<div id="pf1" class="pf w0 h0" data-page-no="1"><div class="pc pc1 w0 h0"><img class="bi x0 y0 w1 h1" alt="" src="https://files.passeidireto.com/630b52ca-ecf3-4ede-8e2f-fe058b4a48d6/bg1.png"></div><div class="pi" data-data='{"ctm":[1.000000,0.000000,0.000000,1.000000,0.000000,0.000000]}'></div></div> <div id="pf2" class="pf w0 h0" data-page-no="2"><div class="pc pc2 w0 h0"><div class="t m0 x1 h2 y1 ff1 fs0 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws0">Laboratory Experiments in Physics</div><div class="t m0 x1 h2 y2 ff1 fs0 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws1">for Modern Astronomy</div></div><div class="pi" data-data='{"ctm":[1.000000,0.000000,0.000000,1.000000,0.000000,0.000000]}'></div></div> <div id="pf3" class="pf w0 h0" data-page-no="3"><div class="pc pc3 w0 h0"><img fetchpriority="low" loading="lazy" class="bi x2 y3 w2 h3" alt="" src="https://files.passeidireto.com/630b52ca-ecf3-4ede-8e2f-fe058b4a48d6/bg3.png"><div class="t m0 x3 h4 y4 ff2 fs1 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws2">The night sky in December</div></div><div class="pi" data-data='{"ctm":[1.000000,0.000000,0.000000,1.000000,0.000000,0.000000]}'></div></div> <div id="pf4" class="pf w0 h0" data-page-no="4"><div class="pc pc4 w0 h0"><img fetchpriority="low" loading="lazy" class="bi x1 y5 w3 h5" alt="" src="https://files.passeidireto.com/630b52ca-ecf3-4ede-8e2f-fe058b4a48d6/bg4.png"><div class="t m0 x1 h2 y6 ff1 fs0 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws3">Leslie M. Golden</div><div class="t m0 x1 h6 y7 ff1 fs2 fc0 sc0 ls1 ws4">Laboratory Experiments</div><div class="t m0 x1 h6 y8 ff1 fs2 fc0 sc0 ls1 ws5">in Physics for Modern</div><div class="t m0 x1 h6 y9 ff1 fs2 fc0 sc0 ls2">Astronomy</div><div class="t m0 x1 h7 ya ff1 fs3 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws6">With Comprehensive Development</div><div class="t m0 x1 h7 yb ff1 fs3 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws7">of the Physical Principles</div></div><div class="pi" data-data='{"ctm":[1.000000,0.000000,0.000000,1.000000,0.000000,0.000000]}'></div></div> <div id="pf5" class="pf w0 h0" data-page-no="5"><div class="pc pc5 w0 h0"><div class="t m0 x1 h8 yc ff1 fs1 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws9">Leslie M. Golden</div><div class="t m0 x1 h8 yd ff1 fs1 fc0 sc0 ls0 wsa">934 Forest Avenue</div><div class="t m0 x1 h8 ye ff1 fs1 fc0 sc0 ls0 wsb">Oak Park, Illinois 60302</div><div class="t m0 x1 h8 yf ff1 fs1 fc0 sc0 ls0">USA</div><div class="t m0 x1 h8 y10 ff1 fs1 fc0 sc0 ls0 wsc">ISBN 978-1-4614-3310-1<span class="_0 blank"> </span>ISBN 978-1-4614-3311-8 (ebook)</div><div class="t m0 x1 h8 y11 ff1 fs1 fc0 sc0 ls0 wsd">DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-3311-8</div><div class="t m0 x1 h8 y12 ff1 fs1 fc0 sc0 ls0 wse">Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y13 ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 wsf">Library of Congress Control Number:<span class="_1 blank"> </span>2012935691</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y14 ff3 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls3">#<span class="ff1 ls0 ws10">Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013</span></div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y15 ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws11">This work is subject to copyright. All rights<span class="_2 blank"> </span>are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or<span class="_2 blank"> </span>part of</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y16 ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws12">the material is concerned, speci\ufb01cally the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y17 ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws13">recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on micro\ufb01lms or in any other<span class="_3 blank"> </span>physical way, and transmission or</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y18 ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws14">information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y19 ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws15">methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y1a ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws15">in connection with reviews or scholarly<span class="_4 blank"> </span>analysis or material supplied speci\ufb01cally<span class="_4 blank"> </span>for the purpose of being</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y1b ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws16">entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplicat<span class="_5 blank"></span>ion</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y1c ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws17">of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions<span class="_1 blank"> </span>of the Copyright<span class="_1 blank"> </span>Law of the</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y1d ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws18">Publisher\u2019s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y1e ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws19">Springer. Permissions for use may<span class="_1 blank"> </span>be<span class="_1 blank"> </span>obtained through<span class="_1 blank"> </span>RightsLink at<span class="_1 blank"> </span>the<span class="_1 blank"> </span>Copyright Clearance<span class="_1 blank"> </span>Center.</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y1f ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws1a">Violations are liable to prosecution under the<span class="_1 blank"> </span>respective Copyright Law.</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y20 ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws1b">The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks,<span class="_6 blank"> </span>etc. in this</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y21 ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws1c">publication does not imply, even in the absence<span class="_1 blank"> </span>of a speci\ufb01c statement, that such names are exempt</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y22 ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws1d">from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y23 ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws1e">While the advice and information in this book are believed to be<span class="_7 blank"> </span>true and accurate at the date of</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y24 ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws1f">publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y25 ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws20">any errors or omissions that may be made. The<span class="_1 blank"> </span>publisher<span class="_8 blank"> </span>makes no warranty, express or implied<span class="_5 blank"></span>, with</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y26 ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws21">respect to the material contained herein.</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y27 ff4 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws22">Cover illustration<span class="ff1 ws23">: This Hubble Space Telescope photograph shows<span class="_3 blank"> </span>a pair<span class="_3 blank"> </span>of colliding galaxies,<span class="_3 blank"> </span>NGC</span></div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y28 ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws24">6050 and IC 1179 (also referred to as<span class="_2 blank"> </span>NGC 6050A and NGC 6050B), which reside in<span class="_2 blank"> </span>the Hercules cluster</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y29 ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws15">of galaxies about 450 million light-years away. It was one of the \ufb01fty-nine<span class="_4 blank"> </span>new high-resolution images of</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y2a ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws25">colliding galaxies NASA released on April 24, 2008,<span class="_1 blank"> </span>to commemorate the eighteenth birthday of the</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y2b ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws26">Hubble Space Telescope. Many of the objects<span class="_1 blank"> </span>were compiled by astronomer Halton Arp in<span class="_1 blank"> </span>his Atlas of</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y2c ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws27">Peculiar Galaxies of 1966, which built on earlier work by B.A. Vorontsov-Velyaminov; this image was</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y2d ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws28">catalogued as Arp 272. The sensitive cameras<span class="_8 blank"> </span>of the<span class="_8 blank"> </span>HST<span class="_8 blank"> </span>revealed that<span class="_8 blank"> </span>the peculiar shapes<span class="_8 blank"> </span>observed by</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y2e ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws29">Arp resulted from comparatively low<span class="_2 blank"> </span>resolution images of these gravitationally-interacting objects. Part<span class="_2 blank"> </span>J</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y2f ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws2a">of Experiment #1 examines the impending collision of our own Milky Way galaxy with the Andromeda</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y30 ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws2b">galaxy, two additional spiral galaxies. Credits: NASA, ESA, the Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA)-</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y31 ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws2c">ESA/Hubble Collaboration and K. Noll (STScI).</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y32 ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws2d">Printed on acid-free paper</div><div class="t m0 x1 h9 y33 ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws2e">Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)</div></div><div class="pi" data-data='{"ctm":[1.000000,0.000000,0.000000,1.000000,0.000000,0.000000]}'></div></div> <div id="pf6" class="pf w0 h0" data-page-no="6"><div class="pc pc6 w0 h0"><img fetchpriority="low" loading="lazy" class="bi x4 y34 w4 ha" alt="" src="https://files.passeidireto.com/630b52ca-ecf3-4ede-8e2f-fe058b4a48d6/bg6.png"><div class="t m0 x5 hb y35 ff4 fs5 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws2f">To my parents, Anne K. and<span class="_9 blank"> </span>Irving R.</div><div class="t m0 x5 hb y36 ff4 fs5 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws30">Golden; my beloved pets Duffy, Tweetie,</div><div class="t m0 x5 hb y37 ff4 fs5 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws31">Byron, Cicero, Skipper, Emerson, Newton,</div><div class="t m0 x5 hb y38 ff4 fs5 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws32">Maxwell, and Enrico; the<span class="_7 blank"> </span>family of birds in</div><div class="t m0 x5 hb y39 ff4 fs5 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws33">my window at my apartment in Oakland,</div><div class="t m0 x5 hb y3a ff4 fs5 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws34">the \ufb02uffy white dog on Broadway near my</div><div class="t m0 x5 hb y3b ff4 fs5 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws35">apartment in Oakland,<span class="_9 blank"> </span>Onion the dog, the</div><div class="t m0 x5 hb y3c ff4 fs5 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws36">Ohio pit bulls Axle and Rusty, the two<span class="_7 blank"> </span>West</div><div class="t m0 x5 hb y3d ff4 fs5 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws37">Virginia pit bull mixes, and the other</div><div class="t m0 x5 hb y3e ff4 fs5 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws38">needy, stray, and abandoned<span class="_9 blank"> </span>dogs and</div><div class="t m0 x5 hb y3f ff4 fs5 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws39">feral cats and kittens, squirrels, rabbits,</div><div class="t m0 x5 hb y40 ff4 fs5 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws3a">birds, mice, opossum, and other wildlife,</div><div class="t m0 x5 hb y41 ff4 fs5 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws3b">farm and zoo animals, \ufb02ying and crawling</div><div class="t m0 x5 hb y42 ff4 fs5 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws3c">insects, and trees, bushes,<span class="_9 blank"> </span>plants, and</div><div class="t m0 x5 hb y43 ff4 fs5 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws37">grasses, all residents of the Earth, that</div><div class="t m0 x5 hb y44 ff4 fs5 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws3d">I have loved, saved, and tried to save.</div><div class="t m0 x6 hc y45 ff2 fs6 fc0 sc0 ls0">Cicero</div></div><div class="pi" data-data='{"ctm":[1.000000,0.000000,0.000000,1.000000,0.000000,0.000000]}'></div></div> <div id="pf7" class="pf w0 h0" data-page-no="7"><div class="pc pc7 w0 h0"><img fetchpriority="low" loading="lazy" class="bi x1 y46 w5 hd" alt="" src="https://files.passeidireto.com/630b52ca-ecf3-4ede-8e2f-fe058b4a48d6/bg7.png"></div><div class="pi" data-data='{"ctm":[1.000000,0.000000,0.000000,1.000000,0.000000,0.000000]}'></div></div> <div id="pf8" class="pf w0 h0" data-page-no="8"><div class="pc pc8 w0 h0"><div class="t m0 x1 he y6 ff5 fs0 fc0 sc0 ls0">Foreword</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y47 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws3e">I have co<span class="_5 blank"></span>mp<span class="_5 blank"></span>osed<span class="_4 blank"> </span>th<span class="_5 blank"></span>ese la<span class="_5 blank"></span>bo<span class="_5 blank"></span>rator<span class="_5 blank"></span>y ex<span class="_5 blank"></span>peri<span class="_5 blank"></span>ment<span class="_5 blank"></span>s to in<span class="_5 blank"></span>trod<span class="_5 blank"></span>uc<span class="_5 blank"></span>e the ph<span class="_5 blank"></span>ysic<span class="_5 blank"></span>s of as<span class="_5 blank"></span>tr<span class="_5 blank"></span>onom<span class="_5 blank"></span>ical</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y48 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws3f">inquiry for use in 200 and 300 level courses in physics<span class="_1 blank"> </span>and astronomy<span class="_1 blank"> </span>depar<span class="_a blank"> </span>tments.</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y49 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws40">When competing with laboratory courses, partic<span class="_a blank"> </span>ularly in biology and chemistry,</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y4a ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws41">astronomy courses h<span class="_a blank"> </span>ave been at a<span class="_2 blank"> </span>disadvantage. Astronomical<span class="_2 blank"> </span>exercises, using act<span class="_a blank"> </span>ual</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y4b ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws42">data, often involve tedious<span class="_7 blank"> </span>calculations.<span class="_7 blank"> </span>In my experience, the<span class="_7 blank"> </span>student learns little</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y4c ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws43">about<span class="_4 blank"> </span>astronomy<span class="_2 blank"> </span>and,<span class="_4 blank"> </span>far<span class="_2 blank"> </span>from<span class="_4 blank"> </span>discovering<span class="_2 blank"> </span>its<span class="_4 blank"> </span>beauty,<span class="_4 blank"> </span>becomes<span class="_2 blank"> </span>disenchanted<span class="_4 blank"> </span>with<span class="_2 blank"> </span>the</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y4d ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws44">\ufb01eld. If the instructor<span class="_3 blank"> </span>chooses to assign standar<span class="_a blank"> </span>d introductory physics<span class="_3 blank"> </span>experiments,</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y4e ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws45">then he not only fails to inculcate much of the beauty of astronomy, but he must also</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y4f ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws46">justify their relevance to a course<span class="_3 blank"> </span>in astronomy. Computer<span class="_a blank"> </span>-based simulations, with</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y50 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws47">their<span class="_2 blank"> </span>sophisticated<span class="_2 blank"> </span>graphics<span class="_2 blank"> </span>and<span class="_4 blank"> </span>often<span class="_2 blank"> </span>accurat e<span class="_2 blank"> </span>renditions,<span class="_2 blank"> </span>provide<span class="_2 blank"> </span>the<span class="_2 blank"> </span>glamour<span class="_2 blank"> </span>of<span class="_4 blank"> </span>the</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y51 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws48">\ufb01eld but present little if any of the physics behind the phenomena.</div><div class="t m0 x7 hf y52 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws49">Thi<span class="_5 blank"></span>s book<span class="_3 blank"> </span>pres<span class="_5 blank"></span>ents<span class="_3 blank"> </span>expe<span class="_5 blank"></span>rime<span class="_5 blank"></span>nts w<span class="_5 blank"></span>hich<span class="_3 blank"> </span>will<span class="_3 blank"> </span>teach<span class="_3 blank"> </span>phys<span class="_5 blank"></span>ics re<span class="_5 blank"></span>le<span class="_5 blank"></span>vant<span class="_3 blank"> </span>to as<span class="_5 blank"></span>tron<span class="_5 blank"></span>omy.</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y53 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws4a">The as<span class="_5 blank"></span>tron<span class="_5 blank"></span>omer<span class="_5 blank"></span>, as ins<span class="_5 blank"></span>truc<span class="_5 blank"></span>to<span class="_5 blank"></span>r, freq<span class="_5 blank"></span>ue<span class="_5 blank"></span>ntly fa<span class="_5 blank"></span>ces th<span class="_5 blank"></span>is ne<span class="_5 blank"></span>ed whe<span class="_5 blank"></span>n his col<span class="_5 blank"></span>lege or<span class="_4 blank"> </span>un<span class="_5 blank"></span>iver<span class="_5 blank"></span>sity</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y54 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws4b">has no<span class="_9 blank"> </span>astro<span class="_5 blank"></span>no<span class="_5 blank"></span>my depa<span class="_5 blank"></span>rt<span class="_5 blank"></span>ment<span class="_9 blank"> </span>and an<span class="_5 blank"></span>y astr<span class="_5 blank"></span>onom<span class="_5 blank"></span>y co<span class="_5 blank"></span>urse<span class="_9 blank"> </span>is taug<span class="_5 blank"></span>ht i<span class="_5 blank"></span>n the ph<span class="_5 blank"></span>ys<span class="_5 blank"></span>ics</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y55 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws4c">depa<span class="_5 blank"></span>rt<span class="_5 blank"></span>ment<span class="_5 blank"></span>. Thi<span class="_5 blank"></span>s book<span class="_7 blank"> </span>re<span class="_5 blank"></span>sol<span class="_5 blank"></span>ves th<span class="_5 blank"></span>is pr<span class="_5 blank"></span>ob<span class="_5 blank"></span>lem.<span class="_7 blank"> </span>Th<span class="_5 blank"></span>e phys<span class="_5 blank"></span>ici<span class="_5 blank"></span>st, as<span class="_3 blank"> </span>instru<span class="_5 blank"></span>ctor<span class="_5 blank"></span>, wi<span class="_5 blank"></span>ll \ufb01n<span class="_5 blank"></span>d</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y56 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws4d">this in<span class="_5 blank"></span>tel<span class="_5 blank"></span>lect<span class="_5 blank"></span>ual<span class="_5 blank"></span>ly appe<span class="_5 blank"></span>al<span class="_5 blank"></span>ing when<span class="_2 blank"> </span>fa<span class="_5 blank"></span>ced wi<span class="_5 blank"></span>th teac<span class="_5 blank"></span>hing a la<span class="_5 blank"></span>bora<span class="_5 blank"></span>tory as<span class="_5 blank"></span>tro<span class="_5 blank"></span>nomy co<span class="_5 blank"></span>ur<span class="_5 blank"></span>se.</div><div class="t m0 x7 hf y57 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws4e">From these experiments, the student will acquire important analytical tools,</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y58 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws4f">learn physics appropriate to ast<span class="_a blank"> </span>ronomy, and experience instrume<span class="_a blank"> </span>nt calibration and</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y59 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws50">the direct gathering and analysis of data. Philosophically, the student will hopefully</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y5a ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws51">gain an understanding that rational inquiry leads to an understanding of natural</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y5b ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws52">processes.<span class="_7 blank"> </span>Experiments<span class="_3 blank"> </span>that<span class="_7 blank"> </span>can<span class="_3 blank"> </span>be<span class="_3 blank"> </span>performed<span class="_7 blank"> </span>in<span class="_3 blank"> </span>one<span class="_7 blank"> </span>laboratory<span class="_3 blank"> </span>session<span class="_7 blank"> </span>as<span class="_3 blank"> </span>well<span class="_3 blank"> </span>as</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y5c ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws53">month-long<span class="_3 blank"> </span>and<span class="_7 blank"> </span>semester-long<span class="_3 blank"> </span>observation<span class="_7 blank"> </span>projects<span class="_3 blank"> </span>are<span class="_3 blank"> </span>include d.</div><div class="t m0 x7 hf y5d ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws54">The<span class="_3 blank"> </span>length<span class="_3 blank"> </span>of<span class="_3 blank"> </span>explanatory<span class="_3 blank"> </span>material<span class="_3 blank"> </span>in<span class="_3 blank"> </span>these<span class="_3 blank"> </span>experiments<span class="_3 blank"> </span>distingui shes<span class="_3 blank"> </span>this<span class="_3 blank"> </span>book</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y5e ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws55">from other laboratory manu<span class="_a blank"> </span>als. This was needed for two reasons.<span class="_7 blank"> </span>First, my experi-</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y5f ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws56">ence has been that gradu<span class="_a blank"> </span>ate student teaching assistant<span class="_a blank"> </span>s may not be fully versed in all</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y60 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws57">the subject matter. The explanatory material<span class="_1 blank"> </span>provides the necessary backgr<span class="_a blank"> </span>ound for</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y61 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws58">them. Second, the breadth of subj<span class="_a blank"> </span>ects cannot be found in any<span class="_9 blank"> </span>single source and I</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y62 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws50">wanted the book to be self-containe<span class="_a blank"> </span>d. Although introductory physics<span class="_1 blank"> </span>texts certainl<span class="_a blank"> </span>y</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y63 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws59">cover<span class="_b blank"> </span>such<span class="_b blank"> </span>subjects<span class="_b blank"> </span>as<span class="_b blank"> </span>heat<span class="_b blank"> </span>capacity,<span class="_b blank"> </span>blackbody<span class="_b blank"> </span>radiation,<span class="_b blank"> </span>the<span class="_b blank"> </span>Bohr<span class="_b blank"> </span>atom,<span class="_6 blank"> </span>and</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y64 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws5a">polarization of ele<span class="_a blank"> </span>ctromagnetic waves, one<span class="_7 blank"> </span>must refer<span class="_7 blank"> </span>to<span class="_7 blank"> </span>electrical<span class="_7 blank"> </span>engineer<span class="_a blank"> </span>ing or</div><div class="t m0 x8 h10 y65 ff1 fs6 fc0 sc0 ls0">vii</div></div><div class="pi" data-data='{"ctm":[1.000000,0.000000,0.000000,1.000000,0.000000,0.000000]}'></div></div> <div id="pf9" class="pf w0 h0" data-page-no="9"><div class="pc pc9 w0 h0"><div class="t m0 x1 hf y66 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws5b">radio astronomy texts to explain radio antenna beam patterns and ele<span class="_a blank"> </span>ctrical skin</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y67 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws5c">depth, books in radar astronom<span class="_a blank"> </span>y to explain range-Doppler mapping<span class="_a blank"> </span>, astronomy</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y68 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws5d">texts to discuss Kirchhoff\u2019s Laws<span class="_a blank"> </span>, optics manufacturer\u2019s instru<span class="_a blank"> </span>ctions for the speci-</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y69 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws5e">\ufb01cations of reticulated eyepiece<span class="_a blank"> </span>s, books on the history of science or astronomy for</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y6a ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws5f">the various historical<span class="_1 blank"> </span>discussions, in<span class="_1 blank"> </span>particular the<span class="_1 blank"> </span>comparison of the<span class="_1 blank"> </span>Ptolemaic and</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y6b ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws60">Copernican theories presented in the experiment<span class="_6 blank"> </span>on the orbit of Venus, and the</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y6c ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws61">technical literature itself<span class="_9 blank"> </span>to explain diffuse re\ufb02ection from planetary<span class="_9 blank"> </span>surfaces, for</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y6d ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws62">some<span class="_7 blank"> </span>examples.<span class="_9 blank"> </span>All<span class="_7 blank"> </span>the<span class="_9 blank"> </span>requisite<span class="_7 blank"> </span>explanat ory<span class="_9 blank"> </span>material<span class="_7 blank"> </span>has<span class="_9 blank"> </span>been<span class="_7 blank"> </span>comprehensi vely</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y6e ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws63">presented here for the ease of the instructor, as well as the educa<span class="_a blank"> </span>tion of the student.</div><div class="t m0 x7 hf y6f ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws64">Several features aid the learning proce<span class="_a blank"> </span>ss. Except for the \ufb01rst two experiments, all</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y70 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws65">are arranged in the same way, introdu<span class="_a blank"> </span>ction, theory, procedure and observat<span class="_a blank"> </span>ions, and</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y71 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws66">calculations and analysis. All data are reco<span class="_a blank"> </span>rded and all calculations are performed</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y72 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws67">on the data sheets. Th<span class="_a blank"> </span>ese are following by disc<span class="_a blank"> </span>ussion questions to test the<span class="_1 blank"> </span>student\u2019s</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y73 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws68">understanding and to<span class="_7 blank"> </span>introduce additional, associated<span class="_7 blank"> </span>concepts.</div><div class="t m0 x7 hf y74 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws69">Other<span class="_1 blank"> </span>pedago gical<span class="_3 blank"> </span>features<span class="_3 blank"> </span>include<span class="_3 blank"> </span>the<span class="_1 blank"> </span>frequent<span class="_3 blank"> </span>present ation<span class="_3 blank"> </span>of<span class="_3 blank"> </span>graphical<span class="_1 blank"> </span>repre-</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y75 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws6a">sentations of equations. This will aid the student in obta<span class="_a blank"> </span>ining intuition into phe-</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y76 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws43">nomena.<span class="_1 blank"> </span>I<span class="_3 blank"> </span>provide<span class="_3 blank"> </span>examples<span class="_1 blank"> </span>or<span class="_3 blank"> </span>exercises,<span class="_3 blank"> </span>particularly<span class="_3 blank"> </span>in<span class="_1 blank"> </span>the<span class="_3 blank"> </span>\ufb01rst<span class="_3 blank"> </span>two<span class="_1 blank"> </span>chapters,<span class="_3 blank"> </span>that</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y77 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws6b">illustrate the application of the techniq<span class="_a blank"> </span>ues to other areas of study. In this way, the</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y78 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws6c">techniques<span class="_2 blank"> </span>becom e<span class="_8 blank"> </span>part<span class="_8 blank"> </span>of<span class="_2 blank"> </span>the<span class="_8 blank"> </span>student\u2019s<span class="_8 blank"> </span>intellectual<span class="_8 blank"> </span>arsenal<span class="_8 blank"> </span>rather<span class="_8 blank"> </span>than<span class="_2 blank"> </span>simpl y<span class="_8 blank"> </span>a<span class="_2 blank"> </span>tool</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y79 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws6d">for doing science. I liberally include<span class="_1 blank"> </span>references<span class="_3 blank"> </span>to the history of astronomy to show</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y7a ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws6e">the fruitful result of the development of rational inquiry less than 500 years ago. I</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y7b ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws6f">also take the liberty of injecting humor. Not only does this refresh<span class="_7 blank"> </span>the student, but</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y7c ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws70">it\u2019s also a nod to the joyful times spent with<span class="_9 blank"> </span>colleagues. The<span class="_9 blank"> </span>extraterrest<span class="_a blank"> </span>rial is a</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y7d ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws71">blatant advertisement for a subject<span class="_3 blank"> </span>that has capture<span class="_a blank"> </span>d the public attention and led to</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y7e ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws69">private<span class="_7 blank"> </span>funding<span class="_7 blank"> </span>for<span class="_7 blank"> </span>state-of-the -art<span class="_7 blank"> </span>telescope<span class="_9 blank"> </span>facilities<span class="_7 blank"> </span>in<span class="_7 blank"> </span>times<span class="_7 blank"> </span>of<span class="_7 blank"> </span>ever-decreasing</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y7f ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws72">federal<span class="_b blank"> </span>support<span class="_b blank"> </span>for<span class="_b blank"> </span>astronomy.<span class="_b blank"> </span>The<span class="_b blank"> </span>b ook<span class="_b blank"> </span>contain s<span class="_b blank"> </span>occasional<span class="_c blank"> </span>references<span class="_b blank"> </span>to<span class="_b blank"> </span>the</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y80 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws73">search<span class="_3 blank"> </span>for<span class="_7 blank"> </span>extraterrestrial<span class="_3 blank"> </span>intelligent<span class="_7 blank"> </span>life.</div><div class="t m0 x7 hf y81 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws62">The<span class="_1 blank"> </span>data<span class="_3 blank"> </span>recordi ng<span class="_3 blank"> </span>and<span class="_3 blank"> </span>analysis<span class="_3 blank"> </span>are<span class="_3 blank"> </span>performed<span class="_3 blank"> </span>on<span class="_1 blank"> </span>workshe ets<span class="_3 blank"> </span>and<span class="_3 blank"> </span>the<span class="_3 blank"> </span>student<span class="_3 blank"> </span>is</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y82 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws74">frequently asked to enter<span class="_3 blank"> </span>the results in tables. Altho<span class="_a blank"> </span>ugh some may quibble with<span class="_3 blank"> </span>the</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y83 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws75">\u201crecipe\u201d nature of this presentation, it serves useful purpos<span class="_a blank"> </span>es. First, it guides the</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y84 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws76">student along in the data reduction process. Inadvertent errors early in the data</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y85 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws53">reduction,<span class="_3 blank"> </span>which<span class="_3 blank"> </span>will<span class="_3 blank"> </span>propagate<span class="_3 blank"> </span>to<span class="_3 blank"> </span>the<span class="_1 blank"> </span>end<span class="_3 blank"> </span>resu lt,<span class="_3 blank"> </span>are<span class="_3 blank"> </span>thereby<span class="_3 blank"> </span>avoided.<span class="_3 blank"> </span>The<span class="_3 blank"> </span>student</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y86 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws77">is forced to be neat<span class="_b blank"> </span>and well organized! Hopefully,<span class="_b blank"> </span>the habits will become in-</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y87 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws78">grained. Third, it facilitates grading whether performed by the instructor or teaching</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y88 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws6c">assistants.<span class="_b blank"> </span>It<span class="_b blank"> </span>also<span class="_b blank"> </span>encourages<span class="_b blank"> </span>standardized<span class="_b blank"> </span>grading<span class="_b blank"> </span>between<span class="_b blank"> </span>teaching<span class="_b blank"> </span>assistants,</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y89 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws79">simplifying the task for those who<span class="_7 blank"> </span>may speak English as a second language.</div><div class="t m0 x7 hf y8a ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws7a">The experiments have been designed to enable comple<span class="_a blank"> </span>tion in one laboratory</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y8b ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws7b">session of 2\u20133 h. Th<span class="_a blank"> </span>ose experiments which<span class="_8 blank"> </span>would have<span class="_8 blank"> </span>required<span class="_8 blank"> </span>a greater<span class="_8 blank"> </span>amount of</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y8c ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws7c">time have been broken up into two parts.</div><div class="t m0 x7 hf y8d ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws7d">I should comment upon<span class="_9 blank"> </span>the units<span class="_9 blank"> </span>used. I believe<span class="_9 blank"> </span>it would be<span class="_9 blank"> </span>confusing to<span class="_9 blank"> </span>the</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y8e ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws7e">student, for example, to<span class="_1 blank"> </span>use MKS (SI)<span class="_1 blank"> </span>units in mea<span class="_a blank"> </span>suring distances along an<span class="_1 blank"> </span>optical</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y8f ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws7f">bench. It would also be confusing, for example, to use cgs units in discussing<span class="_7 blank"> </span>the</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y90 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws80">orbits of the Galilean satellites. Accordi<span class="_a blank"> </span>ngly, I use that system in a given context</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y91 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws43">which<span class="_7 blank"> </span>I<span class="_9 blank"> </span>believe<span class="_7 blank"> </span>is<span class="_9 blank"> </span>most<span class="_7 blank"> </span>appropriate .<span class="_9 blank"> </span>The<span class="_7 blank"> </span>values<span class="_9 blank"> </span>of<span class="_7 blank"> </span>the<span class="_9 blank"> </span>mathematical<span class="_7 blank"> </span>constants<span class="_9 blank"> </span>in</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y92 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws4f">Appendix I are provided in both sets of units.</div><div class="t m0 x1 h10 y93 ff1 fs6 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws81">viii Foreword</div></div><div class="pi" data-data='{"ctm":[1.000000,0.000000,0.000000,1.000000,0.000000,0.000000]}'></div></div> <div id="pfa" class="pf w0 h0" data-page-no="a"><div class="pc pca w0 h0"><div class="t m0 x7 hf y66 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws82">First,<span class="_b blank"> </span>I<span class="_6 blank"> </span>present<span class="_b blank"> </span>experiments<span class="_b blank"> </span>on<span class="_6 blank"> </span>mathemat ical<span class="_b blank"> </span>tools<span class="_6 blank"> </span>and<span class="_b blank"> </span>graphing<span class="_b blank"> </span>techniques,</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y67 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws52">which<span class="_7 blank"> </span>should<span class="_9 blank"> </span>be<span class="_7 blank"> </span>part<span class="_7 blank"> </span>of<span class="_7 blank"> </span>every<span class="_9 blank"> </span>college<span class="_7 blank"> </span>student\u2019s<span class="_9 blank"> </span>intellectual<span class="_7 blank"> </span>equipment<span class="_9 blank"> </span>but<span class="_7 blank"> </span>which</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y68 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws83">are often not. Facility<span class="_9 blank"> </span>in these techniques is achieved<span class="_9 blank"> </span>by usage in the subseq<span class="_a blank"> </span>uent</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y69 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws82">experiments.<span class="_b blank"> </span>Typically,<span class="_6 blank"> </span>the<span class="_b blank"> </span>student<span class="_6 blank"> </span>should<span class="_6 blank"> </span>read<span class="_b blank"> </span>the<span class="_6 blank"> </span>various<span class="_b blank"> </span>experiments<span class="_6 blank"> </span>before</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y6a ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws84">coming to the laboratory and perform the data reduction in the week following.</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y6b ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws85">Experiments 1 and<span class="_2 blank"> </span>2 would be<span class="_2 blank"> </span>more amenable<span class="_2 blank"> </span>to a differ<span class="_a blank"> </span>ent format. The exper<span class="_a blank"> </span>iments</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y6c ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws86">should be read before class, but the<span class="_1 blank"> </span>exercises<span class="_3 blank"> </span>should be done in the laboratory class</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y6d ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws87">itself. The student will \ufb01nd this congenial, with the rush of the \ufb01rst 2 weeks of class</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y6e ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws52">sometimes<span class="_1 blank"> </span>being<span class="_3 blank"> </span>overwhelming.</div><div class="t m0 x7 hf y6f ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws88">Inclusion of a section in the \ufb01rst exper<span class="_a blank"> </span>iment dealing with the collision of the</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y70 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws89">Milky<span class="_3 blank"> </span>Way<span class="_1 blank"> </span>and<span class="_3 blank"> </span>M31<span class="_3 blank"> </span>was<span class="_3 blank"> </span>written<span class="_3 blank"> </span>for<span class="_3 blank"> </span>several<span class="_3 blank"> </span>reasons.<span class="_3 blank"> </span>First,<span class="_3 blank"> </span>of<span class="_1 blank"> </span>course,<span class="_3 blank"> </span>it<span class="_3 blank"> </span>provides<span class="_3 blank"> </span>a</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y71 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws8a">good example of som<span class="_a blank"> </span>e of the techniques. It<span class="_9 blank"> </span>demonstrates that the various tec<span class="_a blank"> </span>hni-</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y72 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws44">ques do not stand<span class="_3 blank"> </span>alone, but that<span class="_3 blank"> </span>often more<span class="_3 blank"> </span>than one is<span class="_3 blank"> </span>needed in a<span class="_3 blank"> </span>given analysis.</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y73 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws8b">Third, the discovery of the decreased time scale for the collision of the Milky Way</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y74 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws8c">and M31 received widesp<span class="_a blank"> </span>read coverage in 2009 and it is fre<span class="_a blank"> </span>quently discussed</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y75 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws8d">during the course in the context of galactic canni<span class="_a blank"> </span>balism. I also wanted to use it as</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y76 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws8e">a demonstration of the value of mathematical physics, that seem<span class="_a blank"> </span>ingly intractable</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y77 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws72">problems<span class="_9 blank"> </span>can<span class="_9 blank"> </span>be<span class="_9 blank"> </span>solved<span class="_9 blank"> </span>by<span class="_9 blank"> </span>the<span class="_9 blank"> </span>application<span class="_9 blank"> </span>of<span class="_9 blank"> </span>physics<span class="_9 blank"> </span>\u2013<span class="_9 blank"> </span>here<span class="_9 blank"> </span>the<span class="_9 blank"> </span>conservation<span class="_9 blank"> </span>of</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y78 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws8f">energy and velocity<span class="_6 blank"> </span>of propagation of pressure waves in<span class="_6 blank"> </span>a medium. Finally, the</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y79 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws90">result of the calculation is suf\ufb01ciently intriguing that the student may well d<span class="_a blank"> </span>iscuss it</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y7a ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws66">with his roommate or friends, engendering interest in astronomy.</div><div class="t m0 x7 hf y7b ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws91">The expe<span class="_5 blank"></span>ri<span class="_5 blank"></span>ments on te<span class="_5 blank"></span>lesc<span class="_5 blank"></span>op<span class="_5 blank"></span>e opti<span class="_5 blank"></span>cs are fair<span class="_5 blank"></span>ly comp<span class="_5 blank"></span>reh<span class="_5 blank"></span>ensi<span class="_5 blank"></span>ve, an<span class="_5 blank"></span>d ther<span class="_5 blank"></span>efor<span class="_5 blank"></span>e</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y7c ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws92">perf<span class="_5 blank"></span>or<span class="_5 blank"></span>med in two la<span class="_5 blank"></span>bora<span class="_5 blank"></span>to<span class="_5 blank"></span>ry sess<span class="_5 blank"></span>io<span class="_5 blank"></span>ns. Fou<span class="_5 blank"></span>r expe<span class="_5 blank"></span>rime<span class="_5 blank"></span>nt<span class="_5 blank"></span>s which ca<span class="_5 blank"></span>n be cond<span class="_5 blank"></span>uc<span class="_5 blank"></span>ted</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y7d ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws93">over a maj<span class="_5 blank"></span>or port<span class="_5 blank"></span>ion of a seme<span class="_5 blank"></span>st<span class="_5 blank"></span>er, obse<span class="_5 blank"></span>rv<span class="_5 blank"></span>atio<span class="_5 blank"></span>ns of the Gal<span class="_5 blank"></span>ilea<span class="_5 blank"></span>n satel<span class="_5 blank"></span>li<span class="_5 blank"></span>tes, ob<span class="_5 blank"></span>serv<span class="_5 blank"></span>atio<span class="_5 blank"></span>ns</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y7e ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws94">of Venu<span class="_5 blank"></span>s, micr<span class="_5 blank"></span>owav<span class="_5 blank"></span>e obse<span class="_5 blank"></span>rvat<span class="_5 blank"></span>io<span class="_5 blank"></span>ns of the Moon<span class="_5 blank"></span>, and dete<span class="_5 blank"></span>rm<span class="_5 blank"></span>inat<span class="_5 blank"></span>ion of lo<span class="_5 blank"></span>cal geog<span class="_5 blank"></span>ra<span class="_5 blank"></span>ph-</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y7f ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws95">ic lat<span class="_5 blank"></span>itud<span class="_5 blank"></span>e from ob<span class="_5 blank"></span>serv<span class="_5 blank"></span>atio<span class="_5 blank"></span>ns of len<span class="_5 blank"></span>gths of Su<span class="_5 blank"></span>n-ca<span class="_5 blank"></span>st shad<span class="_5 blank"></span>ow<span class="_5 blank"></span>s, will gi<span class="_5 blank"></span>ve the st<span class="_5 blank"></span>uden<span class="_5 blank"></span>t a</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y80 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws96">feel fo<span class="_5 blank"></span>r obse<span class="_5 blank"></span>rvat<span class="_5 blank"></span>ion<span class="_5 blank"></span>s. In addi<span class="_5 blank"></span>tion<span class="_5 blank"></span>, a numeri<span class="_5 blank"></span>cal ex<span class="_5 blank"></span>peri<span class="_5 blank"></span>ment on Ke<span class="_5 blank"></span>pler<span class="_5 blank"></span>\u2019s law<span class="_5 blank"></span>s is provid<span class="_5 blank"></span>ed</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y81 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws97">whic<span class="_5 blank"></span>h uti<span class="_5 blank"></span>lize<span class="_5 blank"></span>s ep<span class="_5 blank"></span>heme<span class="_5 blank"></span>ris da<span class="_5 blank"></span>ta<span class="_5 blank"></span>. The ge<span class="_5 blank"></span>ogra<span class="_5 blank"></span>ph<span class="_5 blank"></span>ic la<span class="_5 blank"></span>titu<span class="_5 blank"></span>de ex<span class="_5 blank"></span>pe<span class="_5 blank"></span>rime<span class="_5 blank"></span>nt in<span class="_5 blank"></span>clud<span class="_5 blank"></span>es an<span class="_2 blank"> </span>intro-</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y82 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws98">duct<span class="_5 blank"></span>io<span class="_5 blank"></span>n to the<span class="_2 blank"> </span>celest<span class="_5 blank"></span>ial sp<span class="_5 blank"></span>he<span class="_5 blank"></span>re an<span class="_5 blank"></span>d the de<span class="_5 blank"></span>ri<span class="_5 blank"></span>vati<span class="_5 blank"></span>on of<span class="_2 blank"> </span>the zeni<span class="_5 blank"></span>th an<span class="_5 blank"></span>gle eq<span class="_5 blank"></span>ua<span class="_5 blank"></span>tion<span class="_5 blank"></span>.</div><div class="t m0 x7 hf y83 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws99">The ex<span class="_5 blank"></span>per<span class="_5 blank"></span>imen<span class="_5 blank"></span>ts on th<span class="_5 blank"></span>e Gali<span class="_5 blank"></span>lean sa<span class="_5 blank"></span>tell<span class="_5 blank"></span>it<span class="_5 blank"></span>es, Ke<span class="_5 blank"></span>pler<span class="_5 blank"></span>\u2019s laws<span class="_5 blank"></span>, and th<span class="_5 blank"></span>e orbi<span class="_5 blank"></span>t of Ven<span class="_5 blank"></span>us</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y84 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws9a">wil<span class="_5 blank"></span>l prov<span class="_5 blank"></span>ide a sh<span class="_5 blank"></span>or<span class="_5 blank"></span>t intr<span class="_5 blank"></span>oduc<span class="_5 blank"></span>ti<span class="_5 blank"></span>on to th<span class="_5 blank"></span>e hist<span class="_5 blank"></span>ory<span class="_8 blank"> </span>of astr<span class="_5 blank"></span>on<span class="_5 blank"></span>omy. T<span class="_5 blank"></span>hrou<span class="_5 blank"></span>ghou<span class="_5 blank"></span>t, t<span class="_5 blank"></span>he na<span class="_5 blank"></span>mes</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y85 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws9b">and bi<span class="_5 blank"></span>rth an<span class="_5 blank"></span>d deat<span class="_5 blank"></span>h da<span class="_5 blank"></span>tes ar<span class="_5 blank"></span>e prov<span class="_5 blank"></span>ided<span class="_4 blank"> </span>for no<span class="_5 blank"></span>ta<span class="_5 blank"></span>ble co<span class="_5 blank"></span>ntr<span class="_5 blank"></span>ibut<span class="_5 blank"></span>ors.<span class="_4 blank"> </span>In pa<span class="_5 blank"></span>rt<span class="_5 blank"></span>icul<span class="_5 blank"></span>ar, t<span class="_5 blank"></span>he Venu<span class="_5 blank"></span>s</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y86 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws9c">expe<span class="_5 blank"></span>ri<span class="_5 blank"></span>ment co<span class="_5 blank"></span>mpar<span class="_5 blank"></span>es th<span class="_5 blank"></span>e Pt<span class="_5 blank"></span>olem<span class="_5 blank"></span>aic an<span class="_5 blank"></span>d Cop<span class="_5 blank"></span>erni<span class="_5 blank"></span>can<span class="_8 blank"> </span>theo<span class="_5 blank"></span>ries<span class="_2 blank"> </span>of the sola<span class="_5 blank"></span>r sy<span class="_5 blank"></span>stem<span class="_5 blank"></span>.</div><div class="t m0 x7 hf y87 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws9d">The familiar laws of re\ufb02ection<span class="_b blank"> </span>are put into context<span class="_b blank"> </span>in the real world by<span class="_b blank"> </span>an</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y88 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws9e">experiment<span class="_9 blank"> </span>on<span class="_6 blank"> </span>diffuse<span class="_9 blank"> </span>re\ufb02ection<span class="_9 blank"> </span>from<span class="_9 blank"> </span>the<span class="_6 blank"> </span>Moon<span class="_9 blank"> </span>and<span class="_9 blank"> </span>terrestrial<span class="_6 blank"> </span>planets.<span class="_9 blank"> </span>Specular</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y89 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws9f">re\ufb02ection,<span class="_3 blank"> </span>scattering,<span class="_7 blank"> </span>polarization,<span class="_3 blank"> </span>and<span class="_3 blank"> </span>the<span class="_3 blank"> </span>electromagnet ic<span class="_7 blank"> </span>wave<span class="_1 blank"> </span>are<span class="_7 blank"> </span>introduced<span class="_1 blank"> </span>in</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y8a ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 wsa0">this context. These labs, by introdu<span class="_a blank"> </span>cing the concept of models, also provide an</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y8b ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 wsa1">introduction to the art<span class="_8 blank"> </span>of doing<span class="_8 blank"> </span>science.<span class="_8 blank"> </span>The formati<span class="_a blank"> </span>on of impact craters<span class="_8 blank"> </span>is discusse<span class="_a blank"> </span>d</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y8c ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 wsa2">in the context of the conse<span class="_a blank"> </span>rvation of energy as well as mathem<span class="_a blank"> </span>atical models. Pure</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y8d ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws54">physics<span class="_6 blank"> </span>experiments<span class="_9 blank"> </span>study<span class="_6 blank"> </span>blackbody<span class="_6 blank"> </span>radiation<span class="_9 blank"> </span>and<span class="_6 blank"> </span>spectral<span class="_9 blank"> </span>lines<span class="_6 blank"> </span>by<span class="_6 blank"> </span>way<span class="_9 blank"> </span>of<span class="_6 blank"> </span>the</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y8e ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 wsa3">Bohr atom. This knowledge is combined into an experiment on Kirchhoff\u2019s Laws. I</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y8f ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 wsa4">include a study quantifying the<span class="_7 blank"> </span>changing color of the Sun with zenith angle<span class="_7 blank"> </span>in the</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y90 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws82">blackbody<span class="_3 blank"> </span>radiation<span class="_7 blank"> </span>experiment.</div><div class="t m0 x7 hf y91 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 wsa5">The subjects of radio<span class="_1 blank"> </span>and<span class="_1 blank"> </span>radar<span class="_1 blank"> </span>astronomy,<span class="_1 blank"> </span>areas<span class="_1 blank"> </span>which<span class="_1 blank"> </span>are<span class="_1 blank"> </span>normal<span class="_a blank"> </span>ly not studied</div><div class="t m0 x1 hf y92 ff1 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls0 wsa6">in laboratory courses in ast<span class="_a blank"> </span>ronomy, are presented. They give the<span class="_2 blank"> </span>stud<span class="_a blank"> </span>ent a feeling for</div><div class="t m0 x1 h10 y93 ff1 fs6 fc0 sc0 ls0 wsa7">Foreword ix</div></div><div class="pi" data-data='{"ctm":[1.000000,0.000000,0.000000,1.000000,0.000000,0.000000]}'></div></div>
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