurrently10 /kənˈkʌr.əntli/ with accent, the word 'accent' refers specifically to the differences in 
pronunciation, whereas the word 'dialect' encompasses the broader set of linguistic differences. Often 'accent' 
is a subset /ˈsʌb.set/ of 'dialect'. 
 
Craig M. Carver shows about two dozen dialect regions in the US, based mainly on vocabulary, in his 
American Regional Dialects. Peter Trudgill /ˈtrʌd.ɡɪl/, in his Dialects of England, shows sixteen modern dialect 
regions in England, based on grammar, vocabulary, and accent (there are more in Wales, Scotland and 
Ireland). Trudgill, in International English, breaks the US into 8 accent areas, and these coincide well with 
Carver’s delineations /dɪˌlɪn.iˈeɪ.ʃənz/. 
 
The dialects of the United States 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
British dialects 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
10 happening or existing at the same time 
Carver and Trudgill both stress that dialect regions are merely convenientrepresentations of a language 
continuum /kənˈtɪn.ju.əm/, where language differences grow the farther apart they are, especially across the 
more distinct boundaries. 
 
Studies show that 99% of American is used in pretty much the same way, the remainder [rest] / rɪˈmeɪn.dər/ 
flavoring the different regions. The interregional differences in England run much deeper despite its small size, 
since it has developed over a period about four times as long, and had significant input from other languages 
(Latin, Norse11 with the Viking invasions, French with the Norman invasion, and more Latin and Greek with the 
industrial and scientific revolutions). 
 
You should be proud of having an accent or not? 
We’d like to discuss “foreign accents” in general. Webster’s Dictionary defines accent as “speech habits typical 
of the natives of a region.” SO – we all have accents!!! 
 
You should be proud of having an accent. In fact, there are advantages to having one. YES, we said 
advantages! A foreign accent tells listeners that you speak at least TWO languages. That certainly puts you far 
ahead of a person who can speak only one language. The world would be very dull if we all sounded the same. 
After all, VARIETY IS THE SPICE OF LIFE!!!!! 
 
Unfortunately, there is a disadvantage to having a foreign accent. It may hinder affective communication in 
your non-native language and cause you to be misunderstood. 
 
You have probably discovered that there is a big difference between the way words are spelled in English and 
how they are pronounced. For example, the letters “ch” are used to represent three different sounds: machine 
chain mechanic. 
 
Pretty confusing, right? That’s why we need to study. 
 
Social Class and Accent 
Social structure of the United Kingdom 
The social structure of the United Kingdom has historically been highly influenced by the concept of social 
class, with the concept still affecting British society in the early-21st century. Although definitions of social class 
in the United Kingdom vary and are highly controversial, most are influenced by factors of wealth, occupation 
and education. 
 
Until recently the Parliament of the United Kingdom was organized on a class basis, with the House of Lords 
representing the hereditary /həˈred.ɪ.ter.i/ upper class and the House of Commons representing everyone else, 
and the British monarch is often viewed as being at the top of the social class structure. 
 
Accents within England 
• RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION (RP) 
• COCKNEY ENGLISH 
• ESTUARY12 ENGLISH (EE) 
• QUEEN’S ENGLISH 
 
Received Pronunciation (RP) 
There seems to be some disagreement as to the origins of the term ‘received’ in the phrase, ‘Received 
Pronunciation’ but both A.J. Ellis’ on Early English Pronunciation, 1869-1889, as well as John Walker’s Critical 
Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor /ɪkˈspɑː.zə.t̬ər/ of the English Language of 1791 are among the 
 
11 the Norwegian language, especially in an ancient form, or the Scandinavian language group 
12 ˈes.tʃu.er.i 
possibilities for its early appearance. Regardless of its exact origins, the term ‘received’ originally meant ‘that 
which is generally accepted’ or ‘that accepted by the best society.’ 
 
RP has for many years epitomized13 /ɪˈpɪt̬.ə.maɪzd/ the ‘top end of the scale’ of British English and it is what 
English people have traditionally meant when they’ve said that someone ‘hasn’t got an accent.’ It remains that 
RP is often regarded as a ‘neutral’ and often ‘correct’ accent. It is also referred to under the terms ‘BBC 
English’, ‘Public School English’ or even ‘Standard English’. 
 
RP is also the accent that Americans and possibly other foreigners would likely refer to as the typical British 
accent. It should also be noted that there is no single accent whose role and status in the United States 
correspond to that of RP in England. 
 
A number of distinctions even within RP have, over the years, been proposed by various linguists. These 
include ‘Mainstream’ RP, ‘Upper crust RP’, ‘Adoptive RP’, ‘Near RP’, ‘Conservative RP’, and ‘General RP’. 
Regardless of the differences within RP, it is an accent commonly recognized and one that has been taught as 
the standard English in schools for years. 
 
Cockney English 
Cockney represents the basilectal /ˈbæz.ɪ.lektᵊl/ [A less prestigious dialect or variety of a particular language] end of 
the London accent and can be considered the broadest form of London local accent. It traditionally refers only 
to specific regions and speakers within the city. While many Londoners may speak what is referred to as 
‘popular London’ they do not necessarily speak Cockney. The popular Londoner accent can be distinguished 
from Cockney in a number of ways, and can also be found outside of the capital, unlike the true Cockney 
accent. 
 
Does the term Cockney refer to both the accent as well as to those people who speak it? The etymology of 
Cockney has long been discussed and disputed. One explanation is that ‘Cockney’ literally means cock's egg, 
a misshapen egg such as sometimes laid by young hens. It was originally used when referring to a weak 
townsman, opposed to the tougher countryman and by the 17th century the term, through banter [uk /ˈbæn.tər/ us 
/-tɚ̬/conversation that is funny and not serious], came to mean a Londoner (Liberman, 1996). Today's natives of London, 
especially in its East End use the term with respect and pride (‘Cockney Pride’). 
 
Cockney is characterized by its own special vocabulary and usage, and traditionally by its own development of 
‘rhyming slang’. Rhyming slang is still part of the true Cockney culture even if it is sometimes used for effect. 
More information on the way it works can be found under the Cockney English features section. 
 
‘Estuary English’ is a term coined in 1984 by British linguist David Rosewarne. Defined as a variety of modified 
regional speech it becomes a mixture of non-regional and local south-eastern English pronunciation and 
intonation. The Sunday Times, one of Britain’s most famous newspapers, has described it as a dialect existing 
between "Cockney and the Queen" and the Tory (Conservative) Minister of Education condemned it as a 
‘bastardized14 version of Cockney dialect’. 
The term ‘Estuary’ reflects the starting point for this dialect as being the region along London’s River Thames 
and its estuaries15. Rosewarne’s initial studies were prompted by the lack of discussion surrounding accents 
that existed between RP and the localizable English forms. He saw what he refers to as a ‘particularly 
important gap in the descriptions of accents varieties in London and the South East of England’. 
 
 
 
 
13 to be a perfect example of a quality or type of thing 
14 /ˈbæs.tɚ.daɪz/to change something in a way that makes it fail to represent the values and qualities that it is intended to represent 
= corromper 
15 /ˈes.tjʊə.ri/ us /-tu.er.i/the wide part of a river at the place where it joins the sea 
Queen’s English 
The notion of the ‘Queen’s’ English or ‘King’s English’, depending on who is the ruler of the time, can be traced 
back to the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries where the idea that the monarch’s usage of the language 
should be a model in speech and writing. During these times there was a development of a prestigious speech 
associated with the court and aristocracy /ˌer.əˈstɑː.krə.si, ˌær-/. The phrase ‘The King’s English’ was first used 
during the reign of James I. 
 
→ Sociolinguistic Issues of ‘Queen’s’ English 
 
The accents of the Queen Mother and Princess Margaret (the Queen’s sister) reflect the conservative RP as 
epitomized by the old British films and Pathé /ˈpæθ.eɪ/ newsreels16 of the first part of the century. The younger 
members of the royalfamily such as Prince Edward, Prince Andrew and the in-laws of the family, the Duchess 
/ˈdʌtʃ.ɪs/ of York (Fergie) as well as the late Princess of Wales (Diana), all speak an RP closer to ‘advanced’ 
RP than to the conservative, more traditional accent. 
 
The distance between the Royal Family and the ‘subjects’ of the country was seen to be enhanced by the 
traditional speech of the royals. As the younger members of the Royal Family attempt to close the gap 
between the two, their speech reflects the changes. 
 
Features of ‘Queen’s’ English 
 
General pronunciation 
The Queen and Older Royals might pronounce the following words as noted. 
 
Examples: 
 
• house = hice 
• off = orf 
• tower = tar 
• refined = refained 
 
Younger royals might exhibit the following types of pronunciations: 
 
• really = rairly 
• milk = miuk - 
• yes = yah 
• St. Paul’s = St. Pauw’s 
 
The ‘Royal ONE’ 
 
The pronominal /proʊˈnɑː.mə.nəl/ usage of ‘one’ is not only stereotypically /ˌster.i.oʊˈtɪp.ɪ.kᵊl.i/ associated with 
the upper classes, and especially the Royal Family, but that is also used frequently in their real life. There are a 
number of ways that the word ‘one’ used in place of ‘I’ and it has also been seen to be commonly used in those 
people connected with the Royal Family. Friends of the family as well as household help like the Queen’s 
dresser or an ex-cook have been heard to use the phrase ‘one’ in place of ‘I’. 
 
Examples: 
 
‘One says to oneself: “Oh God, there’s one’s daughter”’. (Father of the Duchess of York – quoted from The 
Star, July 1986.) 
 
16 Newsreel /ˈnuːz.riːl/a short film that consists of news reports, usually one that was made in the past for showing in a cinema 
 
‘One hesitates to use such a trite17 word as delighted, but of course one IS delighted’. (The Queen’s dresser – 
quoted on receiving his knighthood – The Guardian, June 1989.) 
 
Listen to the way it is: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TzDPWMT5raQ 
 
Accents within The United States 
General American (GA), also known as Standard American English (SAE), is a major accent of American 
English. The accent is not restricted to the United States. Within American English, General American and 
accents approximating it are contrasted with Southern American English, several Northeastern accents, and 
other distinct regional accents and social group accents like African American Vernacular English. 
 
General American, like British Received Pronunciation (RP) and most standard language varieties of many 
other societies, has never been the accent of the entire nation. However, it has become widely spoken in many 
American films, TV series, national news, commercial ads, and American radio broadcasts. 
 
The General American accent is most closely related to a generalized Midwestern accent and is spoken 
particularly by many newscasters. This has led the accent to sometimes be referred to as a ‘newscaster 
accent’ or ‘television English’. General American is sometimes promoted as preferable to other regional 
accents. In the United States, classes promising ‘accent reduction’, ‘accent modification’ and ‘accent 
neutralization’ generally attempt to teach speech patterns similar to this accent. 
 
General American is also the accent typically taught to people learning English as a second language in the 
United States, as well as outside the country to anyone who wishes to learn ‘American English’, although in 
much of Asia and some other places ESL teachers are strongly encouraged to teach American English no 
matter their own origins or accents. 
 
Regional home of General American 
 
It is commonly believed that General American English evolved as a result of an aggregation of rural and 
suburban /səˈbɝː.bən/ Midwestern dialects, though the English of the Upper Midwest can deviate quite 
dramatically from what would be considered a ‘regular’ American Accent. The local accent often gets more 
distinct the farther north one goes within the Midwest, and the more rural the area, with the Northern Midwest 
featuring its own dialect North Central American English. The fact that a Midwestern dialect became the basis 
of what is General American English is often attributed to the mass migration of Midwestern farmers to 
California and the Pacific Northwest from where it spread. 
 
Eastern Nebraska, southern and central Iowa, and western Illinois /ˌɪl.ɪˈnɔɪ/ (not the Chicago / ʃɪˈkɑː.ɡoʊ/ area). 
 
Southern American English 
 
Southern American English is a group of dialects of the English language spoken throughout the Southern 
region of the United States, from Southern and Eastern Maryland, West Virginia and Kentucky to the Gulf 
Coast, and from the Atlantic coast to most of Texas and Oklahoma. 
 
Overview of Southern dialects 
 
The Southern dialects collectively known as Southern American English stretch across the southeastern and 
south-central United States, but exclude the southern most areas of Florida and the extreme western and 
 
17 /traɪt/ disapproving expressed too often to be interesting or seem sincere = banal 
south-western parts of Texas as well as the Rio Grande /ˌriː.oʊˈɡrænd/ Valley (Laredo / ləˈreɪ.doʊ/ to 
Brownsville). 
 This linguistic region includes Alabama, Georgia, 
Tennessee, Mississippi, North Carolina, South 
Carolina, Louisiana, and Arkansas, as well as most of 
Texas, Virginia, Oklahoma, Kentucky, and West 
Virginia. It also includes parts of southern and central 
Missouri / mɪˈzʊr.i/, and parts of Florida and 
Maryland. 
 
Southern dialects originated in large part from 
immigrants from the British Isles who moved to the 
South in the 17th and 18th centuries. Settlement also 
included large numbers of Protestants /ˈprɑː.t̬ə.stənts/ 
from Ulster /ˈʌl.stɚ/, Ireland, and from Scotland. 
Upheavals18 such as the Great Depression, the Dust Bowl and World War II caused mass migrations of those 
and other settlers throughout the United States. 
 
More information: 
 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Q6sQUmPmuA 
 
The Northeastern United States is a region of the United States as defined by the United States Census 
Bureau. The region comprises nine states: the New England states of Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, 
New Hampshire, Rhode Island and Vermont; and the Mid-Atlantic states of New Jersey, New York and 
Pennsylvania. The Census Bureau regions are "widely used...for data collection and analysis." 
 
Improving your English Pronunciation 
 
If you want to check some tips in order to improve your English pronunciation go to: 
 
http://www.english-at-home.com/pronunciation/improving-your-pronunciation/ 
 
• Os conceitos de fala e escrita (The concepts of speaking and writing); 
• as diferenças entre fala e escrita (The differences between reading and writing); 
• as diferenças linguísticas entre o inglês formal e o informal (The linguistic differences between formal 
and informal English). 
 Nessa aula você: 
• Aprendeu a diferença entre fonética e fonologia, fonema e letra. (Learned the difference between 
phonetics and phonology, phoneme and letter); 
• inteirou-se sobre os dialetos e as variações de acento existentes no inglês. (Acquainted about the dialects 
and the accent variations in English). 
 
 
18 a great change, especially causing or involving much difficulty, activity, or trouble 
Lesson 2, A fala e a escrita 
 
Goals: 
1. Recognize the particularities and the concepts of speaking and writing; 
2. recognize the use context of formal and informal English. 
 
Activity 
 
Match the sentences in order to replace the informal English verbs for a formal one. 
1. He is sorting out the problem with the computer. → resolve2. I got in touch with my sister yesterday. → contact 
3. Lady Gaga called off the concert. → cancel 
4. The traffic cop is checking the suspect’s ID. → ascertain 
5. The police officer told me that I was speeding. → inform 
6. I need to make sure that I arrive on time at the office. → ensure 
7. Peter asked about the cost of the ticket. → enquire 
8. Sherlock Holmes found out who murdered the priest. → discover 
9. We are putting off the holiday because of the hurricane. → postpone 
10. I got the email today. → receive 
 
Objetivo da Questão: Reconhecer as diferenças de vocabulário das formas formal e informal no inglês, de 
forma a saber usar a linguagem adequada a cada situação. (Recognize the vocabulary differences in formal 
and informal English, in order to know how to use the proper language to each situation). 
 
Humans use language to communicate. This is an obvious statement, but what is language and how do we 
use it? Language is basically a set of symbols with associated meanings. These symbols are delivered using a 
set of rules for stringing the symbols together to generate additional meaning. 
 
Humans mostly use sounds to represent these symbols, although as an Italian I can communicate common 
meanings by only using a range of hand gestures! We string together phonetic sounds to make words, and we 
string together words to make sentences. The set of rules we have created to structure our delivery of words is 
our grammar. For example, a basic rule is that every sentence should contain a verb (a word conveying action) 
and a subject (a word conveying who or what is doing the action or on whom or what the action is having an 
impact). 
 
There are more than 5 million distinct words in the English language: The Oxford Dictionary 
of English (2005) lists more than 300,000 entries; William Shakespeare used about 15,000; 
the average person whose first language is English knows about 4,300 words, although they 
understand the exact meaning of only 70 per cent or so of these. 
We string together these words into sentences to answer a basic set of questions: Who? 
How? What? Why? When? And where? But, the use of words to answer these questions 
through oral communication or written communication has significant constraints. /kənˈstreɪnts/ 
 
If you look at the last few paragraphs, you may notice that what I am trying to communicate is severely limited 
by the fact that I can only deliver one basic concept at a time. In other words, my communication process is 
linear. As a result, I have to be very careful that my concepts follow a logical sequence: concept A helps to 
explain concept B, which in turn helps to explain concept C. In many cases, I have no choice but to tackle a 
subject in increasing detail. If I want to show the relationship between concept A and concept C, I have to start 
all over again with a new sentence. Any change in my sequential /sɪˈkwent.ʃᵊl/ approach – for example if I want 
to go back to a higher level of detail – has to be usually associated with a visible break, such as a new 
paragraph. 
So, the use of the written or oral form of communication favours a specific subset of mental models: those that 
require a logical interpretation and which follow a sequence of increasing detail. A precise sequence is 
followed and the model revealed goes into greater and greater detail (linear /ˈlɪn.i.ər/ sequential thinking). Of 
course, written and oral communication can be used in many other ways too, but most people get quickly 
turned off when subject to forms of written and oral communication that “do not get to the point”. 
 
SPEAKING VERSUS WRITING 
THE PEN IS MIGHTIER THAN THE Spoken WORD. OR IS IT? 
There are always at least two people in any communication. To communicate, one person must put something 
"out" and another person must take something "in". We call this "output" and "input". 
 
I speak to you (OUTPUT: my thoughts go OUT of my head). 
You listen to me (INPUT: my thoughts go INto your head). 
You write to me (OUTPUT: your thoughts go OUT of your head). 
I read your words (INPUT: your thoughts go INto my head). 
 
So, language consists of four "skills": two for output (speaking and writing); and two for input (listening and 
reading). We can say this another way - two of the skills are for "spoken" communication and two of the skills 
are for "written" communication. 
 
What are the differences between Spoken* and Written English? Are there advantages and 
disadvantages for each form of communication? 
 
* note: instead of “spoken”, some people say “oral” (relating to the mouth) or “aural” (relating to the ear). 
 
• Status: When we learn our own (native) language, learning to speak comes before learning to write. In 
fact, we learn to speak almost automatically. It is natural. But somebody must teach us to write. It is not 
natural. In one sense, speaking is the "real" language and writing is only a representation of speaking. 
However, for centuries, people have regarded writing as superior to speaking. It has a higher "status". 
This is perhaps because in the past almost everybody could speak but only a few people could write. 
But as we shall see, modern influences are changing the relative status of speaking and writing. 
• Differences in Structure and Style: We usually write with correct grammar and in a structured way. We 
organize what we write into sentences and paragraphs. We do not usually use contractions in writing 
(though if we want to appear very friendly, then we do sometimes use contractions in writing because 
this is more like speaking.) We use more formal vocabulary in writing (for example, we might write "the 
car exploded" but say "the car blew up") and we do not usually use slang1. In writing, we must use 
punctuation marks like commas and question marks (as a symbolic way of representing things like 
pauses or tone of voice in speaking). 
We usually speak in a much less formal, less structured way. We do not always use full sentences and correct 
grammar. The vocabulary that we use is more familiar and may include slang. We usually speak in a 
spontaneous /spɑːnˈteɪ.ni.əs/ way, without preparation, so we have to make up what we say as we go. This 
means that we often repeat ourselves or go off the subject. However, when we speak, other aspects are 
present that are not present in writing, such as facial expression or tone of voice. This means that we can 
communicate at several levels, not only with words. 
• Durability: One important difference between speaking and writing is that writing is usually more 
durable or permanent. When we speak, our words live for a few moments. When we write, our words 
may live for years or even centuries. This is why writing is usually used to provide a record of events, 
for example a business agreement or transaction. 
• Speaker & Listener / Writer & Reader: When we speak, we usually need to be in the same place and 
time as the other person. Despite this restriction, speaking does have the advantage that the speaker 
 
1 [uncountable] no plural 
receives instant feedback from the listener. The speaker can probably see immediately if the listener is 
bored or does not understand something, and can then modify what he or she is saying. When we 
write, our words are usually read by another person in a different place and at a different time. Indeed, 
they can be read by many other people, anywhere and at any time. And the people reading our words, 
can do so at their leisure, slowly or fast. They can re-read /ˌriːˈriːd/ what we write, too. But the writer 
cannot receive immediate feedback and cannot (easily) change what has been written. 
• How Speaking and Writing Influence Each Other: In the past, only a small number of people could 
write, but almost everybody could speak. Because their words were not widelyrecorded, there were 
many variations in the way they spoke, with different vocabulary and dialects in different regions. 
Today, almost everybody can speak and write. Because writing is recorded and more permanent, this 
has influenced the way that people speak, so that many regional dialects and words have disappeared. 
(It may seem that there are already too many differences that have to be learned, but without writing 
there would be far more differences, even between, for example, British and American English.) So, 
writing has had an important influence on speaking. But speaking can also influence /ˈɪn.flu.əns/ 
writing. For example, most new words enter a language through speaking. Some of them do not live 
long. If you begin to see these words in writing it usually means that they have become "real words" 
within the language and have a certain amount of permanence. 
• Influence of New Technology: Modern inventions such as sound recording, telephone, radio, television, 
fax or email have made or are making an important impact on both speaking and writing. To some 
extent, the divisions between speaking and writing are becoming blurred. Emails are often written in a 
much less formal way than is usual in writing. With voice recording, for example, it has for a long time 
been possible to speak to somebody who is not in the same place or time as you (even though this is a 
one-way communication: we can speak or listen, but not interact). With the telephone and 
radiotelephone /ˌreɪ.di.oʊˈtel.ə.foʊn/, however, it became possible for two people to carry on a 
conversation while not being in the same place. Today, the distinctions are increasingly vague, so that 
we may have, for example, a live television broadcast with a mixture of recordings, telephone calls, 
incoming faxes and emails and so on. One effect of this new technology and the modern universality 
/ˌjuː.nə.vɝːˈsæl.ə.t̬i/ of writing has been to raise the status of speaking. Politicians who cannot organize 
their thoughts and speak well on television win very few votes. 
 
WRITTEN ENGLISH 
Because of a writing system that incorporates etymology /ˌet̬.ɪˈmɑː.lə.dʒi/, spelling cues not present in oral 
discourse can give readers additional clues to the relationship between words through a vague awareness of 
different morphological classes. 
 
Anglo-Saxon words are usually characterised by a cloudy morphology (early \ ere2 /er/), wildly unphonemic / 
ʌn.foʊˈniː.mɪk, - fə-/ spelling, and the presence of silent letters and digraphs3. Common affixes /ˈæf.ɪksɪz/ are 
“un-”, “-ful”, and “-ness”. These are the most common words used to describe everyday, informal and 
interpersonal matters. 
Romance words are also common and bear closer resemblance to French morphemes and words (very \ 
vrais). There is often more regularity in their spelling. 
Latin and Greek words are set apart from Romance words by very methodical morphology, Classical Latin 
and Greek morphemes /ˈmɔːr.fiːmz/, and consistent spelling. They usually have rigid definitions and are used 
more frequently in formal and scientific writing as well as in constructing technical, philosophical /ˌfɪl.əˈsɑːf.ɪkᵊl/, 
and legal jargon. 
Hybrids /ˈhaɪ.brɪdz/ (e.g. kay /keɪ/, Byte, Prisoner) have the relative formality and familiarity of Romance 
words. 
 
 
 
 
2 literary or old use: before 3 /ˈdaɪ.ɡrɑːf/ /-ɡræf/ specialized two letters written together that make one 
sound 
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SPEECH AND WRITING 
There are many differences between the processes of speaking and writing. Writing is not simply speech 
written down on paper. Learning to write is not a natural extension of learning to speak. Unlike speech, writing 
requires systematic instruction and practice. 
Here are some of the differences between speaking and writing that may clarify things for you and help you in 
your efforts as a writer and speaker. 
 
Consider the fact that… 
 
Virtually nobody speaks Standard Written English. This is the form of English that is appropriate for 
professional, business, and academic writing. For example, no one always speaks in complete sentences or 
pronounces the final letter of every word. However, many people learn to translate their spoken dialect into 
Standard Written English when they write. 
Both spoken and written dialects are linked to the social background, age, race, and gender of the writer, 
speaker and audience. Depending upon whom we are addressing, and what we are discussing, we can switch 
between formal and informal ways of communicating. 
 
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SPEECH AND WRITING 
SPEECH WRITING 
Universal, everybody acquires it. Not everyone learns to read and write. 
Spoken language has dialect variations that 
represent a region. 
Written language is more restricted and generally follows a 
standardised form of grammar, structure, organization, and 
vocabulary. 
Speakers use their voices (pitch, rhythm, stress) 
and their bodies to communicate their message. 
Writers rely on the words on the page to express meaning and their 
ideas. 
Speakers use pauses and intonation. Writers use punctuation. 
Speakers pronounce. Writers spell. 
Speaking is often spontaneous and unplanned. Most writing is planned and can be changed through editing and 
revision before an audience reads it. 
Speakers have immediate audiences who nod, 
interrupt, question and comment. 
Writers have a delayed response from audiences or none at all and 
have only one opportunity to convey their message, be interesting, 
informative, accurate and hold their reader’s attention. 
Speech is usually informal and repetitive. Writing on the other hand is more formal and compact. It progresses 
more logically with fewer explanations and digressions4. 
Speakers use simpler sentences connected by lots 
of “ands” and “buts”. 
Writers use more complex sentences with connecting words like 
however, Who, although, and in addition. 
Speakers draw on their listeners reactions to know 
how or whether to continue. 
Writers are often solitary in their process. 
Speakers can gauge5 /ɡeɪdʒ/ the attitudes, beliefs, 
and feelings of their audience by their verbal and 
non-verbal reactions. 
Writers must consider what and how much their audience needs to 
know about a given topic. 
 
FORMAL AND INFORMAL ENGLISH 
Consider these two examples: 
Example 1: This is to inform you that your book has been rejected by our publishing /ˈpʌb.lɪʃɪŋ/ company as it 
was not up to the required standard. In case you would like us to reconsider it, we would suggest that you go 
over it and make some necessary changes. 
 
 
4 /daɪˈɡreʃn/ [countable, uncountable] (formal) an act of talking about 
something that is not connected with the main point of what you are saying 
5 to make a judgment about something, usually people’s feelings. 
Example 2: You know that book I wrote? Well, the publishing company rejected it. They thought it was awful. 
But hey, I did the best I could, and I think it was great. I'm not gonna redo it the way they said I should. 
 
The difference between the two is obvious. The first one is formal, and the second is informal. But what is it 
that makes them formal and informal? 
 
It is the style of writing, or the way we use words to say what we want to say. Different situations call for 
different ways of putting words together. The way we write in academic and scientific settings differs greatly 
from the way we write to a friend or close one. The tone, vocabulary, and syntax, all change as the occasion 
changes. This difference in the styles of writing is the difference between formality and informality, or the 
difference between formal and informal writing. There are three main language styles: 1. Formal;2. Semi-
Formal /ˌsem.iˈfɔːr.məl, ˌsem.aɪ-/; 3. Informal. 
 
 FORMAL AND INFORMAL ENGLISH 
There are three main language styles: 1. Formal; 2. Semi-Formal; 3. Informal 
The diagram below illustrates how these styles are rated on a scale of 0 to 10. 
 
Another way of considering the level of formality is: 
The centre is occupied by the ‘common’ words, in 
which literary and colloquial usage meet. ‘Scientific’ 
and ‘foreign’ words enter the common language 
mainly through literature; ‘slang’ words ascend 
/əˈsend, æsˈend/ through colloquial use; the 
‘technical’ terms of crafts and processes, and the 
‘dialect’ words, blend with the common language 
both in speech and literature. Slang also touches on 
one side of the technical terminology of trades and 
occupations, as in ‘nautical slang’, ‘Public School slang’, ‘the slang of 
the Stock Exchange’, and on another passes into true dialect. Dialects similarly pass into foreign languages. 
Scientific terminology passes on one side into purely foreign words, on another it blends with the technical 
vocabulary of art and manufactures. It is not possible to fix the point at which the ‘English Language’ stops, 
along any of these diverging lines. 
 
RULES OF LANGUAGE STYLE 
The following rules apply to both written and spoken English. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Different Styles between Informal & Formal English 
The follow examples illustrate the main differences between informal and formal English. 
1. Active & Passive Voice 
Informal: Our technician repaired the fault on 12th June. Now it’s your turn to pay us. 
Formal: Although the fault was repaired on 12th June, payment for this intervention has 
still not been received. 
 
2. Verb Form: Phrasal Verbs & Latin 
Informal: The company laid him off because he didn't work much. 
Formal: His insufficient production conducted to his dismissal. /dɪˈsmɪs.ᵊl/ 
 
3. Language: Direct & Formulaic6 
Informal: I’m sorry but … / I’m happy to say that … 
Formal: We regret to inform you that … / We have pleasure in announcing that … 
 
4. Use of Slang 
Informal: He had to get some money out of a hole in the wall … 
Formal: He withdrew the amount from an ATM. 
 
5. Personal Form & Nominators /ˈnɑːm.ɪneɪ.t̬ɚz/ 
Informal: If you lose it, then please contact us as soon as possible. 
Formal: Any loss of this document should be reported immediately … 
 
6. Linking Words 
Informal: The bank can’t find the payment you say you’ve made. 
Formal: Notwithstanding7 that the payment has been sent the bank fails to acknowledge it. 
 
7. Revitalized /ˌriːˈvaɪ.t̬əl.aɪzd/ Sentences 
Informal: Anybody or any company. 
Formal: … any natural person who, and any legal entity which … 
 
8. Modal Usage 
Informal: If you need any help, give us a call. 
Formal: Should you require any assistance, please feel free to contact us … 
 
9. Singular & Plural Person 
Informal: I can help you to solve this problem. Call me! 
Formal: We can assist in the resolution of this matter. Contact us on our toll-free8 number. 
 
Also, to make a sentence more formal you can: 
Use ‘There’ as a subject; e.g. ‘There is a serious risk of...’ 
Use 'It' as a subject; e.g. 'It is impossible to...' 
Use ‘One’ as a subject; e.g. ‘One may ask whether...’ (‘One’ is a formal version of ‘You’ [plural] in general) 
Use the passive voice; e.g. ‘Many things can be done in order to...’ 
 
The main thing to remember is that both are correct, it is just a matter of tone and setting. Formal English is 
used mainly in academic writing and business communications, whereas Informal English is casual and is 
appropriate when communicating with friends and other close ones. Choose the style of writing keeping in 
 
6 /ˌfɔːr.mjəˈleɪ.ɪk/ formal containing or consisting of fixed and repeated 
groups of words or ideas 
7 preposition, adverb uk /ˌnɒt.wɪðˈstæn.dɪŋ/ us /ˌnɑːt-/ formal despite the 
fact or thing mentioned 
8 /ˌtoʊlˈfriː/ A toll-free phone call is free for the person making the call. 
mind what you are writing and to whom. But whichever style you write in - formal or informal - be sure to keep it 
consistent, do not mix the two. 
 
Some examples are: 
 
• To a friend it is acceptable to say, ‘Hey Jack, how’re you doing buddy?’ 
• To a Governor you would say, ‘Good afternoon Governor, how are you doing today?’ 
• To your girlfriend, ‘Do you want to grab a bite to eat? I need to ask you something.’ 
• To your girlfriend’s father, ‘Mr. Jones, would you care to have dinner with me tonight? I would like to talk to 
you about your daughter, and myself.’ 
• To a coworker /ˈkoʊˌwɝː.kɚ, ˌkoʊˈwɜː.kər/ , ‘Morning Joe.’ 
• To your boss or a client, ‘Good morning, Mr. Smith’ or ‘Good morning, sir.’ 
• To a friend, ‘Man! Was that movie really cool or what, we need to see it again!’ 
• To your drama professor, ‘Professor Bogart /ˈboʊ.ɡɑːrt/, the motion picture which you assigned us to watch 
was one of the most impressive that I have ever seen. In fact, I am going to view it again tonight!’ 
 
Always use formal English when writing a business letter, an essay, or other papers for work, school or 
publication. You can use informal English when writing a letter to a close friend or a relative, when quoting 
informal usage, or in a novel or script, etc. Otherwise it is much less risky to use the formal form, especially if 
you have any doubts about the acceptability /əkˌsep.təˈbɪl.ə.t̬i/ of the informal form, or if you need to be very 
clear or specific. Remember that you will never look or sound foolish by using proper grammar. 
 
 Different Styles 
between Informal & 
Formal English Type 
Informal Formal 
Prep. About … Regarding/ Concerning … 
Idiom Agree with … Be bound by … 
Conj. And As well as … 
Idiom Bearing in mind Reference being made to … 
Conj. Because … As a result of / due to (the fact) … 
Verb Begin Commence 
Conj. But While/ Whereas 
Adj. Careful / Cautious Prudential / pruːˈden.ʃᵊl/ 
Verb Carry out Effect 
Verb Check Verify 
Adj. Enough Sufficient 
Verb Fill me in Inform / Tell 
Verb Find out Ascertain 
Verb Follow Duly observe 
Verb Get Receive 
Verb Get in touch Contact 
Verb Go over Exceed 
Verb Has to be Shall be 
Verb Have to give Submit 
Conj. If … Should … 
Conj. If … or not. Whether … or not. 
Idiom If you don't … Failing / Failure to… 
Idiom If you've got any questions 
… 
Should you have any queries … /ˈkwɪə.riz/ 
Idiom In accordance with … Pursuant /pɚˈsuː.ənt/ to 
Idiom In the red Overdrawn /ˌoʊ.vɚˈdrɑːn/ 
Verb Involve Entail 
Idiom Lost Inadvertently /ˌɪn.ədˈvɜː.təntli/ mislaid 
Verb Make sure Ensure 
Adj. Many Several / Numerous 
Verb Order Authorise 
Verb Pay Settle 
Idiom Put in writing Provide written confirmation 
Idiom Sorry! We regret … 
Verb Supply Furnish 
Verb Take away Withdraw 
Verb Tell Disclose /dɪsˈkloʊz/ 
Verb Trusted Entrusted /ɪnˈtrʌstɪd, en-/ 
Idiom We don't want to do this … This a course of action we are anxious to 
avoid … 
Idiom We'll call the law … We will have no alternative but involving our 
legal … 
Idiom When we get … On receipt9 /rɪˈsiːt/ 
Idiom Whenever we like … Without prior notice … 
Verb Write (e.g. Cheque) Issue (e.g. Cheque) 
Verb Written Shown / Indicated 
 
Social and Academic English 
Social English is the language of everyday communication in oral and written forms. Examples include: 
• when your students are talking to their friends in the playground or on the school bus; 
• when you and your students are having an informal face-to-face conversation; 
• when your students go to the grocery store and read the shopping list. 
 
Academic English and social English are not two separate languages. Academic English is moredemanding 
and complex than social English. Academic English is the language necessary for success in school. It is 
related to a standards-based curriculum, including the content areas of Math, Science, Social Studies, and 
English language arts. 
 
In order to check the relation between formal and informal words, check: 
http://www.word-mart.com/html/formal_and_informal_writing.html 
http://www.proprofs.com/flashcards/download.php?title=honors-la-10-vocabulary-back-page 
 
Formal and informal writing 
Here's a list of some of the main differences between informal and formal writing: 
 
Informal: May use colloquial words/expressions (kids, guy, awesome, a lot, etc.). 
Formal: Avoid using colloquial words/expressions (substitute with children, man/boy, wonderful, many, etc.) 
Informal: May use contractions (can’t, won’t, shouldn’t, etc.). 
Formal: Avoid contractions (write out full words – cannot, will not, should not, etc.). 
Informal: May use first, second, or third person. 
Formal: Write in third person (except in business letters where first person may be used). 
Informal: May use clichés (loads of, conspicuous by absence, etc.) 
Formal: Avoid clichés (use many, was absent, etc.) 
Informal: May address readers using second person pronouns (you, your, etc.) 
Formal: Avoid addressing readers using second person pronouns (use one, one’s, the reader, the reader’s, 
etc.) 
 
Informal: May use abbreviated words (photo, TV, etc.) 
Formal: Avoid using abbreviated words (use full versions – like photograph, television, etc.) 
Informal: May use imperative voice (e.g. Remember….) 
Formal: Avoid imperative voice (use Please refer to.….) 
 
9 (formal) the act of receiving something 
Informal: May use active voice (e.g. We have noticed that…..) 
Formal: Use passive voice (e.g. It has been noticed that….) 
Informal: May use short and simple sentences. 
Formal: Longer and more complex sentences are preferred (short simple sentences reflects poorly on the 
writer) 
Informal: Difficulty of subject may be acknowledged and empathy shown to the reader. 
Formal: State your points confidently and offer your argument firm support. 
 
 
Side A ------ Side B 
1. irrelevant ------ unimportant 
2. itinerant ------ wandering 
3. jaunty10 ------ sportive; clever 
4. jeopardize ------ endanger 
5. jostle11 ------ hard shove 
6. jurisdiction ------ authority 
7. juxtapose / dʒʌk.stə.poʊz/ ------ 
compare; contrast 
8. labyrinth ------ maze 
9. laceration /ˌlæs.əˈreɪ.ʃən/ ------ cut; 
wound 
10. lackluster /ˈlækˌlʌs.tɚ/ ------ dull 
11. laconic ------ short 
12. landmark ------ historic 
13. latent ------ lies hidden 
14. laudable12 ------ worthy of attention 
15. lax ------ lazy 
16. legion ------ many 
17. lethal ------ deadly 
18. levity ------ light-heartedness 
19. liquidation ------ get rid of 
20. loath ------ hesitant 
21. loathe ------ despise 
22. longevity ------ duration 
23. lugubrious13 ------ emotional 
24. lurid14 ------ sensational 
25. lush15 ------ rich 
26. maladjusted ------ disturbed 
27. malady ------ illness 
28. malignant ------ bad; spreads 
29. malnutrition ------ bad nutrition 
30. mammoth ------ huge 
31. mandate ------ command 
32. manifold /ˈmæn.ɪ.foʊld/ ------ a lot 
33. masticate ------ chew 
 
10 /ˈdʒɑːn.ti̬/ showing that you are happy and confident 
11 /ˈdʒɑː.sl/̩to knock or push roughly against someone in order to move past 
them or get more space when you are in a crowd of people 
12 /ˈlɑː-/ formal (of actions and behaviour) deserving praise, even if there is 
little or no success 
13 /luːˈɡuː.bri.əs/ literary sad and serious: 
14 /ˈlʊr.ɪd/ disapproving → lurid adjective (especially of a description) 
shocking because involving violence, sex, or immoral activity: 
You can read all the lurid details of the affair in today's paper. 
→ too brightly coloured 
15 /lʌʃ/ A lush area has a lot of green, healthy plants, grass, and trees. having 
a lot of green, healthy plants, grass and trees 
16 /ˈmɪr.i.əd/ us literary a very large number of something 
17 /əbˈsi·kwi·əs/ formal too willing to praise or obey someone 
34. mastiff ------ big dog 
35. materialism ------ love for 
worldliness 
36. matron ------ older woman 
37. maudlin /ˈmɑːd.lɪn/ ------ 
depressed 
38. megalomania /ˌmeɡ.əl.əˈmeɪ.ni.ə/ 
------ self-greatness 
39. mendacious ------ dishonest 
40. metamorphosis ------ 
transformation 
41. meticulous ------ precise 
42. modify ------ change 
43. monolithic /ˌmɑː.nəˈlɪθ.ɪk/ ------ 
big; imposing 
44. mortality ------ death 
45. mundane /mʌnˈdeɪn, ˈ--/ ------ 
worldly 
46. murky ------ unclear 
47. myriad16 ------ plethora 
48. nefarious /nəˈfer.i.əs/ ------ evil 
49. nettle ------ bother 
50. neurotic ------ nervous 
51. neutralize ------ counteract 
52. nebulous / ˈneb.jʊ.ləs/ ------ murky 
53. nirvana /nɪrˈvɑː.nə/ ------ 
enlightenment 
54. nomadic /noʊˈmæd.ɪk/ ------ 
travelling 
55. nominal /ˈnɑː.mə.nᵊl/ ------ very 
little 
56. nostalgia ------ reminiscence 
57. nuance ------ picky stuff 
58. nurture ------ nourish 
59. obliterate ------ destroy 
60. obsequious17 ------ fawn18 /fɑːn/ 
18 [intransitive] fawn (on/over somebody) (disapproving) to try to please 
somebody by praising them or paying them too much attention 
19 adjective uk /ˈɒm.ɪ.nəs/ us /ˈɑː.mə-/ suggesting that something 
unpleasant is likely to happen 
20 formal to reduce the bad effects of something 
21 /ˈper.ək.sɪ.zəm/ a sudden and powerful expression of strong feeling, 
especially one that you cannot control. 
22 /pɪˈkjuː.ni.er/ formal relating to money 
23 /ˈpen.əns/ an act that shows that you feel sorry about something that you 
have done, sometimes for religious reasons 
24 [plural] time spent travelling, especially in foreign countries and for 
pleasure 
25 /pɚˈfʌŋk.tɚ.i/ 
done quickly, without taking care or interest 
61. obsess /əbˈses/ ------ preoccupy 
62. obsolescence /ˌɑːb.səˈles.əns/ ----
-- expiring 
63. obviate ------ eliminate 
64. octogenarian 
/ˌɑːk.toʊ.dʒəˈner.i.ən/ ------ 80 
year old 
65. ominous19 ------ threatening 
66. opulence ------ value 
67. originate ------ start 
68. ostentatious ------ overdone 
69. oust ------ get rid of 
70. overt /oʊˈvɝːt/ ------ open 
71. palliate20 /ˈpæl.i.eɪt/ ------ relieve 
72. paradox ------ self-contradictory 
73. paragon /ˈper.ə.ɡɑːn/ ------ model; 
example 
74. paroxysm21 ------ fit; seizure 
75. parsimonious /ˌpɑːr.səˈmoʊ.ni.əs/ 
------ stingy 
76. paucity /ˈpɑː.sə.t̬i/ ------ lack 
77. pecuniary22 ------ wide financial 
powers 
78. pedagogue /ˈped.ə.ɡɑːɡ/ ------ 
teacher 
79. penance23 ------ reconciliation 
80. perceive ------ see 
81. peregrination /ˌper.ə.ɡrəˈneɪ.ʃən/ --
---- travels24 
82. perfunctory25 ------ quick; function 
83. permeate ------ saturate 
/ˈsætʃ·əˌreɪt/ 
84. pernicious /pɚˈnɪʃ.əs/ ------ harmful 
85. perpetrate ------ commit 
86. perpetuate ------ continue 
87. persevere ------ persist 
88. perspicacious ------ keen 
89. pertinent ------ important 
90. peruse26 ------ examine 
91. perverse ------ corrupt 
92. phenomenon ------ happening 
93. phlegmatic27 ------ calm 
94. placard /ˈplæk.ɑːrd/ ------ poster 
95. plethora ------ multitude 
96. plight28 ------ struggle 
97. poignant29 ------ emotional 
98. ponder ------ think 
99. potential ------ possible 
100. precipitate ------ bring about 
101. preclude /prɪˈkluːd/ us /prə-/ ------ 
prevent 
102. precocious ------ genius early on 
103. prelude /ˈprel.juːd/ ------ 
introduction 
104. pesky ------ irritating 
105. omnivorous /ɑːmˈnɪv.ər.əs/ ------ 
eating everything 
106. premise /ˈprem.ɪs/ ------ basis of 
argument 
107. premonition ------ foreshadowing 
108. prestigious ------ well-known109. pretext30 ------ disguise 
110. privation ------ inconveniences 
111. profligate31 ------ wasteful 
112. prognosticate /prɑːɡˈnɑː.stɪ.keɪt/ --
---- predict 
113. prohibition ------ restriction 
114. prolific /prəˈlɪf.ɪk/ ------ productive 
115. promulgate32 ------ advertisement 
116. propitious /prəˈpɪʃ.əs, proʊ-/ ------ 
favorable 
117. pugnacious /pʌɡˈneɪ.ʃəs/ ------ 
quarrelsome 
118. puissant33 /ˈpjuː.ɪ.sənt/ ------ 
powerful 
 
26 /pəˈruːz/ formal to read through something, especially in order to find the 
part you are interested in. 
27 uk /fleɡˈmæt.ɪk/ us /-ˈmæt-̬/ formal 
A phlegmatic person does not usually get emotional or excited about things. 
28 /plaɪt/ an unpleasant condition, especially a serious, sad, or difficult one. 
29 /ˈpɔɪ.njənt/ causing or having a very sharp feeling of sadness. 
30 /ˈpriː.tekst/ a pretended reason for doing something that is used to hide the 
real reason 
31 /ˈprɑː.flɪ.ɡət/ formal spending money in a way that wastes it and is not wise 
32 /ˈprɑː.məl.ɡeɪt/ formal promulgate verb [ T ] (SPREAD) 
to spread beliefs or ideas among a lot of people 
33 adjective, Literary. powerful; mighty; potent /ˈpoʊ.tənt/. 
34 /kwel/ to stop something, especially by using force 
35 /kwɪp/ a humorous and clever remark 
36 /rɪˈkænt/ formal to announce in public that your past beliefs or statements 
were wrong and that you no longer agree with them 
37 Recoil verb uk /rɪˈkɔɪl/ us to move back because of fear or disgust (= dislike or 
disapproval); to refuse to accept an idea or principle, feeling strong dislike or 
disapproval 
38 to put someone or something into a lower or less important rank or position 
39 noun [ no plural ] uk /ˈres·paɪt/ us /ˈres.pɪt/ a short period of rest from 
something difficult or unpleasant 
119. puny /ˈpju·ni/ ------ weak 
120. quell34 ------ quiet it 
121. quip35 ------ joked 
122. rampant ------ widespread 
123. rash ------ reckless 
124. raze ------ destroy 
125. realm ------ area 
126. recant36 ------ deny it 
127. recoil37 ------ draw back 
128. recondite /ˈrek.ən.daɪt/ ------ 
hidden 
129. relegate38 /ˈrel.ɪ.ɡeɪt/ ------ 
assigned to inferiors 
130. remote ------ isolated 
131. remuneration /rɪˌmjuː.nəˈreɪ.ʃən/ --
---- reward 
132. replete /rɪˈpliːt/ ------ filled with 
133. reprehensible /ˌrep.rɪˈhen.sə.bl̩/ ---
--- blameworthy 
134. repress ------ end 
135. reprimand /ˈrep.rə.mænd/ ------ 
disapprove 
136. repudiate /rɪˈpjuː.di.eɪt/ ------ reject 
137. repulse ------ defend 
138. resourceful ------ constructive 
139. respite39 ------ relief 
140. restrictive ------ confining 
/kənˈfaɪnɪŋ/ 
141. reticent ------ silent 
142. reverberating40 / 
143. rɪˈvɝː.bəreɪ.t̬ɪŋ/ ------ reechoes 
/ˌriː ˈekoʊz/ 
144. revert ------ return 
145. rife41 ------ widespread 
146. romp /rɑːmp/ ------ lively moving 
147. rudimentary /ˌruː.dəˈmen.tər.i/ -----
- basic 
148. rue42 ------ curse, reject 
149. sage /seɪdʒ/ ------ wise 
40 Reverberate [intransitive] (of a sound) to be repeated several times as it is 
reflected off different surfaces synonym echo 
41 rife with sth full of something unpleasant 
42 /ruː/ old-fashioned or literary to feel sorry about an event and wish it had not 
happened 
43 a sudden attack by an enemy 
44 [uncountable] deliverance (from something) (formal) the state of being 
rescued from danger, evil or pain 
45 /ˈskɪz.əm/ /ˈsɪz.əm/ /ˈsɪz.əm/ us /ˈskɪz.əm/ /ˈsɪz.əm/ 
a division into two groups caused by a disagreement about ideas, especially in a 
religious organization. 
46 /ˈsaɪ.ən/ literary a young member of a rich and famous family 
47 /ˈred.əl.ənt/ literary smelling strongly of something or having qualities 
(especially smells) that make you think of something else 
48 /ˈpʌn.dʒənt/ → A pungent smell or taste is very strong, sometimes 
unpleasantly strong. 
→ literary Pungent speech or writing is very strongly felt. 
49 /ˈskɝː.ə.ləs/ formal expressing unfair or false criticism that is likely to damage 
someone's reputation 
50 /ˈsaɪ.nə.kjʊr/ disapproving a position which involves little work, but for which 
the person is paid 
51 to flow out with a lot of force, or to make something do this 
150. salient ------ defining 
151. sally43 ------ rush forward 
152. salvation ------ deliverance44 
153. sanctuary ------ refuge; protection 
154. sanguine /ˈsæŋ.ɡwɪn/ ------ 
optimistic 
155. schism45 ------ divide 
156. scion46 ------ descendant 
157. scoff ------ make fun of, mock 
158. revile /rɪˈvaɪl/ ------ criticize 
strongly 
159. redolent47 ------ pungent48 
160. repose ------ resting 
161. progeny /ˈprɑː.dʒə.ni/ ------ 
offspring 
162. saturate ------ replete 
163. scrutinize ------ examine closely 
164. scurrilous49 ------ scandalous 
/ˈskæn.dəl.əs/; vulgar 
165. scurry ------ move quickly with 
running steps 
166. sedentary ------ lazy 
167. senile /ˈsi·nɑɪl, ˈsen·ɑɪl/ ------ 
infirm; weak 
168. sinecure50 ------ easy safe 
169. singular ------ one of a kind 
170. sinister ------ evil 
171. skirmish ------ small battle, short 
argument 
172. solace /ˈsɑː.lɪs/ ------ peace; help 
and comfort 
173. solicit ------ ask for 
174. sordid ------ sleazy 
175. spew51 /spjuː/ ------ spit out 
176. spontaneous ------ unrehearsed 
177. sporadic /spəˈræd.ɪk/ ------ 
random 
178. squeamish ------ sensitive 
179. steeped ------ drenched; soaked 
180. stentorian52 ------ booming voice 
181. stereotype ------ generalization 
182. stipulate ------ specify 
183. strife ------ tension, conflict, violent 
or angry disagreement 
184. stymie /ˈstaɪ.mi/ ------ hinder 
185. subjugate /ˈsʌb.dʒə.ɡeɪt/ ------ 
enslave 
186. subterfuge /ˈsʌb.tɚ.fjuːdʒ/ ------ 
trick 
187. subterranean ------ underground 
188. succumb /səˈkʌm/ ------ give in 
189. sultry ------ hot and humid 
190. sumptuous ------ luxurious 
191. supine ------ flat on your back 
192. supplication ------ pleading 
193. surge ------ increase suddenly and 
strongly 
194. surmise53 ------ predict 
195. surreptitious /ˌsɝː.əpˈtɪʃ.əs/ ------ 
done secretly 
196. susceptible /səˈsep.tɪ.bl̩/ ------ 
vulnerable 
197. symptomatic ------ showing signs 
198. taboo ------ forbidden 
199. taint ------ corrupt 
200. tangible ------ touchable 
201. technology ------ engineering and 
science 
202. terminate ------ end 
203. throng ------ mob; crowd 
204. thwart ------ hinder; foil 
205. timorous /ˈtɪm.ɚ.əs/ ------ nervous, 
timid 
206. tinge ------ contain a slight amount 
of 
207. tolerate ------ put up with 
208. tortuous54 ------ winding 
209. tradition ------ custom 
210. tranquil /ˈtræŋ·kwɪl/ ------ calm 
211. tremulous /ˈtrem.jə.ləs/ ------ 
shaky 
212. trenchant55 ------ sarcastic 
213. truncated [ not gradable ] us 
/ˈtrʌŋ·keɪ·tɪ̬d/ ------ shortened 
214. turbulent ------ agitated 
215. temerity56 ------ boldness 
216. ubiquitous /juːˈbɪk.wə.t̬əs/ ------ 
everywhere 
217. ultimate ------ final 
218. unabated ------ without becoming 
weaker in strength or force 
219. underwrite /ˈʌn.dɚ.raɪt/ ------ 
sponsor 
220. universal ------ broad; worldwide 
221. urbane ------ sophisticated 
222. utopia57 ------ perfect society 
223. valor /ˈvæl·ər/ ------ great bravery 
224. veneer58 ------ something that 
hides something unpleasant or 
unwanted 
225. venom ------ poison 
226. vexatious59 ------ distressing, 
bothersome 
227. viable ------ possible 
228. vicissitudes /vɪˈsɪs.ə.tuːdz/ ------ 
changes and unexpected 
difficulties 
229. vigilant ------ watchful 
230. virile /ˈvɪr.ᵊl, ˈvɪr.aɪl/ ------ powerful, 
strong, and energetic 
231. virulent60 /ˈvɪr.ʊ.lənt/ ------ 
harmful 
232. voluble /ˈvɑːl.jə.bəl/ ------ 
speaking a lot, with confidence 
and enthusiasm 
233. voracious ------ consuming a lot 
234. vulnerable /ˈvʌl·nər·ə·bəl/------ 
susceptible /səˈsep.tɪ.bl/̩ 
235. wan ------ pale and looking sick or 
tired 
236. wrest61 ------ usurp /juːˈsɝːp, ˈzɝːp/ 
237. zealous /ˈzel.əs/ ------ enthusiastic 
and eager 
238. virtuosity62 /ˌvɜr·tʃuˈɑ·sə·ti̬/ ------ 
brilliance / ˈbrɪl.jəns/ 
 
• Next class: 
• You will know the English alphabet, with descriptive and analytical charts of consonants and vowels; 
• You will understand the digraphs and the consonantal and vocalic /voʊˈkæl.ɪk/ clusters. 
 In this class, you: 
• Recognized the particularities and the concepts of speaking and writing; 
• Recognized the use context of formal and informal English. 
 
52 /stenˈtɔːr.i.ən/ formal 
using a very loud voice, or (of a voice) very loud 
53 verb [ T ] us /sərˈmɑɪz/ to decide that something is true without having 
complete information or proof: 
54 with many turns and changes of direction; not direct or simple 
55 /ˈtren·tʃənt/ (of something said or written) forcefully and effectively 
expressed, and often in few words: 
56 /təˈmer.ə.ti̬/ formal disapproving a willingness to do or say something that 
shocks or upsets other people 
57 (the idea of) a perfect society in which everyone works well with each other 
and is happy 
58 uk /vəˈnɪər/ us /-ˈnɪr/ a thin layer of decorative wood or plastic used to cover 
a cheaper material 
59 /vekˈseɪ.ʃəs/ old-fashioned difficult to deal with and causing a lot of anger, 
worry, or argument. 
60 → A virulent disease or poison is dangerous and spreads or affects people 
very quickly. 
→ formal full of hate and violent opposition 
61 → formal to get something with effort or difficulty: 
→ to violently pull something away from someone 
62 noun [ no plural ] uk /ˌvɜː·tjuˈɒs·ə·ti̬/ us /ˌvɜr·tʃuˈɑ·sə·ti̬/ formal the quality of 
being extremely skilled at something, especially at playing an instrument or 
performing. 
Lesson 3, phonetics and phonology 
 
Goals: 
1. Know the English alphabet, with descriptive and analytical [ˌæn.əlˈɪt̬.ɪkᵊl] charts of consonants and 
vowels. 
2. Understand the digraphs and the vocalic and consonantal clusters. 
 
Activity 
 Are you ready for a challenge? Here are some words and phrases written in phonetic alphabet. Transcribe 
them and decide where they fit in the text below). 
 
1. /sɔːrt əv ˈpɜr·sən/ 
sort of person 
2. /reɪn/ rain 
3. /ˈstoʊ.ni/ stony 
4. /brɑʊn suːp/ brown soup 
5. /ˈmuː.vɪŋ/ moving 
6. /went bɜrst/ went burst 
7. /ˈwʌn·dər·fəl pleɪs/ 
wonderful place 
8. /ˈek·sə·lənt ˈmɑːr.kɪts/ 
excellent markets 
9. /ɡoʊ wɪn ðə siː/ go in the 
sea 
10. /ˈɑr·kɪˌtek·tʃərz naɪs/ 
architecture’s nice 
11. /ˌkʌtˈpraɪs/ cut-price 
12. /fænˈtæs.tɪ.kəl.i/ 
fantastically 
13. /ðeɪv ɡɑːt ɪt/ they’ve got 
it 
14. /ˈmɑr·və·ləs/ marvelous 
15. /ˈiː.vən ˈbet̬·ər/ even 
better 
16. /briːz/ breeze 
17. /ˈhɑː.lə.deɪz/ holidays 
 
Jack and I were going for our holidays, but the (1) cut-price travel firm that was offering three weeks in the sun 
for £500 (2) went burst. We went to Brighton instead. Now Brighton is a (3) wonderful place to have a 
seaside holiday, provided you don’t want to (4) go in the sea or lie on the beach. The beach is (5) stony, you 
see, and the sea is cold, (6) brown soup. But the restaurants in Brighton are (7) fantastically good. Indian, 
Chinese, you name it, (8) they’ve got it. There are theatres and cinemas and some really (9) excellent 
markets. Even the (10) architecture’s nice. You can have a (11) marvelous holiday in Brighton. And it’s (12) 
even better if you’re the (13) sort of person who likes a constant stiff (14) breeze, fast-(15) moving clouds, 
and a good chance of (16) rain. 
 
Goal: Lead the student to the reflection of the English phonetic alphabet as for vowels and consonants as to 
focus the differences between voiceless and voiced sounds and long and short vowel sounds. 
 
Without a universal transcription system for phonetics and phonology, writing down the unfamiliar sounds of 
other languages presents an almost insuperable [ɪnˈsuː.pər.ə.bəl] challenge. Take, for example, a sound which 
is used only paralinguistically1 [ˌpær.ə.lɪŋˈɡwɪs.tɪkᵊl.i] in English (that is, for some purpose outside the 
language system itself), but which is a perfectly ordinary consonant in other languages, just as [b] in but or [l] 
in list are in English, namely the ‘tut-tut’ sound made to signal disapproval. When we see this, we do not think 
of a whole word, but of a repeated clicking. This description is hopelessly inadequate, however, for anyone 
else trying to recognize the sound in question, or learn how to make it. 
 
Hearing a native speaker use the ‘tut-tut’ click in a language where it is an ordinary consonant does not help us 
understand how the sound is made or how it compares with others. Likewise, adopting the usual spelling from 
that language (assuming it is not one of the many without an orthography [ɔːˈθɑː.ɡrə.fi]) might let us write the 
‘tut-tut’ sound down; but this technique would not produce a universal system for writing sounds of the world’s 
languages, since linguists would tend to use their own spelling systems as far as possible, and opt for 
representations from the languages they happened to know for other sounds. There would be little 
consistency, and generalization of such a system would be difficult. 
 
 
1 Paralanguage noun [ U ] /ˈpær.əˌlæŋ.ɡwɪdʒ/ /ˈper.ə-/ specialized the ways in which people show what they mean other 
than by the words they use, for example by their tone of voice, or by making sounds with the breath: 
The International Phonetic Alphabet was proposed in 1888; it has been under constant review ever since by 
the International Phonetic Association, and the latest revision dates from 1996. Although a universal system of 
description and transcription might be desirable in principle, and even in practice when dealing with unfamiliar 
languages and sounds, readers of a book both in and on English might question the necessity of learning the 
IPA. 
 
First, there is considerable ambiguity [ˌæm.bəˈɡjuː.ə.t̬i] in the English spelling system, and it works in both 
directions: many sounds to one spelling, and many spellings to one sound. The former situation results in ‘eye-
rhymes’, or forms which look as if they ought to have the same pronunciation, but don’t. There are various 
doggerel2 /ˈdɑː.ɡɚ.əl/ poems about this sort of ambiguity (often written by non-native speakers who have 
struggled with the system): one begins by pointing out a set of eye-rhymes – ‘I gather you already know, Of 
plough and cough and through and dough’. Those four words, which we might expect to rhyme on the basis of 
the spelling, in fact end in four quite different vowels, and cough has a final consonant too. On the other hand, 
see, sea, people, amoeba3 /əˈmiː.bə/ and fiend have the same long [i:] vowel, but five different spellings. 
 
Despite these multiple ambiguities, attempts are regularly made to indicate pronunciations using the spelling 
system. Nevertheless [ˌnev.ɚ.ðəˈles], none are wholly successful, for a variety of different reasons. 
 
The Phonetic Alphabet 
Let’s analyze the English sounds through the charts below. 
 
Symbols of the International Phonetic Alphabet; Pronunciation; The Sounds of English 
 
The Phonetic Alphabet 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2 /ˈdɑː.ɡɚ.əl/ poetry that is silly or badly written 
3 amoebanoun [ C ] plural amoebae uk /-biː/ us amoebas US ameba plural amebae or amebas uk /əˈmiː.bə/ us 
/əˈmiː.bə/ a very small, simple organism consisting of only one cellSchwa – it appears only in unstressed syllables. The vowel of words like 'bought', 'coffee' varies among 
dialects. Northeastern American varieties use this one, called 'open o', while most Californians (esp. Southern 
Californians), use 'ah' . The name schwa comes from Hebrew, which does have a symbol for this sound. 
 
 
Compare the IPA with the dictionary symbol: 
International Phonetic 
Alphabet 
 Dictionary 
symbol 
English Words 
[s] s sit, basket, kiss 
[z] z zoo, busy, buzz 
[t] t top, return, cat 
[d] d day, ladder, bed 
 [θ] 
 [ð] 
 th 
th 
think, bathtub, mouth 
the, father 
[∫] sh shoe, nation, wish 
[t∫] ch chair, witch 
[ʒ] zh rouge, vision, measure 
[dʒ] j jaw, magic, age 
[j] y you, yes 
[p] p pay, apple, stop 
[b] b boy, rabbit, tub 
[f] f fun, office, if 
[v] v very, over, save 
[k] k cake, car, book 
[g] g go, begin, egg 
[w] w we, away 
[l] l lamp, pillow, bell 
[r] r red, marry, car 
[h] h hat, behind 
[m] m me, swim 
[n] n no, run 
[ŋ] ŋ sing, playing 
 
There are some consonant sounds that can cause some trouble for non-native speakers: 
 
Let’s take an attentive look at two of them: 
1. TH sound 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ag4qoNzEH4w 
 
2. North American pronunciation of the sounds: 
ɪ, ɚ, r, d, ð TH, f, æ, n, t, & k while using the sentence "I heard the fish here is fantastic" as an icebreaker. 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kjB7CNCx3jI&feature=relmfu 
 
PHONETIC CONCEPTS 
 
Consonant 
A consonant is a speech sound made by partially or completely blocking the flow of air through the mouth 
(using the lips, teeth, tongue, and palate [ˈpæl.ət]). 
 
Consonant X Contoid4 [ˈkɑːn.tɔɪd] 
 
Since the word ‘consonant’ is used in describing the phonology of a language that can include sounds which 
could be classed phonetically as vowels (Y, W), so we ought also to have a different word which covers just 
those sounds which are phonetically of the type that produces a significant obstruction to the flow of air through 
the vocal tract: the term proposed is CONTOID. 
 
 
 
4 of or relating to a sound characterized by stoppage or obstruction of the flow of air in the vocal tract; consonant like. 
ATTENTION! 
- In some words, the h is soundless: hour, honest, honesty, heir, honor, honorary, herb. 
 
VOWEL 
A vowel is a speech sound made by allowing breath to flow out of the mouth, without closing any part of the 
mouth or throat. 
Also, attention to these two sounds, which are very similar: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
In order to practice the difference of the sounds above, check the following site: 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nh6uuwkA3o8&feature=related 
ATTENTION! 
When 'u' makes the same sound as the 'y' in 'you', or 'o' makes the same sound as 'w' in "won', then 'a 
[indefinite article]' is used. The word-initial 'y' sound ('unicorn') is actually a glide5 [j] phonetically, which has 
consonantal properties; consequently, it is treated as a consonant, requiring 'a'. 
a union · a united front · a unicorn · a used napkin · a U.S. ship 
an "unununium' (an artificially produced radioactive element, pronounced [ə nəˈnʌn i əm], with the accent on 
the 'nʌn'), a one-legged man, a ouananiche (a type of landlocked salmon, pronounced [ˌwɑːnəˈniːʃ], with the 
emphasis on the ‘niːʃ’), a Ouija (a trademark for a spiritual and telepathic game board, pronounced [ˈwiː.dʒə], 
with the emphasis on the 'ˈwiː'). 
 
DIGRAPH 
A digraph is a combination of letters or characters used to represent a single speech sound. 
 
TYPES OF DIGRAPHS: 
“Exocentric” [ˌek.soʊˈsen.trɪk] digraphs, where the sound of the digraph is different from that of either of its 
constituent letters. These are rarely considered "silent". There are examples where the phoneme has no 
standard single-letter representation, as with consonants ‹ng› for /ŋ/ as in sing, ‹th› for /θ/ as in thin or /ð/ as in 
then, and diphthongs ‹ou› in out or ‹oi› in point and where standard single-letter representation uses another 
letter, as with ‹gh› in enough or ‹ph› in physical instead of ‹f›. 
 
“Endocentric" [ˌen.doʊˈsen.trɪk] 
digraphs, where the sound of the 
digraph is the same as that of 
one of its constituent letters. 
These include most double 
consonants6, as ‹bb› in 
clubbed7; though not geminate 
consonants8, as ‹ss› in 
 
5 [countable] (phonetics) a speech sound made while moving the tongue from one position to another 
6 Doubled consonant, in writing, a digraph consisting of a repeated consonant 
7 shaped like a club 
8 Gemination, or consonant elongation, is the pronouncing in phonetics of a spoken consonant for an audibly longer 
period of time than that of a short consonant. It is distinct from stress and may appear independently of it. Gemination 
literally means "twinning [to join two people or things closely together ]" and comes from the same Latin root as "Gemini". 
misspell, the discontiguous9 digraphs whose second element is "magic e", e.g. ‹a_e› in rate (cf. rat), ‹i_e› in 
fine10 (cf. fin) and others such as ‹ck› (which is in effect the "doubled" form of ‹k›), ‹gu› as in guard, vogue 
[voʊɡ]; ‹ea› as in bread, heavy, etc. These are difficult for writers and sometimes for readers. 
 
Vowel11 digraphs 
A vowel digraph is two letters with the first letter making a long sound and the second letter is silent. We call 
this: "first one does the talking, the second keeps on walking." 
In English include EA (teach), EE (free), EY (key), IE (piece), OO (book), OA (road) and UE (true), AU 
(audience), EO (people), IO (region), AI (main), OU (soul). 
The digraph oo has two sounds. One is the sound heard in hook /hʊk/. The other sound is the sound heard in 
tooth /tuːθ/. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Nook noun UK /nʊk/ US literary = a small space that is hidden or partly sheltered 
 
BLEND OR CLUSTER 
It is a combination of two or more letters, where all of the sounds can be distinguished. 
 
CONSONANT BLEND OR CLUSTER 
Two or three consonants are blended together, each consonant sound may be heard in the blend. Some 
examples of consonant blends are: 
 
bl–black, cl–clap, fl–flip, gl–glass, pl–play, sl–slip, br–brick, cr–crab, dr–drop, fr–from, gr–grab, pr–press, tr–
trap, sc–scale, sk–skip, sm–smell, sn–snail, sp–spill, rl–world, st–stop, sw–swell, str–stray (in which there 
are two clusters: s+t and t+r), xth–sixth (in which the cluster is x + th). 
 
One of the most difficult clusters to be pronounced is RL, as in WORLD. Check the correct way to pronounce 
it: 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wIoD11Q8WQk&feature=related 
 
DIPHTHONGS OR TWIN-VOWELS OR GLIDING VOWELS 
Vowel diphthong refers to the blending of two vowels sounds, both vowel sounds are usually heard and they 
make a gliding sound.: 
More Examples: 
 
1. here, near, dear, beer 
2. late, came, lane, day, make, again 
3. cure, newer, tube 
4. boy, voice, oil, boil, toy, noise 
5. low 
6. there, wear 
7. time, bite, light, try, night 
8. house, ouch!, loud, mouth 
 
9 (ˌdɪskənˈtɪɡjʊəs) adjective Scottish disconnected or without contact 
10 ordinary French brandy, usually with no indication of the maker's name or location. 
11 https://www.thoughtco.com/vowel-sounds-and-letters-1692601 
 
ATTENTION! 
In the English word "ride", the "i" would be transcribed phonetically as /aɪ/. Although it appears as a single 
letter in our writing, it actually consists of two vowels - if you say the word you should be able to hear the two. 
The same happens to "no", "so" /oʊ/. 
 
HIATUS [haɪˈeɪ.t̬əs] 
In phonology, hiatus or diaeresis [daɪˈer.ə.sɪs] refers to two vowel sounds occurring in adjacent [əˈdʒeɪ.sᵊnt] 
syllables, with no intervening consonant. When two adjacent vowel sounds