BOURDIEU, Pierre The Forms of Capital

Prévia do material em texto

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The socialworldisaccumulatedhistory,and
if it is not to bereducedto a discontinuous
seriesof instantaneousmechanicalequilibria
betweenagentswho are treatedas inter-
changeableparticles,onemust reintroduce
intoit thenotionof capitalandwithit,accu-
mulationandallitseffects.Capitalisaccumu-
latedlabor (in its materializedform or its
'incorporated,'embodiedform)which,when
appropriatedonaprivate,i.e.,exclusive,basis
byagentsorgroupsofagents,enablesthemto
appropriatesocialenergyintheformofreified
orlivinglabor.1tisavisinsita,aforceinscribed
in objectiveorsubjectivestructures,butit is
alsoa lexinsita,theprincipleunderlyingthe
immanentregularitiesofthesocialworld.It is
whatmakesthegamesof society-not least,
the economicgame-somethingotherthan
simple gamesof chanceofferingat every
momentthepossibilityofamiracle.~oulette,
whichholdsouttheopportunityofwinninga
lot of moneyin a shortspaceof time,and
thereforeof changingone's social status
quasi-instantaneously,andinwhichthewin-
ningof thepreviousspinof thewheelcanbe
stakedandlostateverynewspin,givesafairly
accurateimageof thisimaginaryuniverseof
perfectcompetitionor perfectequalityof
opportunity,aworldwithoutinertia,without
accumulation,withoutheredityor acquired
properties,in whicheverymomentis per-
fectlyindependentofthepreviousone,every
soldierhasamarshal'sbatoninhisknapsack,
and everyprize can be attained,instanta-
neously,byeveryone,sothatateachmoment
anyonecanbecomeanything.Capital,which,
in its objectifiedor embodiedforms,takes
timeto accumulateandwhich,asapotential
2
The Forms of Capital
PierreBourdieu
,..
capacitytoproduceprofitsandto reproduce
itselqnidenticalorexpandedform,containsa
tendencyto persistin its being, is a force
inscribedin theobjectivityof thingsso that
everythingisnotequally'possibleor impossi-
ble.1And thestructureof thedistributionof
thedifferenttypesandsubtypesofcapitalata
givenmomentin timerepresentstheimma-
nentstructureofthesocialworld,i.e.,theset
of constraints,inscribedin theveryrealityof
thatworld,whichgovernits functioningin a
durableway,determiningthechancesofsuc-
cessforpractices.
It is in factimpossibleto accountfor the
structureandfunctioningof thesocialworld
unlessonereintroducescapitalinallitsforms
andnotsolelyin theoneformrecognizedby
economic theory. Economic theory has
allowedtobefoisteduponitadefinitionofthe
economyof practiceswhichis thehistorical
inventionof capitalism;andby reducingthe
universeofexchangestomercantileexchange,
whichisobjectivelyandsubjectivelyoriented
towardthemaximizationof profit,i.e.,(eco-
nomically)self-interested,it has implicitly
defined the other forms of exchangeas
noneconomic,andthereforedisinterested.In
particular,it definesas disinterestedthose
formsofexchangewhichensurethetransub-
stantiationwherebythemostmaterialtypesof
capital-those which are economicin the
restrictedsense-can presentthemselvesin
the immaterialform of culturalcapitalor
socialcapitalandviceversa.Interest,in the
restrictedsenseit isgivenineconomictheory,
cannotbe producedwithoutproducingits
negativecounterpart,disinterestedness.The
classofpracticeswhoseexplicitpurposeis to
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lIIaximizemonetaryprofitcannotbedefined
(Ill Ruehwithoutproducingthepurposeless
I'nalityof culturalor artisticpracticesand
Iheirproducts;theworldof bourgeoisman,
withhisdouble-entryaccounting,cannotbe
Inventedwithoutproducingthepure,perfect
universeof theartistandtheintellectualand
Ihc gratuitousactivitiesof art-for-art'ssake
ftndpuretheory.In otherwords,theconstitu-
tionof a scienceof mercantilerelationships
which,inasmuchasit takesfor grantedthe
veryfoundationsoftheorderitclaimstoana-
Iyzt..'-privateproperty,profit, wagelabor,
rlc.-is notevenascienceofthefieldofeco-
nomicproduction,haspreventedtheconsti-
lutionof ageneralscienceofthe economyof
practices,which would treat mercantile
"~changeasaparticularcaseofexchangeinall
hHforms.
It isremarkablethatthepracticesandassets
Ihussalvagedfromthe'icywaterofegotistical
nlleulation'(andfromscience)arethevirtual
monopolyof the dominant class-as if
l'l'Onomismhadbeenableto reduceevery-
'hingtoeconomicsonlybecausethereduction
IInwhichthatdisciplineisbasedprotectsfrom
.~crilegiousreduction everything which
nrcdstobeprotected.If economicsdealsonly
withpracticesthathavenarrowlyeconomic
Intcrestastheirprincipleandonlywithgoods
Ihat aredirectlyandimmediatelyconvertible
IlItomoney(whichmakesthemquantifiable),
Ihcntheuniverseofbourgeoisproductionand
"~changebecomesanexceptionandcansee
IIHclf andpresentitselfasarealmofdisinter-
1'8tedness.As everyoneknows,priceless
,hingshavetheirprice,andtheextremediffi-
I'ultyof convertingcertainpracticesandcer-
IIllnobjectsintomoneyisonlyduetothefact
Ihat thisconversionis refusedin thevery
IlIIentionthatproducesthem,whichisnoth-
IlIgotherthanthedenial(Verneinung)of the
peonomy.A generalscienceoftheeconomyof
IlrRctices,capableof reappropriatingthe
totalityof the practiceswhich, although
ubjectivelyeconomic,arenotandcannotbe
Nodallyrecognizedaseconomic,andwhich
ranbeperformedonlyatthecostof awhole
Inborof dissimulation'or, more precisely,
fllphemization,mustendeavortograspcapital
IlI1dprofitinalltheirformsandtoestablishthe
Inwswherebythedifferenttypesof capital(or
power,which amountsto the samething)
changeintooneanother.l "
I )epcndingon thc fieldin whiehit rune.
TheFormsofCapital 47
tions,andatthecostofthemoreorlessexpen-
sivetransformationswhicharetheprecondi-
tion for its efficacyin thefield in question,
capitalcanpresentitselfinthreefundamental
guises:aseconomiccapital,whichis immedi-
atelyanddirectlyconvertibleintomoneyand
maybeinstitutionalizedin theformofprop-
ertyrights;asculturalcapital,whichis con-
vertible,oncertainconditions,intoeconomic
capitaland maybe institutionalizedin the
form of educationalqualifications;and as
socialcapital,madeup of socialobligations
('connections'),whichis convertible,in cer-
tain conditions,into economiccapitaland
maybeinstitutionalizedintheformofatitleof
nobility.3
Cultural Capital
Culturalcapitalcanexistinthreeforms:inthe
embodiedstate,i.e.,intheformoflong-lasting
dispositionsof the mind and body; in the
objectifiedstate,in theformofculturalgoods
(pictures,books,dictionaries,instruments,
machines,etc.),whicharethetraceorrealiza-
tionof theoriesorcritiquesof thesetheories,
problematics,etc.;andin theinstitutionalized
state,a formofobjectificationwhichmustbe
setapartbecause,aswill beseenin thecaseof
educationalqualifications,it confersentirely
original propertieson the cultural capital
whichit ispresumedtoguarantee.
The readershouldnot be misledby the
somewhatperemptoryairwhichtheeffortatt
axiomizationmaygivetomyargument.4The
notionof culturalcapitalinitiallypresented
itselftome,in thecourseofresearch,asathe-
oreticalhypothesiswhichmadeit possibleto
explaintheunequalscholasticachievementof
childrenoriginatingfromthedifferentsocial
classesby relatingacademicsuccess,Le.,the
specificprofitswhichchildrenfromthedif-
ferentclassesandclassfractionscanobtainin
the academicmarket,to the distributionof
culturalcapitalbetweentheclassesandclass
fractions.This startingpointimpliesabreak
withthepresuppositionsinherentbothin the
commonsenseview,whichseesacademicsuc-
cessorfailureasaneffectofnaturalaptitudes,
and in humancapitaltheories.Economists
mightseemto deservecredit for explicitly
raising the question of the relationship
hl:twcl:nthe ratesof profit on educational
8TheFonnsofCapital
investmentandoneconomicinvestment(and
itsevolution).But theirmeasurementof the
yield from scholastic investment takes
accountonly of monetaryinvestmentsand
profits, or those directly convertibleinto
money,suchasthecostsofschoolingandthe
cashequivalentoftimedevotedtostudy;theyareunabletoexplainthedifferentproportions
of theirresourceswhichdifferentagentsor
differentsocialclassesallocateto economic
investmentandculturalinvestmentbecause
they fail to takesystematicaccountof the
structureof thedifferentialchancesof profit
whichthevariousmarketsoffertheseagents
orclassesasafunctionof thevolumeandthe
compositionof theirassets(seeesp.Becker
19Mb).Furthermore,becausetheyneglectto
relatescholasticinvestmentstrategiesto the
wholesetof educationalstrategiesandtothe
system of reproductionstrategies,they
inevitably,byanecessaryparadox,letslipthe
besthiddenand sociallymostdeterminant
educationalinvestment,namely,thedomestic
transmissionofculturalcapital.Their studies
of therelationshipbetweenacademicability
andacademicinvestmentshowthattheyare
unawarethatabilityortalentisitselftheprod-
uctofaninvestmentoftimeandculturalcap-
ital(Becker1964a:63-6).Not surprisingly,
whenendeavoringto evaluatetheprofitsof
scholasticinvestment,theycanonlyconsider
the profitabmtyof educationalexpenditure
for societyas a whole, the 'social rateof
return,'orthe'socialgainofeducationasmea-
suredby itseffectson nationalproductivity'
(Becker19Mb:121,155),Thistypicallyfunc-
tionalistdefinitionof thefunctionsofeduca-
tion ignores the contributionwhich the
educationalsystemmakestothereproduction
of the socialstructureby sanctioningthe
hereditarytransmissionof culturalcapital.
From the very beginning,a definitionof
humancapital,despiteitshumanisticconno-
tations,doesnot movebeyondeconomism
and ignores,inter alia, the fact that the
~ from educationalaction
dependson the culturalcapitalpreviously
investedby the family.Moreover,the eco-
nomicandsocialyieldoftheeducationalqual-
ificationdep'endson thesocialcapital,again
inherited,whichcanbeusedtobackitup.
THE EMBODIED STATE
Mostofthepropertiesofculturalcapitalcan
bededucedfromthefactthat,in itsfunda-
mentalstate,it is linkedtothebodyandpre-
supposesembodiment.The accumulationof
culturalcapitalin theembodiedstate,i.e.,in
theformofwhatiscalledculture,cultivation,
Bi/dung,presupposesa processof embodi-
ment, incorporation,which, insofar as it
impliesalaborofinculcationandassimilation,
coststime,timewhichmustbeinvestedper-
sonallybytheinvestor.Like theacquisitionof
amuscularphysiqueorasuntan,it cannotbe
doneatsecondhand(sothatalleffectsofdel-
egationareruledout).
The workofacquisitionis workononeself
(self-improvement),an effort that presup-
posesapersonalcost (onpaiedesapersonne,as
wesayinFrench),aninvestment,aboveallof
time,butalsoofthatsociallyconstitutedform
of libido,libidosciendi,withalltheprivation,
renunciation,andsacrificethatit mayentail.
It followsthattheleastinexactofall themea-
surementsof culturalcapitalarethosewhich
takeastheirstandardthelengthof acquisi-
tion-so long,ofcourse,asthisisnotreduced
to lengthof schoolingandallowanceis made
forearlydomesticeducationbygivingitapos-
itivevalue(a gainin time,a headstart)or a
negativevalue(wastedtime,anddoublyso
becausemoretimemustbespentcorrecting
itseffects),accordingtoitsdistancefromthe
demandsofthescholasticmarke,t.s
This embodiedcapital,externalwealth
convertedintoanintegralpartof theperson,
intoahabitus,cannotbetransmittedinstanta-
neously(unlikemoney,propertyrights,or
eventitlesofnobility)bygiftorbequest,pur-
chaseor exchange.It followsthattheuseor
exploitationof culturalcapitalpresents,par-
ticularproblemsfor theholdersofeconomic
or politicalcapital,whethertheybe private
patronsor, at the otherextreme,entrepre-
neursemployingexecutivesendowedwitha
specificculturalcompetence(nottomention
thenewstatepatrons).How canthiscapital,
so closelylinked to the person,be bought
withoutbuyingthepersonandso losingthe
veryeffectoflegitimationwhichpresupposes
the dissimulationof dependence?How can
thiscapitalbeconcentrated-assomeunder-
takingsdemand-withoutconcentratingthe
possessorsof thecapital,whichcanhaveall
sortsofunwantedconsequences?
Culturalcapitalcanbeacquired,toavary-
ingextent,dependingontheperiod,thesoci-
ety,andthesocialclass,in theabsenceofany
deliberateinculcation,and thereforequite
tlllI'OI1Ndously,It alwaysremainsmarkedby
11.1'llI'liuslconditionsof acquisitionwhich,
Ihl'Olll(hthemoreor lessvisiblemarksthey
11'11VI'(Muchasthepronunciationscharacteris-
Ih 0111clnssorregion),helptodetermineits
.lllIrhwtivevalue,It cannotbe accumulated
IlI'yondthe appropriatingcapacitiesof an
IIlIlIvlllul1lagent;it declinesanddieswithits
111111'1'1'(withhisbiologicalcapacity,hismem-
1111',l'I'C.).Becauseit is thuslinkedinnumer-
'11I11wnysto thepersonin hisbiological
"lIl(lIlnrityandissubjecttoahereditarytrans-
111INNlonwhichis alwaysheavilydisguised,or
I'ITn Invisible,it defiestheold, deep-rooted
,ltllll1wriontheGreek juristsmadebetween
IlIhlll'lIl;dproperties(tapatroa)andacquired
1"IIPI.rties(epikteta),i.e.,thosewhichanindi-
Ihlllnlnddstohisheritage.It thusmanagesto
'1IlI1hil1etheprestigeof innatepropertywith
Ihl l1tul'itsof acquisition.Becausethesocial
I ,ulllhionsofitstransmissionandacquisition
., I I1wredisguisedthanthoseof economic
1111'hnl,it ispredisposedtofunctionassym-
1IIIIh'cnpital,i.e.,tobeunrecognizedascapital
.lIlItI'l'cognizedaslegitimatecompetence,as
.11tIhelI'ity exertinganeffectof (mis)recogni-
111111,o.g"inthematrimonialmarketandinall
,I...II1lu'ketsin whicheconomiccapitalis not
IlIlIy I'eeognized,whetherin mattersofcul-
11111'withthegreatartcollectionsorgreatcul-
IIlI'n ifoundations,or in socialwelfare,with the
It'lIlIomyof generosityandthegift.Further-
111111'11,thespecificallysymboliclogicof dis-
IIII"llon additionallysecuresmaterialand
q\llIho!icprofitsfor thepossessorsof a large
IlIhuntl capital:any givenculturalcompe-
11'IWl'(e.g"beingabletoreadinaworldofillit-
1'1'1111111)derivesa scarcityvaluefromits
I"IMIIioninthedistributionofculturalcapital
Ill1dyiddsprofitsof distinctionfor itsowner.
III 01herwords,the sharein profitswhich
1II'IIreeculturalcapitalsecuresinclass-divided
lllU~lctiesis based,in thelastanalysis,on the
(,wtIhatall agentsdonothavetheeconomic
I1l1dculturalmeansfor prolongingtheirchil-
Ih'~I1'seducationbeyondtheminimumneces-
IIlIrytorthereproductionof thelabor-power
1"1U1Ivalorizedatagivenmoment.6
'(,husthecapital,in thesenseof themeans
ornppropriatingtheproductofaccumulated
IlIhlll'intheobjectifiedstatewhichisheldbya
~lvel1agent,dependsforitsrealefficacyonthe
rOI'l1!ofthedistributionofthemeansofappro-
printing the accumulatedand ohjeclivdy
IIvnilnhleI'CSCIIIrees;and the rclaliCII,,;!!ip01
The Forms of Capital(~
appropriationbetweenan agent and the
resourcesobjectivelyavailable,andhencethe
profitstheyproduce,ismediatedbytherela-
tionshipof(objectiveand/orsubjective)com-
petition betweenhimself and the other
possessorsof capitalcompetingfor thesame
goods,in which scarcity-and through it
socialvalue-is generated.The structureof
thefield,i.e.,theunequaldistributionofcap-
ital,isthesourceofthespecificeffectsofcap-
ital, i.e.,theappropriationof profitsandthe
powertoimposethelawsoffunctioningofthe
fieldmostfavourabletocapitalanditsrepro-
duction.
But the most powerfulprinciple of the
symbolicefficacyof culturalcapitalnodoubt
liesinthelogicofitstransmission.On theone
hand,theprocessofappropriatingobjectified
culturalcapitalandthetimenecessaryforit to
takeplacemainlydependontheculturalcap-
italembodiedin thewholefamily-through
(amongotherthings)thegeneralizedArrow
effectandall formsof implicittransmission.'
On theotherhand,theinitialaccumulationof
culturalcapital,thepreconditionfor thefast,
easyaccumulationofeverykindofusefulcul-
tural capital,startsat the outset,without
delay,withoutwastedtime,onlyfor theoff-
springof familiesendowedwith strongcul-
tural capital;in thiscase,the accumulation
periodcoversthe wholeperiodof socializa-
tion. It followsthatthetransmissionof cul-
turalcapitalisnodoubtthebesthiddenform
of hereditarytransmissionof capital,andit
thereforereceivesproportionatelygreate)weightinthesystemof reproductionstrate
gies,asthedirect,visibleformsof transmis-
siontendto bemorestronglycensoredand
controlled.
It can immediatelybe seenthat the link
betweeneconomicand cultural capital is
establishedthroughthemediationofthetime
neededforacquisition.Differencesinthecul-
turalcapitalpossessedbythefamilyimplydif-
ferencesfirstin theageatwhichtheworkof
transmissionandaccumulationbegins-the
limitingcasebeingfull useofthetimebiolog-
icallyavailable,withthemaximumfreetime
beingharnessedto maximumculturalcapi-
tal-and thenin thecapacity,thusdefined,to
satisfythespecificallyculturaldemandsof a
prolongedprocessof acquisition.Further-
more,andin correlationwiththis,thelength
of timefor whichagivenindividualcanpro-
101110(his acquisitionprocessdependson the
(50 : TheFormsofCapital
\.-/'
lengthoftimeforwhichhisfamilycanprovide
him with thefreetime,i.e., timefreefrom
economicnecessity;whichistheprecondition
fortheinitialaccumulation(timewhichcanbe
evaluatedasahandicaptobemadeup).
THE OBJECTIFIED STATE
Culturalcapital,in theobjectifiedstate,hasa
numberof propertieswhicharedefinedonly
in therelationshipwithculturalcapitalin its
embodiedform,The culturalcapitalobjecti-
fied in materialobjectsandmedia,suchas
writings, paintings, monuments,instru-
ments,etc.,istransmissiblein itsmateriality.
A collectionofpaintings,forexample,canbe
transmittedaswellaseconomiccapital(if not
better,becausethecapitaltransferismoredis-
guised).But what is transmissibleis legal
ownershipandnot(or notnecessarily)what
constitutesthe preconditionfor specific
appropriation,namely,thepossessionof the
meansof 'consuming'a paintingor usinga
machine,which, beingnothingother than
embodiedcapital,aresubjecttothesamelaws
of transmission. 8
Thus culturalgoodscanbe appropriated
both materially-which presupposeseco-
nomic capital-and symbolically-which
presupposesculturalcapital.It followsthat
theownerof themeansof productionmust
findawayofappropriatingeithertheembod-
iedcapitalwhichis thepreconditionof spe-
cific appropriationor the servicesof the
holders of this capital. To possessthe
machines,heonlyneedseconomiccapital;to
appropriatethemandusetheminaccordance
with their specificpurpose(definedby the
culturalcapital,ofscientificortechnicaltype,
incorporatedin them),hemusthaveaccessto
embodiedculturalcapital,eitherinpersonor
by proxy.This is no doubtthebasisof the
ambiguousstatusof cadres(executivesand
engineers).Ifit isemphasizedthattheyarenot
thepossessors(inthestrictlyeconomicsense)
of themeansof productionwhichtheyuse,
andthattheyderiveprofitfromtheirowncul-
turalcapitalonlyby sellingtheservicesand
productswhichit makespossible,thenthey
will be classifiedamong the dominated
groups;ifit isemphasizedthattheydrawtheir
profitsfromtheuseofaparticularformofcap-
ital,thentheywillbeclassifiedamongthe
dominantgroups.Everythingsuggeststhat
as theculturalcapitalincorporatedin the
meansofproductionincreases(andwithitthe
periodofembodimentneededto acquirethe
meansof appropriatingit), so thecollective
strengthof the holdersof cultural capital
wouldtendtoincrease-if theholdersof the
dominanttypeof capital(economiccapital)
werenot ableto setthe holdersof cultural
capital in competitionwith one another.
(Theyare,moreover,inclinedtocompetition
by the very conditionsin which they are
selectedandtrained,inparticularbythelogic
ofscholasticandrecruitmentcompetitions.)
Culturalcapitalin itsobjectifiedstatepre-
sentsitself with all the appearancesof an
autonomous, coherent universe which,
althoughtheproductofhistoricalaction,has
its own laws,transcendingindividualwills,
andwhich,as theexampleof languagewell
illustrates,thereforeremainsirreducibleto
thatwhicheachagent,oreventheaggregateof
theagents,canappropriate(i.e., to thecul-
turalcapitalembodiedineachagentorevenin
the aggregateof the agents).However, it
shouldnotbeforgottenthatit existsassym-
bolicallyandmateriallyactive,effectivecapi-
talonlyinsofarasit isappropriatedbyagents
andimplementedandinvestedasa weapon
andastakein thestruggleswhichgoonin the
fieldsofculturalproduction(theartisticfield,
thescientificfield,etc.)and,beyondthem,in
the field of the socialclasses-strugglesin
whichtheagentswieldstrengthsandobtain
'profitsproportionatetotheirmasteryof this
objectifiedcapital,andthereforetotheextent
oftheirembodiedcapital.'
THE INSTITUTIONAUZED STATE
The objectificationof culturalcapitalin the
formofacademicqualificationsis onewayof
neutralizingsomeof thepropertiesit derives
fromthefactthat,beingembodied,it hasthe
samebiologicallimitsasitsbearer.Thisobjec-
tification is what makes the difference
betweenthecapitalof theautodidact,which
maybe calledinto questionat anytime,or
eventheculturalcapitalofthecourtier,which
canyieldonlyill-definedprofits,of fluctuat-
ing value, in the marketof high-society
exchanges,andtheculturalcapitalacademi-
callysanctionedbylegallyguaranteedqualifi-
cations,formallyindependentofthepersonof
theirbearer.With theacademicqualification,
a certificateof culturalcompetencewhich
confersonitsholderaconventional,constant,
legally guaranteedvalue with respectto
culture,socialalchemyproducesa form of
1'lIhlll"IIcapitlllwhichhasarclntivl:nulol1omy
vllI'l\viIIitshl:arl:randevenvis-a-visthecul-
111I'111cnpitnlheeffectivelypossessesatagiven
IIHllncntin time,It institutesculturalcapital
hV l'OlIectivemagic,just as, accordingto
"".rll:nu-Ponty,thelivinginstitutetheirdead
Ih!'llughtheritualofmourning.Onehasonly
tllthinkoftheconcours(competitiverecruit-
1l1l'l1ll:xamination)which,outofthe contin-
1111111of infinitesimaldifferencesbetween
I
"II'filrmances,producessharp,absolute,last-
"11differences,suchasthatwhichseparates
Iht,Instsuccessfulcandidatefrom the first
1I1\/llIccessfulone,andinstitutesanessential
.11t1('rencebetweentheofficiallyrecognized,
1IIIIII'IInteedcompetenceandsimplecultural
1111'11111,whichisconstantlyrequiredtoprove
11_.11I', In thiscase,oneseesclearlytheperfor-
IIhlllvl:magicof thepowerof instituting,the
I",wl:rtoshowforthandsecurebeliefor,in a
WIU'd,toimposerecognition.
lIy conferringinstitutionalrecognitionon
lilt' culturalcapitalpossessedby any given
1\1('~nt,theacademicqualificationalsomakesit
I'IIMflibletocomparequalificationholdersand
"Vento exchangethem(by substitutingone
101'anotherin succession).Furthermore,it
IIInkesit possibletoestablishconversionrates
IIlHweenculturalcapitalandeconomiccapital
hyguaranteeingthemonetaryvalueofagiven
IlI'ademiccapital.lOThis productof thecon-
vcrsionofeconomiccapitalintoculturalcapi-
1nlestablishesthevalue,in termsof cultural
!III/)ital,of theholderof agivenqualificationI'Cativetootherqualificationholdersand,by
Ihesametoken,themonetaryvalueforwhich
Itcnnbeexchangedonthelabormarket(aca-
demicinvestmenthasno meaningunlessa
minimumdegreeof reversibilityof thecon-
vc:rsionit impliesis objectivelyguaranteed).
lIr.:causethe materialand symbolicprofits
whichtheacademicqualificationguarantees
.IKOdependon its scarcity,theinvestments
Itlllde(in timeandeffort)mayturnouttobe
Irssprofitablethanwasanticipatedwhenthey
weremade(therehavingbeen a de]acto
liIlangein theconversionratebetweenacade-
miccapitalandeconomiccapital),The strate-
Itiesfor convertingeconomiccapital into
culturalcapital,whichareamongtheshort-
IeI'm factors of the schooling explosion
nndthe inflationof qualifications,aregov-
ernedhy changesin the structureof the
chancesofprofitofferedhythedifferenttypes
(}fcapital.
ThoForm.ofCapitol 51
Social Capital
Socialcapitalis theaggregateof theactualor
potentialresourceswhicharelinkedto pos-
sessionof a durablenetworkof moreor less
institutionalizedrelationshipsof mutual
acquaintanceand recognition--or in other
words,to membershipin a groupll-which
provideseachofitsmemberswiththebacking
of thecollectivity-ownedcapital,a 'creden-
tial'whichentitlesthemtocredit,in thevari-
oussensesof the word.These relationshipsmayexistonlyin thepracticalstate,inmater-
ialandlor symbolicexchangeswhichhelpto
maintainthem.They may also be socially
institutedandguaranteedby theapplication
of a commonname(thenameof a family,a
class,oratribeorofaschool,aparty,etc.)and
by a wholesetof institutingactsdesigned
simultaneouslytoformandinformthosewho
undergothem;in thiscase,theyaremoreor
lessreallyenactedandsomaintainedandrein-
forced,inexchanges.Beingbasedonindissol-
ubly materialand symbolicexchanges,the
establishmentandmaintenanceofwhichpre-
supposereacknowledgmentof proximity,
theyarealsopartiallyirreducibletoobjective
relationsofproximityinphysical(geographi-
cal) spaceor evenin economicand social
space.12
The volumeof thesocialcapitalpossessed
byagivenagentthusdependsonthesizeofthe
networkof connectionshe can effectively
mobilizeandonthevolumeofthecapital(eco-
nomic,culturalor symbolic)possessedin his
ownrightbyeachofthosetowhomheiscon-
nected.13This meansthat,althoughit isrela-
tivelyirreducibletotheeconomicandcultural
capitalpossessedbyagivenagent,orevenby
the wholesetof agentsto whomheis con-
nected,social capital is never completely
independentofitbecausetheexchangesinsti-
tuting mutualacknowledgmentpresuppose
the reacknowledgmentof a minimum of
objectivehomogeneity,andbecauseitexertsa
multipliereffectonthecapitalhepossessesin
hisownright.
The profitswhich accruefrom member-
shipin a grouparethebasisof thesolidarity
whichmakesthempossible.14This doesnot
meanthat theyare consciouslypursuedas
such,evenin the caseof groupslike select
clubs, which are deliberatelyorganizedin
orderto concentratesocialcapitalandso to
derivefull benefitfromthemultipliereffect
~The Formsof Capital
impliedin concentrationandto securethe
profits of membership-materialprofits,
suchasallthetypesofservicesaccruingfrom
useful relationships,and symbolicprofits,
suchasthosederivedfromassociationwitha
rare,prestigiousgroup.
The existenceofanetworkof connections
is notanaturalgiven,or evenasocialgiven,
constitutedonceandforallbyaninitialactof
institution,represented,in the caseof the
familygroup,bythegenealogicaldefinitionof
kinshiprelations,whichisthecharacteristicof
asocialformation.It istheproductofanend-
lesseffortat institution,of whichinstitution
rites-often wronglydescribedasritesofpas-
sage-marktheessentialmomentsandwhich
is necessaryin orderto produceandrepro-
duce lasting,useful relationshipsthat can
securematerialorsymbolicprofits(seeBour-
dieu 1982).In otherwords,thenetworkof
relationshipsis the productof investment
strategies,individual or collective, con-
sciouslyorunconsciouslyaimedatestablish-
ing or reproducingsocialrelationshipsthat
aredirectlyusablein theshortor longterm,
i.e., at transformingcontingentrelations,
suchasthoseofneighborhood,theworkplace,
orevenkinship,intorelationshipsthatareat
oncenecessaryandelective,implyingdurable
obligationssubjectivelyfelt(feelingsofgrati-
tude,respect,friendship,etc.)orinstitution-
allyguaranteed(rights).This isdonethrough
thealchemyofconsecration,thesymboliccon-
stitutionproducedbysocialinstitution(insti-
tutionasa relative-brother,sister,cousin,
etc.-or asaknight,anheir,anelder,etc.)and
endlesslyreproducedin and through the
exchange(ofgifts,words,women,etc.)which
itencouragesandwhichpresupposesandpro-
ducesmutual knowledgeand recognition.
Exchangetransformsthe thingsexchanged
into signsof recognitionand, throughthe
mutual recognitionand the recognitionof
group membershipwhich it implies, re-
producesthe group.By the sametoken,it
reaffirmsthelimitsof thegroup,i.e.,thelim-
itsbeyondwhichtheconstitutiveexchange-
trade, commensality,or marriage-cannot
takeplace.Eachmemberof thegroupisthus
institutedasa custodianof thelimitsof the
group:becausethedefinitionofthecriteriaof
entryisatstakeineachnewentry,hecanmod-
ify thegroupbymodifyingthelimitsoflegit-
imate exchangethrough some form of
misalliance.It is quitelogicalthat,in most
societies,the preparationandconclusionof
marriagesshouldbethebusinessofthewhole
group,and not of the agentsdirectlycon-
cerned.Through the introductionof new
membersinto afamily,aclan,or aclub,the
wholedefinitionofthegroup,i.e.,itsfines,its
boundaries,andits identity,is put at stake,
exposedto redefinition,alteration,adulter-
ation.When,asin modernsocieties,families
lose the monopolyof the establishmentof
exchangeswhichcanleadtolastingrelation-
ships,whethersociallysanctioned(likemar-
riage)or not, theymaycontinueto control
theseexchanges,whileremainingwithinthe
logicof laissez-faire,throughall theinstitu-
tionswhicharedesignedto favorlegitimate
exchangesand excludeillegitimateonesby
producingoccasions(rallies,cruises,hunts,
parties,receptions,etc.),-places(smartneigh-
borhoods,selectschools,clubs,etc.),orprac-
tices (smartsports,parlor games,cultural
ceremonies,etc.)whichbringtogether,in a
seeminglyfortuitous way, individuals as
homogeneousaspossiblein all thepertinent
respectsin termsof theexistenceandpersis-
tenceofthegroup.
The reproductionof socialcapitalpresup-
posesanunceasingeffortofsociability,acon-
tinuous series of exchangesin which
recognitionis endlesslyaffirmedand reaf-
firmed.This work,which impliesexpendi-
tureof timeandenergyandso,directlyor
indirectly,of economiccapital,is not prof-
itableorevenconceivableunlessoneinvestsin
it a specific competence(knowledge'of
genealogicalrelationshipsandofrealconnec-
tions and skill at usingthem,etc.)and.an
acquireddispositionto acquireandmaintain
thiscompetence,whicharethemselvesinte-
gralpartsof thiscapital}SThis is oneof the
factorswhichexplainwhytheprofitabilityof
this laborof accumulatingandmaintaining
socialcapitalrisesin proportiontothesizeof
thecapital.Becausethesocialcapitalaccruing
fromarelationshipisthatmuchgreatertothe
extentthatthepersonwhoistheobjectofit is
richly endowedwith capital(mainlysocial,
butalsoculturalandeveneconomiccapital),
thepossessorsof aninheritedsocialcapital,
symbolizedbyagreatname,areabletotrans-
formallcircumstantialrelationshipsintolast-
ing connections.They aresoughtafterfor
theirsocialcapitaland,becausetheyarewell
known,areworthyofbeingknown('I know
him well'); theydo not need10'mnkethe
'1I'lIlInllllnnce'ofniltheir'acquaintances';they
111'1'klIowntomorepeoplethantheyknow,and
11\1'11'workof sociability,whenit isexerted,is
ht~hlyJ)I'oductive.
l~vcl'Ygrouphasitsmoreorlessinstitution-
111111.11formsof delegationwhichenableit to
111I1I't'lIlratethetotalityof thesocialcapital,
"hil'h isthebasisoftheexistenceofthegroup
III IlIl\IiI~or a nation,of course,butalsoan
,1~_odRtlonoraparty),in thehandsofasingle
tI11"11I orasmallgroupofagentsandto man-
11.111Ihisplenipotentiary,chargedwithplena
~"'''.''II.'agendiet loquendi,16to representthe
1410111',tospeakandactinitsnameandso,with
thi IIldof thiscollectivelyownedcapital,to
t -1'1'I'iHea powerincommensuratewith the
'1141'111'Hpersonalcontribution.Thus, at the
11111"elementarydegreeof institutionaliza-
111111,Iheheadofthefamily,thepaterJamilias,
IIII ,'Idest,mostseniormember,istacitlyrec-
"1I1I1~edastheonlypersonentitledtospeakon
III,hllll'of thefamilygroupin all officialcir-
,1lIlIlIlnnces. But whereas in this case, diffuse
111\"',lItionrequiresthegreatto stepforward
'"111defendthe collectivehonor when the
11111111I'of theweakestmembersis threatened,
till Institutionalizeddelegation, which
I II_III'I~Sthe concentrationof socialcapital,
tll_11hnstheeffectoflimitingtheconsequences
III IlIdividuallapsesby explicitlydelimiting
I"~ponsibilitiesand authorizingthe recog-
1I11I,dspokesmento shieldthe group as a
",hoh'fromdiscreditbyexpellingor excom-
11llIl1kntingtheembarrassingindividuals.
III heinternalcompetitionforthemonop-
lilt ol'legitimaterepresentationofthegroupis
1111110Ihreatentheconservationandaccumu-
1111Ionof thecapitalwhichis thebasisof the
r.
IIIIIP,themembersof thegroupmustregu-
.111'Iheconditionsof accessto theright to
11I'llnreoneselfamemberof thegroupand,
,.hoveItll,tosetoneselfupasarepresentative
hllll,'g:tte,plenipotentiary,spokesman,etc.)
III IIll'wholegroup,therebycommittingthe
.'"'1111capitalof thewholegroup.The titleof
IIlIhllityistheformparexcellenceof theinsti-
IlIl'Ionalizedsocialcapitalwhichguaranteesa
1'"1'llcularformofsocialrelationshipinalast-
IIIK wny.Oneoftheparadoxesofdelegationis
Ihlllthemandatedagentcanexerton(and,up
11111point,against)thegroupthepowerwhich
Ih(l"roupenahleshimtoconcentrate.(This is
11I,,'hnpsespeciallytruein thelimitingcasesin
whichthemnndatedagentcreatesthe!(roup
wlllchCl'enteshil11hut whkh only l~xiNIN
TheFormaofCapital 53
.~.
throughhim.)The mechanismsofdelegation
andrepresentation(inboththetheatricaland
thelegalsenses)whichfall into place-that
much more strongly,no doubt,when the
groupislargeanditsmembersweak-as one
of the conditionsfor the concentrationof
socialcapital(amongotherreasons,becauseit
enablesnumerous,varied,scatteredagentsto
actasonemanandtoovercomethelimitations
of spaceandtime)alsocontaintheseedsofan
embezzlementor misappropriationof the
capitalwhichtheyassemble.
This embezzlementislatentin thefactthat
agroupasawholecanberepresented,in the
variousmeaningsoftheword,byasubgroup,
clearlydelimitedandperfectlyvisibleto all,
knowntoall,andrecognizedbyall,thatofthe
nobiles,the'peoplewhoareknown',thepara-
digmof whomis thenobility,andwhomay
speakonbehalfofthewholegroup,represent
the whole group, and exerciseauthority
in thenameof thewholegroup.The nobleis
thegrouppersonified.He bearsthenameof
the groupto which he giveshis name(the
metonymywhichlinksthenobletohisgroup
isclearlyseenwhenShakespearecallsCleopa-
tra'Egypt'ortheKingofFrance'France,'just
asRacinecallsPyrrhus'Epirus').It isbyhim,
hisname,thedifferenceit proclaims,thatthe
membersofhisgroup,theliegemen,andalso
the landandcastles,areknownandrecog-
nized.Similarly,phenomenasuchasthe'per-
sonalitycult' or theidentificationof parties,
tradeunions,ormovementswiththeirleader
arelatentin theverylogicof representation.
Everythingcombinestocausethesignifierto
taketheplaceof thesignified,thespokesmen
thatofthegroupheissupposedtoexpress,not
leastbecausehisdistinction,his'outstanding-
ness,'his visibility constitutethe essential
part,if nottheessence,of thispower,which,
beingentirelysetwithinthelogicof knowl-
edgeandacknowledgment,isfundamentallya
symbolicpower;butalsobecausetherepre-
sentative,thesign,theemblem,maybe,and
create,the whole reality of groups which
receiveeffectivesocialexistenceonly in and
throughrepresentation.17
Conversions
The differenttypesof capitalcanbederived
fromeconomiccapital,butonlyatthecostofa
11100'eor lessgreateffortof transformation,
I
I
'11 11
11
54 The Forms of Capital
whichisneededtoproducethetypeofpower
effectivein thefieldinquestion.For example,
therearesomegoodsandservicesto which
economiccapital gives immediateaccess,
without secondarycosts; others can be
obtainedonlyby virtueof a socialcapitalof
relationships(or socialobligations)which
cannotactinstantaneously,attheappropriate
moment,unlesstheyhavebeenestablished
andmaintainedforalongtime,asif for their
ownsake,andthereforeoutsidetheirperiodof
use,i.e.,atthecostofaninvestmentinsocia-
bilitywhichis necessarilylong-termbecause
thetimelagisoneof thefactorsof thetrans-
mutationof a pure and simple debt into
thatrecognitionof nonspecificindebtedness
whichis calledgratitude.ISIn contrastto the
cynicalbut alsoeconomicaltransparencyof
economicexchange,in which equivalents
changehandsinthesameinstant,theessential
ambiguityof socialexchange,whichpresup-
posesmisrecognition,in otherwords,a form
offaith andofbadfaith(in thesenseof self-
deception),presupposesamuchmoresubtle
economyof time.
So it hasto bepositedsimultaneouslythat
economiccapitalis attherootofall theother
typesof capitalandthatthesetransformed,
disguisedformsof economiccapital,never
entirelyreducibleto thatdefinition,produce
theirmostspecificeffectsonlyto theextent
thattheyconceal(notleastfromtheirposses-
sors)thefactthateconomiccapitalis attheir
root, in otherwords-but only in the last
analysis-attherootoftheireffects.The real
logicofthefunctioningofcapital,theconver-
sionsfromonetypetoanother,andthelawof
conservationwhichgovernsthemcannotbe
understoodunlesstwoopposingbutequally
partialviewsaresuperseded:ontheonehand,
economism,which,onthegroundsthatevery
typeof capitalisreduciblein thelastanalysis
to economiccapital,ignoreswhatmakesthe
specificefficacyof theothertypesof capital,
andon theotherhand,semiologism(nowa-
daysrepresentedby structuralism,symbolic
interactionism,orethnomethodology),which
reducessocialexchangesto phenomenaof
communicationandignoresthebrutalfactof
universalreducibilitytoeconomics.19
In accordancewithaprinciplewhichisthe
equivalentoftheprincipleoftheconservation
of energy,profitsin oneareaarenecessarily
p;lidforbycostsinanother(sothataconcept
1;1".Wl1Shl1otehasnomeaningin ageneralsci-
--- ---
enceof theeconomyof practices).The uni-
versalequivalent,themeasureof all equiva-
lences,isnothingotherthanlabor-time(inthe
widestsense);andtheconservationof social
energythroughall itsconversionsis verified
if, ineachcase,onetakesintoaccountboththe
labor-timeaccumulatedin theformofcapital
and the labor-timeneededto transformit
fromonetypeintoanother.
It hasbeenseen,forexample,thatthetrans-
formationofeconomiccapitalintosocialcap-
ital presupposesa specific labor, i.e., an
apparentlygratuitousexpenditureof time,
attention,care,concern,which,asis seenin
the endeavorto personalizea gift, has the
effectof transfiguringthe purelymonetary
import of the exchangeand, by the same
token, the very meaningof the exchange.
From a narrowlyeconomicstandpoint,this
effortisboundtobeseenaspurewastage,but
in thetermsofthelogicofsocialexchanges,it
isasolidinvestment,theprofitsofwhichwill
appear,in thelongrun,in monetaryorother
form.Similarly,if thebestmeasureofcultural
capitalis undoubtedlythe amountof time
devotedto acquiringit, this is becausethe
transformationof economiccapitalintocul-
tural capitalpresupposesan expenditureof
timethatis madepossibleby possessionof
economiccapital.Moreprecisely,it isbecause
theculturalcapitalthatiseffectivelytransmit-
tedwithinthefamilyitselfdependsnotonly
onthequantityofculturalcapital,itselfaccu-
mulatedbyspendingtime,thatthedomestic
grouppossess,but alsoon the usabletime
(particularlyin theformof themother'sfree
time)availabletoit (byvirtueofits economic
capital,whichen~blesit topurchasethetime
of others)to ensurethetransmissionof this
capitalandtodelayentryintothelabormarkcl
throughprolongedschooling,acreditwhich
paysoff,if atall,onlyin theverylongterm.20
The convertibilityof thedifferenttypesof
capitalis thebasisof thestrategiesaimedOIl
ensuringthereproductionof capital(andthl'
positionoccupiedinsocialspace)bymeans01
theconversionsleastcostlyin termsof COli
versionworkandofthelossesinherentin the
conversionitself(inagivenstateof thesoci.,1
powerrelations).The differenttypesof capi,
tal canbe distinguishedaccordingto their
reproducibilityor,moreprecisely,accordil'Mi
tohoweasilytheyaretransmitted,i.e.,wilh
moreor lesslossandwithmoreor lessCOli
cealment;the rate of loss and the degreeor
The Form.orCapital 55
''''''''',',,''''''""d In"'y I" /0"'" """, 1'""-",,,"f "'o'ml"loo-pw-a<U!"ly" tb,
'""y'hl"gwh/ohhdp, ,,,dl'gul" 'h, oco- ,Im, of'''''''''10'',a crlaoalmom"",fo, ,)1
""'''h"I""" ,~"',od,'0Incr.."tb,ri,knf POWOt-<ovory"'produ'rion""togyIsa'tb,
,,,"(''''''/o"',,ly'h, Inu""""",.ann,)<tan.. , tIm,a I'gltlmaaon''''''gy aim",at
h1'.)'I'h",'h,(app_,) in"""""'n' bil_ oon"""ringbotbanoxdusiv,appropriaaon
11J "1"",ddT'"nttYi'''ofoapltalintrodu"", andIts"producrlon,Wheutb, ,ubv.,,;..
· "'.hd'g'ceofUUCOttaintyinm,)1<tan,oc-crlaqu,whlohai""'0WOak""tb,dominan,
11",,,I""Woonhold,,,ofddf=n,typos,Sim- cla"throughtb,principl,ofitsP'''''"",aon
",,,Iy.'h,docJ.,,,,"fu'"ofoaloulaaouand bybringingtoligh,tb,"bi in"',oftb,
,,''''''''0'"",whi'hoh"""'orlz..oxchan"", ,uad"",,,,,tsltansmltredandoftboir_..
"'"""..'"produceasocialoaP/taliutb,funu ml,~on(,uoh.. tb, crlaqu,whi'htb,
,,', ""p/tolofobligarionstha,'" u,"bl,intb, Euligh'''''m'''',phikoph"d/rocred,in tb,
"'"'''''" ,." lougrenu(oxchan"",ofgifts,'Ot- nam,ofn"ure,agaIn"tb,"bl"'riuos,of
',,,'0,v/,/ts,'le,)n'''''' ily""""" tb,ri'kof birth)Is inoo","",,,,lu l",amaonaJ/zod
'"'',11iI"d" th",,,,,,, oftbatrocogniaonof mochani"",(fo,OXamp1"la", of inhOtI-
"""'"''",ure'''d,btswhloh""h "Xchan"", !an",)aim'"atoon"oningtb,official,dire"
..,,, ,,, ptodu""Sinill"ly,'00,tb, high -""/SSlou of poWOtandp,ivil'g..,tb,
''''
r,
", "f""'oeahn"",oftb,<tan,m/ssiouof hold,",ofoaP/talha..anOVOt""'''' lu",,,,,
'" """I"pltalh..tb,dl..dvama""(Inaddl- in,,,,"rtiug'0r"Produ,aou''''regi",oa",bl,
11"",,, ItsiuhOt"",risk.of I...,)tbattb, of "",uringbe'rer-di'guloed-""/sslon,
..,",.",,/0qualifi<latlonwhlohI,ItsinstI'uaou- bu,attb,00"ofg '" 1..,ofoapltal,by
./,,,',II.,mi,ncitbOttransnUosIble(Ilk..ad, oxploiriogtb,oonv"""bJij,yoftb, rypooof
,,'""hill,y)norU'""aabl,(Ilk,"ocb aud "pital,Thu,tb,moretb,offici,)-'mls-
""",,), Mo" proci'dy,",ltu'" oapltal, 'IouofoapltalI, preV""ted0'hiudOt"',,h,
"I".. dilT",.. oonanuo",<tanomlssionmo<otb,dfocuof'h,"and",au,cir<U!aaou
"",,,..'h, f.milly"""I'''' oooorvarionand of oapltalin tb, funuof <U!tura]oapital
"''''0"(lIDtb"tb,"'uoaaonaJ'y'tem""m, booom,d,tonniuan,in tb,'''Producrlonof
,,'"w",ditshouo",IIDldy'0nam'"qu,)la",) tb, 'ocia],rru<ltUre,Aoanin"'um"",of
''''''wh/,hIslucreasing'y'""dlngtoa<rainfull "Producrlonoa",bl,ofdi'gulslugItsown
'"k",y,atIeao,ontb, laborm"k,~ouly fuu,aon,tb..oo""oftb,"'uoaaonaJ'JStem
"h,..'alidatedbytb, "'uoaaou,)'y"om, '''''d,to incr..." audto""tbOtwltbtbls
' , ,""''''''''''lu,oaoapltalofqU,)dioaaon"lucreas,I, tb, undioaaouoftb,mark"lu
,.."h;", toamoredlsguioedbu,mu"risky """,,I qualliioaa whlcirgivosrights'011'IIIHl11issionthan economic capital. As the occupyrarepositions.'''III~l\tionalqualification, invested with the
"/"'1'/lieforceof theofficial, becomesthecon-
I fl/Ionforlegitimateaccesstoagrowingnum- Notes
It"1urpositions,Particularlythedominant
"fll" theeducationalsystemtendsincreas_ 1. This inertia,entailedbythetendencyof the
,,,.,..''ndlspo""",tb,domosa,groupoftb, ~,~"'! of"'plta'.'0rep!od"",""""'cl""
"""wpolyof thetransmissionof POwerand mIOStltutlonso~mdiSPOSItionsadaptedt?the
I
. strUcturesofwhIchtheyaretheproduct,IS,of
""" '~d" amoug,otbOttluu""oftb, ""''"'' reinfo,""bya"",",ooIlypolla""
01",/",of,tsI'''_re h,,,,&om","ongohd- ""aDUof ""'''"''''' """""",aDU,i", 0'
,/"" "f obIT",:"'"!"'"andb""h!"uk:"And d""'"",""M" "'d d'pollacirat;"",Th,
."""m" oap.taI,tseJ{1'_ qu",d.IT_, ''''or""'d,'0koep,hod"..In""" " 'n
"",hI,,,,,of """-Iou, d"P""dingoutb, tb,,tarenf"1''"''''001gro"p,uui""DUlyby
/
""",,,,,,fonuIt """', Thu~aocordingto the,reh_don oftb,/rdh"",la "nd
/'...by(J970),tb,liquidItyof"""""Ot"'1 rond_od ro fu~"'DU,"'" ,"~"
""I"', whiohgiv",inunodiato<ICOnom!, "P<ared1y""'"'''''''''"'''',re,",d.wdoaf
1'/lWl~randfavorstransmissionalsomakesit act~(~uchasconsumerorelectoralChOIces).
'. , 2.ThIsIStrueofallexchangesbetweenmembers
""'It vulu bl, thanlandodpropeny(or nfdllT_, &aai"",of tb,domlnan,d...,
,,".. 1"'tat,)anddo",uo'laVorth,"'tab- P""""In, dlJreren,""" of """tal,Th,,,
,,,,,,"CU,"floug-Ia""'gd1""'''''':, , """'" &om..,'" of "'''''"'', ","rn"u, "'
/I... "", 'h, q""'''''U0''h, ",h..,,,,"... 0' ",h" "<><'Vi""wh'ohtak,tb, f"", of gift
"'''"'''''''''/00,,/,'" m"",,h"'ply 10,I" ''''h,""" ""dd/""ify 'h"",<cl,,,,w/,h 'h,-
'.
5~ TheFonnsofCapital
mostdecorousnamesthatcanbefound(hon-
oraria,emoluments,etc.) to matrimonial
exchanges,theprimeexampleofatransaction
thatcanonlytakeplaceinsofarasitisnotper-
ceivedordefinedassuchbythecontracting
parties.It is remarkablethattheapparent
extensionsof economictheorybeyondthe
limitsconstitutingthedisciplinehaveleft
intacttheasylumofthesacred,apartfroma
fewsacrilegiousincursions.GaryS. Becker,
forexample,whowasoneof thefirsttotake
explicitaccountofthetypesofcapitalthatare
usuallyignored,neverconsidersanything
otherthanmonetarycostsandprofits,forget-
tingthenonmonetaryinvestments(interalia,
theaffectiveones)andthematerialandsym-
bolicprofitsthateducationprovidesin a
deferred,indirectway,suchastheaddedvalue
whichthedispositionsproducedorreinforced
byschooling(bodilyorverbalmanners,tastes,
etc.)or the relationshipsestablishedwith
fellowstudentscanyieldin thematrimonial
market(Becker1964a).
3. Symboliccapital,thatis to say,capital-in
whateverform-insofarasit is represented,
Le.,apprehendedsymbolically,inarelation-
shipofknowledgeor,moreprecisely,ofmis-
recognitionandrecognition,presupposesthe
interventionofthehabitus,asasociallycon-
stitutedcognitivecapacity.
4. Whentalkingaboutconceptsfor theirown
sake,asI dohere,ratherthanusingthemin
research,onealwaysrunstheriskofbeingboth
schematicandformal,i.e.,theoreticalin the
mostusualandmostusuallyapprovedsenseof
theword.
5. Thispropositionimpliesnorecognitionofthe
valueofscholasticverdicts;itmerelyregisters
therelationshipwhichexistsinrealitybetween
acertainculturalcapitalandthelawsof the
educationalmarket.Dispositionsthatare
givena negativevaluein the educational
marketmayreceiveveryhighvaluein other
markets-notleast,ofcourse,intherelation-
shipsinternaltotheclass.
6. In a relativelyundifferentiatedsociety,in
whichaccesstothemeansofappropriatingthe
culturalheritageis veryequallydistributed,
embodiedculturedoesnotfunctionascultural
capital,Le.,asameansofacquiringexclusive
advantages.
7. WhatI callthegeneralizedArroweffect,Le.,
thefactthatall culturalgoods-paintings,
monuments,machines,and any objects
shapedbyman,particularlyall thosewhich
belongtothechildhoodenvironment---exert
aneducativeeffectbytheirmereexistence,is
nodoubtoneof thestructuralfactorsbehind
the'schoolingexplosion,'in thesensethata
growthinthequantityofculturalcapitalaccu-
mulatedin theobjectifiedstateincreasesthe
educativeeffectautomatienlly1'~I"'ledhythe
environment.If oneaddstothisthefiletthat
embodiedcultural capital is constantly
increasing,itcanbeseenthat,ineachgenera-
tion,theeducationalsystemcantakemorefor
granted.The factthatthesameeducational
investmentisincreasinglyproductiveisoneof
thestructuralfactorsoftheinflationofquali-
fications(togetherwithcyclicalfactorslinked
toeffectsofcapitalconversion).
8. Theculturalobject,asalivingsocialinstitu-
tion,is,simultaneously,a sociallyinstituted
materialobjectandaparticularclassofhabi-
tus,to whichit is addressed.The material
object-forexample,aworkofartinitsmate-
riality-maybeseparatedby space(e.g.,a
Dogonstatue)orbytime(e.g.,aSimoneMar-
tinipainting)fromthehabitusforwhichitwas
intended.Thisleadstooneofthemostfunda-
mentalbiasesof arthistory.Understanding
theeffect(nottobeconfusedwiththefunc-
tion)whichtheworktendedtoproduce-for
example,the form of beliefit tendedto
induce-andwhichis thetruebasisof the
consciousorunconsciouschoiceofthemeans
used(technique,colors,etc.),andthereforeof
theformitself,ispossibleonlyif oneatleast
raisesthequestionofthehabitusonwhichit
'operated.'
9. The dialecticalrelationshipbetweenobject-
ifiedculturalcapital-ofwhichtheformpar
excellenceiswriting-andembodiedcultural
capitalhasgenerallybeenreducedtoanexalted
descriptionofthedegradationofthespiritby
theletter,thelivingbytheinert,creationby
routine,gracebyheaviness.
10.This is particularlytruein France,wherein
manyoccupations(particularlythecivilser-
vice)thereisaverystrictrelationshipbetween
qualification,rank,andremuneration(trans-
lator'snote).
11.Here,too,thenotionofculturalcap~taldidnot
springfrompuretheoreticalwork,stillless
fromananalogicalextensionofeconomiccon-
cepts.It arosefromtheneedtoidentifythe
principleofsocialeffectswhich,althoughthey
canbeseenclearlyat thelevelof singular
agents-wherestatisticalinquiryinevitablyoperates-cannotbereducedto thesetof
propertiesindividuallypossessedbya given
agent.Theseeffects,in whichspontaneous
sociologyreadilyperceivestheworkof 'con-
nections,'areparticularlyvisibleinallcasesin
which differentindividualsobtainvery
unequalprofitsfrom virtuallyequivalent
(economicorcultural)capital,dependingon
theextenttowhichtheycanmobilizebyproxy
thecapitalofagroup(afamily,thealumniofan
eliteschool,aselectclub,thearistocracy,etc.)
thatis moreor lessconstitutedassuchand
moreorlessrichincapital.
I) N"I"hhoThlllld"11lntllln"hlpM11I11)',IIII'IIlIrM~,
rI'I'I.ln'1111de:Ille:lllnl'Yfi,rlll ollnHlllllll1111111
11.llllun,"" In the Benrllor Ihe 1111"11110
IIIlttlln.whe:re:nci~hbors,lousIJcs;.!(aword
wlth,h,inuldtexts,ISappliedtothelegitimate
Inhllhltantsof thevillage,therightfulmem-
',1"'.oftheassembly),areexplicitlydesignated,
III IIccllrdnncewithfairlycodifiedrules,and
IIrf ""signedfunctionswhicharedifferen-
1IIIIcdIIccordingtotheirrank(thereisa'first
nClI"hhor,'a 'secondneighbor,'andsoon),
pnrlicularlyfor themajorsocialceremonies
(J\lIIcrnls,marriages,etc.).Butevenin this
II'He,therelationshipsactuallyusedby no
IIIUIIIISalwayscoincidewiththerelationships
Hm'lnllyinstituted.
I t MIlliners(bearing,pronunciation,etc.)maybe
hll'llIdedinsocialcapitalinsofaras,through
Ihl\modeof acquisitiontheypointto,they
IlIdlcnteinitialmembershipofamoreorless
I"'n.ligiousgroup.
I1 Nlllionalliberationmovementsornationalist
hlC'ologiescannotbeaccountedforsolelyby
II'h~renceto strictlyeconomicprofits,i.e.,
IIIIItdpationof the profitswhichmaybe
.1t'I'lvedfromredistributionofaproportionof
wl1l1hhto the advantageof the nationals
(1IIIIionalization)andtherecoveryof highly
1IIIIdjobs(seeBreton1964).To thesespecifi-
(1111)'economicanticipatedprofits,which
wouldonlyexplainthenationalismofthepriv-
I1l1l1edclasses,mustbeaddedtheveryrealand
""I'Yimmediateprofitsderivedfrommember-
.hll'(socialcapital)whichareproportionately
11111111erforthosewhoarelowerdownthesocial
hh'l'lITchy('poorwhites')or, moreprecisely,
IIIIITe threatenedby economicand social
drdine.
" I'hereiseveryreasontosupposethatsocializ-
11""or,moregenerally,relational:dispositions
111'1'very unequallydistributedamong the
Mo!;illlclassesand,withinagivenclass,among
1I'IIctionsofdifferentorigin,
1/11\'fullpowertoactandspeak'(translator).
I1 It goeswithoutsayingthatsocialcapitalisso
Inlllllygovernedbythelogicofknowledgeand
IIcknowledgmentthat it alwaysfunctionsas
Mymboliccapital.
I", I1shouldbemadeclear,todispelalikelymis-
understanding,thatthe investmentin ques-
lion hereis not necessarilyconceivedas a
cnlculatedpursuitof gain,butthatit hasevery
likelihoodofbeingexperiencedin termsofthe
logic of emotionalinvestment,i.e., as an
Involvementwhichis bothnecessaryanddis-
Interested.This hasnotalwaysbeenappreci-
IItedbyhistorians,who(evenwhentheyareas
1I(e:rtto symboliceffectsasE. P. Thompson)
te:ndto conceivesymbolicpractices-pow-
deredwigs and the whole paraphernaliaof
officl.'-as explicit strategiesof domination,
-
IlIll'mh'd III 111'HI'I'I1(11'01\1holow),lIml 10 11111'1'
I
'TelloIolIl.rOU"or !;hll,'hnhlccondUCln"'1,"lcu
IIledIII.:t8ofclnssnppl1nselllcnl.'Thisnnively
Mnehillvellinnviewlorgelsthntthemo~1sin.
cerelydisinterestednctsmllY he:thoschesl
correspondingto obje:ctiveinterest.Anum.
ber of fidds, particularlythose:which most
tendtodenyinterestandeverysortofcnlculn.
tion, like the fieldsof cultural production,
grantfull recognition,andwith it theconse.
cration which guaranteessuccess,only In
those who distinguish themselveshy Ihc
immediateconformityof theirinvestme:nls,11
tokenofsincerityandattachmenttotheessclI
tial principlesof the field.It wouldbethol'
oughlyerroneousto describethechoicesof
the habituswhich leadan artist,writer, (11'
researchertowardhisnaturalplace(nsubjecl,
style,manner,etc.)in termsofrationnlstrnl
egy and cynicalcalculation.This is despih'
the fact that, for example,shifts from (1111'
genre,school,or specialitytonnother,qunsi.
religiousconversionsthatareperlilfll1ed'ill 1111
sincerity,'canbe understoodnscnpilulCOli
versions,thedirectionandmomenlof whil'h
(on which their successoftell depelldH)111'1'
determinedbya'senseol'inveslmelll'WIUl'lllM
the lesslikely to be seenns slIch Ihc IIUII'I!
skillful it is.InnocenceisIheprlvill'fll'of, hOHI'
whomovein their fieldof aclIvily likl' U"hIII
water.
19.To understandtheattractiveness01'1hiMpllU'01
antagonisticpositionswhich SCI'VCU" l'III'h
other'salibi, onewould needIn ullulYZl'Ih"
unconsciousprofitsandtheprolilsof 1111I'1111
sciousnesswhich they procure lill' IlIlelll'(
tuals.Whilesomefind in economlsmaml'UI1H
of exemptingthemselvesby cxcludllll( Ihr
cultural capitaland all the specificprufilM
whichplacethemonthesideofthedomIIIUIll,
otherscanabandonthedetestablelerrninof
the economic,where everything remillllM
themthattheycanbeevaluated,in Ihc IUHI
analysis,in economicterms,for thal of 1111'
symbolic.(The lattermerelyreproduce,ill 11111
realmof thesymbolic,thestrategywhcl'l'Il)'
intellectualsand artistsendeavor10ImpoHe.
the recognitionof their values, i.e., ,hrll
value,by invertingthe law of themarkcl it
which what one has or what onc I'UI'II
completelydefineswhatoneisworthandwhil.
oneis-as is shownby thepracticcof hallk
which,with techniquessuchasthepCI'SOIlIl.
izationofcredit,tendtosubordinatcthc11:1'1I111
ingofloansandthefixingofinterestrOIlcsIII11
exhaustiveinquiryintotheborrower'spl'CSI'1
andfutureresources.)
20. AmongtheadvantagesprocuredbycapilliI i
all its types,themostpreciousistheincr'I'usc
volumeof usefultimethat is madcpossit.
throughthevariousmethodsofappropl'iali.
58 TheFonnsofCapital
otherpeople'stime(intheformofservices).It
maytaketheformeitherof increasedspare
time,securedbyreducingthetimeconsumed
in activitiesdirectlychanneledtowardpro-
ducingthemeansof reproducingtheexist-
enceofthedomesticgroup,orofmoreintense
useof thetimesoconsumed,byrecourseto
otherpeople'slaborortodevicesandmethods
whichareavailableonlyto thosewhohave
spenttimelearninghowtousethemandwhich
(likebettertransportorlivingclosetotheplace
ofwork)makeitpossibletosavetime.(Thisis
in contrastto thecashsavingsof thepoor,
whicharepaidfor in time--do-it-yourself,
bargainhunting,etc.)Noneofthisistrueof
mereeconomiccapital;it is possessionof
culturalcapitalthatmakesitpossibletoderive
greaterprofitnotonlyfromlabor-time,by
securingahigheryieldfromthesametime,but
alsofromsparetime,andsotoincreaseboth
economicandculturalcapital.
21.It goeswithoutsayingthatthedominantfrac-
tions,whotendtoplaceevergreateremphasis
oneducationalinvestment,withinanoverall
strategyofassetdiversificationandofinvest-
mentsaimedatcombiningsecuritywithhigh
yield,haveallsortsofwaysofevadingscholas-
ticverdicts.The directtransmissionofeco-
nomic capital remainsone of Ihe principal
meansofreproduction,andtheeffectofsocial
capital('a helpinghand,''string-pulling,'the
'oldboynetwork')tendstocorrecttheeffectof
academicsanctions.Educationalqualifications
neverfunctionperfectlyascurrency.Theyare
neverentirelyseparablefrom their holders:
theirvaluerisesin proportionto thevalueof
theirbearer,especiallyintheleastrigidareasof
thesocialstructure.
References
Becker,G.S.(19Ma),A TheoreticalandEmpirical
AnalysiswithSpecialReferenceto Education
(New York: NationalBureauof Economic
Research).
- (19Mb),HumanCapital(NewYork:Colum-
biaUniv.Press).
Bourdieu,P. (1982),'Lesritesd'institution',Actes
dela rechercheensciencessociales,43: 58-63.
Breton,A. (1962),'TheEconomicsofNational-
ism',JournalofPoliticalEconomy,72:376-86.
Grassby,R.(1970),'EnglishMerchantCapitalism
intheLateSeventeenthCentury:TheCompo-
sitionofBusinessFortunes',PastandPresent,
46:87-107.
3
Class andPedagogies: Visible and Invisible
I .1t..1I1~lIllIillesomeof theassumptionsand
Ill" 11111111111contextof a particularformof
1"".IIIIIIII'11I11IOtschoolpedagogy,a form
,,1111"h,..IIIleastthefollowingcharacteris-
lit~
\\ I"." IhI'controlof theteacheroverthe
,hll.lhiImplicitratherthanexplicit.
\\ hl'II, Ideally,the teacherarrangesthe
.,'1',I"~whichthechild is expectedto re-
.11111111(1'IIlId explore.
\\ h"I'l'withinthis arrangedcontext,the
,hlld IIpparentlyhas wide powersover
\Ihili heselects,overhow he structures,
.llIdIIvcrthetimescaleofhisactivities.
\\'h.'n'thechildapparentlyregulateshis
IIWIItnovementsandsocialrelationships.
WIWl't'thereis a reducedemphasisupon
11111I'IIIlsmissionandacquisitionofspecific
'I~IIIM(HCC NoteI).
It Whjlll'cthecriteriaforevaluatingthepeda-
IIII~ynremultipleanddiffuseandsonot
II.Nnymeasured.
IlIvl.lble Pedagogyand Infant Education
I hll I'nll characterisethispedagogyasan
111\INlhlepedagogy.Intermsoftheconceptsof
tlmllkntion and frame, the pedagogyis
I h.,.dthroughweakclassificationandweak
"""II!M. Visible pedagogiesare realised
Ihllllll(h strong classificationand strong
'''IIIW/!,The basicdifferencebetweenvisible
tllIlltllvifiiblepedagogicsis in themannerin
~hll'hcriteriaare transmittedand in the
Ih'III'I'"ofspeciticityof thecriteria.The more
IInpllc-ilthemannerof transmissionandthe
BasilBernstein
morediffusethecriteriathemoreinvisiblethe
pedagogy;themorespecificthecriteria,the
moreexplicitthemannerof their transmis-
sion, themorevisiblethe pedagogy.These
definitionswillbeextendedlaterinthepaper.
If thepedagogyisinvisible,whataspectsofthe
child havehigh visibilityfor the teacher?I
suggesttwoaspects.The firstarisesoutofan
inferencetheteachermakesfromthechild's
ongoingbehaviouraboutthe developmental
stageof the child. This inferenceis then
referredtoaconceptof readiness.The second
aspectofthechildreferstohisexternalbehav-
iour andis conceptualisedby theteacheras
busyness.The child shouldbe busy doing
things. These inner (readiness)and outer
(busyness)aspectsof thechild canbetrans-
formedintooneconceptof,readytodo.'The
teacherinfersfrom the 'doing' the stateof
'readiness'of thechildasit is revealedin his
presentactivityandasthisstateadumbrates
future'doing.'
Wecanbrieflynoteinpassingapointwhich
will bedevelopedlater.In thesamewayasthe
child's readingreleasesthe child from the
teacherandsocialiseshimintotheprivatised
solitarylearningof an explicit anonymous
past(i.e.thetextbook),sobusychildren(chil-
drendoing)releasethechildfromtheteacher
but socialisehim into an ongoing inter-
actionalpresentin whichthepastis invisible
andsoimplicit(i.e.theteachers'pedagogical
theory).Thus anon-doingchildin theinvisi-
ble pedagogyis the equivalentof a non-
reading child in the visible pedagogy.
(However,a non-readingchild maybeat a
greaterdisadvantageandexperiencegreater
difficultythana'non-doing'child.)
The conceptbasictotheinvisiblepedagogy
1'1'11111./.Kllrllhl'llllld A.11.1IIIINcy(CdN.>,I'IIII'I"'1I1Ii1",,'//1//10'i" IM"m/i""(OxfordUniversityPress,1978),511-34.