JOM-0611-51-gretaest-moments-materials-science

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2006 November • JOM 51
 FeatureMaterials World
Introducing the Nominees for the 
Greatest Materials Moments in History
A Great Materials Moment 
is defi ned as a pivotal or 
capstone event of human 
observation and/or intervention 
that led to a paradigm shift 
in humanity’s understanding 
of materials behavior, that 
introduced a new era of 
materials utilization, and/or 
that yielded signifi cant 
materials-enabled 
socio-economic changes.
 James J. Robinson
 Would it be too bold of me to say 
that the materials community suffers 
from an inferiority complex? I hear it 
all of the time: Who gets most of the 
funding? The health community. Who 
gets the best media coverage? The 
physics community. Who gets the best 
pay? The petroleum and chemical 
communities. Who gets the short-
est shrift in the public’s eye? The 
materials community.
 Whether this litany is com-
pletely or partially true, I dare say 
that the materials fi eld is worthy 
of much more favorable press and 
lively buzz than it conventionally 
receives—something more than 
once again blowing the dust off 
of our favorite adage concerning 
the early ages of civilization be-
ing characterized with materials terms 
(“stone,” “bronze,” “iron”). We know 
that . . . and more. We know that ev-
ery aspect of every culture relies upon 
engineered materials (from the farming 
tools used in agrarian communities to 
the silicon and fi ber optic enablers of 
the information age). Materials are the 
stuff that dreams are made of. 
 So, how do we impress that knowl-
edge on—nay, share our material en-
thusiasm with—a public that typically 
prefers science in easy-to-understand 
and non-challenging terms? And, how 
do we have fun while doing it?
 How about this? Let us undertake to 
name the all-time greatest moments of 
materials science and engineering. This 
should prove intriguing for the general 
public (everyone loves a list) and intel-
lectually stimulating for the science 
and engineering community. Plus, it 
could create some terrifi c arguments.
defi nition of what constitutes a great 
materials moment (see the gray box). 
Key is the notion of human observa-
tion and/or intervention—we want to 
emphasize feats of human intellect and 
ingenuity (i.e., the science and engi-
neering of it all). 
 Defi nition in hand, we invited doz-
ens of materials professionals with a 
broad view of the fi eld and a strong 
historical perspective to nominate great 
moments. We supplemented their nom-
inations with moments culled from the 
literature. The effort yielded an inven-
tory of more than 650 suggestions. The 
JOM staff took this roster and distilled 
it into a list of 100 candidates. We then 
invited a select group to vet the draft 
list. Using the feedback, we refi ned the 
draft into the offi cial candidate list that 
you will fi nd on the following pages. 
 Now is the time for you to tell 
us what you think by voting. For 
the list to have weight, it must have 
your input. We’ve created a web 
site to acquaint the public with our 
plan (www.materialmoments.org) 
as well as an on-line survey form 
that voters can use to build a top 
ten from the list of nominees. As 
someone who has already voted, I 
can confi rm that creating a person-
alized ranking is a challenging and 
rewarding activity.
 We will accept votes through the 
end of the year and then announce the 
top ten during February’s TMS 2007 
Annual Meeting & Exhibition in Walt 
Disney World. The announcement will 
be made during an all-conference ple-
nary breakfast as TMS presidents from 
across the decades will count the mo-
ments down from ten to one. The pres-
ence of so many past presidents is of 
special signifi cance as 2007 marks the 
50th anniversary of TMS as a member 
society of the American Institute of 
Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum 
Engineers. Thus, the next annual meet-
ing will not only be a celebration of 
TMS’s organizational history but the 
very history of materials science and 
engineering itself. 
 Before we start unveiling moments 
in Orlando, however, there is the lit-
tle matter of casting your vote for the 
greatest materials moments.
To vote: www.materialmoments.org
 Here is JOM’s method-
ology for devising such 
a list. First, we created a 
 And the nominees are . . .
 James J. Robinson is 
 editor of JOM.
JOM • November 200652
Great Materials Moment Date Signifi cance
The earliest fi red ceramics—in the form of animal and human 28,000 BC Introduces materials processing.
fi gurines, slabs, and balls—(found at sites in the Pavlov Hills of (estimated)
Moravia) are manufactured starting about this time.
The earliest form of metallurgy begins with the decorative 8000 BC Leads to the replacement of stone tools with much
hammering of copper by Old World Neolithic peoples. (estimated) more durable and versatile copper ones.
In and around modern Turkey, people discover that liquid copper 5000 BC Introduces extractive metallurgy—the means of unlocking the
can be extracted from malachite and azurite and that the molten (estimated) Earth’s mineralogical treasures.
metal can be cast into different shapes.
Egyptians smelt iron (perhaps as a by-product of copper refi ning) 3500 BC Unlocks the fi rst processing secret of what will become the world’s
for the fi rst time, using tiny amounts mostly for ornamental or (estimated) dominant metallurgical material.
ceremonial purposes.
Metal workers in the region of modern Syria and Turkey discover 3000 BC Establishes the concept of metals alloying—blending two or more
that addition of tin ore to copper ore before smelting produces bronze. (estimated) metals to create a substance that is greater than the sum of its parts.
The peoples of northwestern Iran invent glass. 2200 BC Introduces the second great nonmetallic engineering material 
 (estimated) (following ceramics).
Potters in China craft the fi rst porcelain using kaolin. 1500 BC Begins a long tradition of exceptional craftsmanship and artistry
 (estimated) with this class of ceramics.
Metal workers in the Near East develop the art of lost-wax casting. 1500 BC Establishes the ability to create and replicate intricate and complex
 (estimated) metallurgical structures.
Metal workers in south India develop crucible steel making. 300 BC Produces “wootz” steel which becomes famous as “Damascus”
 (estimated) sword steel hundreds of years later, inspiring artisans, blacksmiths,
 and metallurgists for many generations to come.
Chinese metal workers develop iron casting. 200 BC Introduces the primary approach to manufacturing iron objects for
 (estimated) centuries in China.
Glass blowing is developed, probably somewhere in the region of 100 BC Enables the quick manufacture of large, transparent, and leak-proof
modern Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Israel—most likely by Phoenicians. (estimated) vessels.
Iron smiths forge and erect a seven meter high iron pillar in 400 Defi es deleterious environmental effects for more than one and a
Delhi, India. (estimated) half millennia, creating an artifact of long-standing materials
 science and archaeological intrigue.
Johannes Gutenberg devises a lead-tin-antimony alloy to cast in 1450 Establishes the fundamental enabling technology for mass 
copper alloy molds to produce large and precise quantities of the type communication.
required by his printing press.
Johanson Funcken develops a method for separating silver from lead 1451 Establishes that mining and metals processing operations can 
and copper, ores of which are often mixed in deposits. recover metals as a by-product of other operations.
Vannoccio Biringuccio publishes De La Pirotechnia. 1540 Provides the fi rst written account of proper foundry practice.
Georgius Agricola publishes De Re Metallica. 1556 Provides a systematic and well-illustrated examinationof mining
 and metallurgy as practiced in the sixteenth century.
Galileo publishes Della Scienza Mechanica (“on mechanical 1593 Deals scientifi cally with the strength of materials.
knowledge”), which he writes after he has been consulted regarding
shipbuilding problems.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek develops optical microscopy capable of 1668 Enables study of the natural world and its structures that are
magnifi cations of 200 times and greater. (estimated) invisible to the unaided eye.
Abraham Darby I discovers that coke can effectively replace charcoal 1709 Lowers dramatically the cost of ironmaking (enabling large-scale
in a blast furnace for iron smelting. production) and saves regions from deforestation.
In Britain, the fi rst glue patent is issued (for fi sh glue, an 1750 Initiates a rapid succession of adhesive developments with natural 
exceptionally clear adhesive). and then synthetic sources.
John Smeaton invents modern concrete (hydraulic cement). 1755 Introduces the dominant construction material of the modern age.
Luigi Brugnatelli invents electroplating. 1805 Originates the widely employed industrial process for functional
 and decorative applications.
Sir Humphry Davy develops the process of electrolysis to separate 1807 Establishes the foundation for electrometallurgy and 
elemental metals from salts, including potassium, calcium, strontium, electrochemistry. 
barium, and magnesium.
Auguste Taveau develops a dental amalgam from silver coins and 1816 Enables repeatable and low-cost dental fi lling material and 
mercury. establishes one of the earliest examples of metallic biomaterials.
Augustin Cauchy presents his theory of stress and strain to the 1822 Provides the fi rst careful defi nition of stress as the load per unit 
French Academy of Sciences. area of the cross section of a material.
Friedrich Wöhler isolates elemental aluminum. 1827 Unlocks the most abundant metallic element in the Earth’s crust.
Nominees for the Greatest Moments in Materials Science and Engineering (cont.)
2006 November • JOM 53
Wilhelm Albert develops iron wire rope as hoisting cable for mining. 1827 Presents an exponential leap of large-scale construction and
 industrial opportunities over the limitations of hemp rope.
Charles Goodyear invents the vulcanization of rubber. 1844 Enables enormous progress in the transportation, electricity,
 manufacturing, and myriad other industries.
George Audemars patents “artifi cial silk” created using the fi brous 1855 Leads to the manufacture of rayon and the era of synthetic fi bers, 
inner bark of a mulberry tree. creating sweeping effects on the textiles and materials industries.
Henry Bessemer patents a bottom-blown acid process for melting 1856 Ushers in the era of cheap, large-tonnage steel, thereby enabling 
low-carbon iron. massive progress in transportation, building construction, and
 general industrialization. 
Emile and Pierre Martin develop the Siemens-Martin open-hearth 1863 Produces large quantities of basic steel by heating a combination of 
furnace process. steel scrap and iron ore with gas burners—helping to make steel
 the world’s most recycled metal.
Henry Clifton Sorby uses light microscopy to reveal the 1863 Leads to the use of photomicrography with metals and the science 
microstructure of steel. of metallurgy.
Dmitri Mendeleev devises the Periodic Table of Elements. 1864 Introduces the ubiquitous reference tool of materials scientists and
 engineers.
Alfred Nobel patents dynamite. 1867 Proves of immeasurable assistance in conducting large-scale mining.
J. Willard Gibbs publishes the fi rst part of the two-part paper “On the 1876 Provides a basis for understanding modern thermodynamics and 
Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances.” physical chemistry.
William Siemens patents the arc-type electric furnace. 1878 Leads to the modern electric arc furnace, which is the principle
 furnace type for the modern electric production of steel.
Pierre Manhès constructs the fi rst working converter for copper matte. 1880 Initiates the modern period of copper making.
Charles Martin Hall and Paul Héroult independently and simultaneously 1886 Provides the processing foundation for the proliferation of
discover the electrolytic reduction of alumina into aluminum. aluminum for commercial applications.
Adolf Martens examines the microstructure of a hard steel alloy and 1890 Initiates the use of microscopy to identify the crystal structures in 
fi nds that, unlike many inferior steels that show little coherent metals and correlate these observations to the physical properties
patterning, this steel had many varieties of patterns, especially banded of the material.
regions of differently oriented microcrystals.
Pierre and Marie Curie discover radioactivity. 1896 Marks the beginning of modern-era studies on spontaneous
 radiation and applications of radioactivity for civilian and military
 applications.
William Roberts-Austen develops the phase diagram for iron 1898 Initiates work on the most signifi cant phase diagram in metallurgy, 
and carbon. providing the foundation for the indispensable tool for other
 material systems.
Johann August Brinell develops a test to estimate the hardness of 1900 Establishes a reliable (and still commonly used) method to 
metals that involves pressing a steel ball or diamond cone against determine the hardness properties of virtually all materials.
the specimen.
Charles Vincent Potter develops the fl otation process to separate 1901 Opens the opportunity for the large-scale recovery of metals from 
metallic sulfi de minerals from otherwise unusable minerals. increasingly diffi cult-to-treat low-grade ores from mining operations.
Leon Guillet develops the alloying compositions of the fi rst 1904 Expands the versatility of steel for use in corrosive environments.
stainless steels.
Alfred Wilm discovers the precipitation hardening of aluminum alloys. 1906 Yields the “hard aluminum” duraluminum, the fi rst high-strength
 aluminum alloy.
Leo Baekeland synthesizes the thermosetting hard plastic Bakelite. 1909 Marks the beginning of the “plastic age” and the modern plastics
 industry.
William D. Coolidge devises ductile tungsten wire, using a powder 1909 Spurs the rapid expansion of electric lamps and initiates the 
metallurgical approach, for use as an energy-effi cient, high-lumen science of modern powder metallurgy.
lighting fi lament.
Kammerlingh Omnes discovers superconductivity while studying 1911 Forms the basis for modern discoveries in low- and high-
pure metals at very low temperatures. temperature superconductors and resulting high-performance
 applications.
Max von Laue discovers the diffraction of x-rays by crystals. 1912 Creates means to characterize crystal structures and inspires W.H. 
 Bragg and W.L Bragg in developing the theory of diffraction by 
 crystals, providing insight into the effects of crystal structure on 
 material properties.
Albert Sauveur publishes Metallography and Heat Treatment of 1912 Promulgates the “processing-structure-properties” paradigm that 
Iron and Steel. guides the materials science and engineering fi eld.
 Great Materials Moment Date Signifi cance
Nominees for the Greatest Moments in Materials Science and Engineering (cont.)
JOM • November 200654
Niels Bohr publishes his model of atomic structure. 1913 Introduces the theory that electrons travel in discrete orbits around 
 the atom’s nucleus, with the chemical properties of the element 
 being largely determined by the number of electrons in each of the 
 outer orbits.
Jan Czochralski publishes the paper “Ein Neues Verfahren zur 1918 Becomes the method of choice for growing high-performance 
Messung des Kristallisationsgeschwindigkeit der Metalle” (“A New materials, such as the silicon crystals used in thesemiconductor 
Method for the Measurement of the Crystallization Rate of Metals”), computer chip industry. 
in which he describes a method of growing metallic monocrystals.
A.A. Griffi th publishes “The Phenomenon of Rupture and Flow in 1920 Gives rise to the fi eld of fracture mechanics.
Solids,” which casts the problem of fracture in terms of energy balance. 
Hermann Staudinger publishes work that states that polymers are long 1920 Paves the way for the birth of the fi eld of polymer chemistry.
chains of short repeating molecular units linked by covalent bonds.
John B. Tytus invents the continuous hot-strip rolling of steel. 1923 Provides the basis for the inexpensive, large-scale manufacturing
 of sheet and plate products.
Karl Schroter invents cemented carbides as a class of materials. 1923 Provides the basis for the workhorse materials of the tool and
 metal-cutting industries.
Cornelius H. Keller patents alkyl xanthates sulfi de collectors. 1925 Begins a revolution in sulfi de mineral fl otation, turning worthless
 mineral deposits into bonanzas.
Werner Heisenberg develops matrix mechanics and Erwin 1925 Forms the basis of quantum mechanics.
Schrödinger invents wave mechanics and the non-relativistic 
Schrödinger equation for atoms.
Waldo Lonsbury Semon invents plasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC). 1926 Becomes one of the world’s most versatile and widely used
 construction materials.
Paul Merica patents the addition of small amounts of aluminum to 1926 Leads to the commercialization of the jet engine, along with 
Ni-Cr alloy to create the fi rst “superalloy.” increased effi ciency for modern power turbine machinery. 
Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer experimentally confi rm the 1927 Provides fundamental work necessary for much of today’s solid-
wave nature of the electron. state electronics. 
Siegfried Junghans perfects a process for the continuous casting of 1927 Provides the basis for commercial exploitation of high-volume
nonferrous metal. continuous casting.
Arnold Sommerfeld applies quantum statistics to the Drude model of 1927 Supplies a simple model for the behavior of electrons in a crystal 
electrons in metals and develops the free-electron theory of metals. structure of a metallic solid and contributes to the foundation of 
 solid-state theory.
Fritz Pfl eumer patents magnetic tape. 1928 Establishes the technology and leads to many subsequent 
 innovations for data storage.
Arne Olander discovers the shape-memory effect in an alloy of gold 1932 Leads to the development of the commercial shape-memory alloys 
and cadmium. that are employed in medical and other applications.
Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska build the fi rst transmission electron 1933 Accesses new length scales and enables improved understanding of 
microscope. material structure.
Egon Orowan, Michael Polyani, and G.I. Taylor, in three independent 1934 Provides critical insight toward developing the modern science of 
papers, propose that the plastic deformation of ductile materials could solid mechanics.
be explained in terms of the theory of dislocations.
Wallace Hume Carothers, Julian Hill, and other researchers patent 1935 Greatly reduces the demand for silk and serves as the impetus for 
the polymer nylon. the rapid development of polymers.
Erich Schmid and Walter Boas publish Kristallplastizitaet, which details 1935 Leads to a much better understanding of plastic deformation, a 
15 years of research on plastic deformation of metallic single crystals. critical property of metals.
Norman de Bruyne develops the composite plastic Gordon-Aerolite, which 1937 Paves the way for the development of fi berglass.
consists of high-grade fl ax fi ber bonded together with phenolic resin.
André Guinier and G.D. Preston independently report the observation 1937 Leads to the improved understanding of precipitation-hardening 
of diffuse streaking in age-hardened aluminum-copper alloys. mechanisms.
Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann fi nd that they can split the nucleus 1939 Establishes nuclear fi ssion and leads to applications in energy and 
of a uranium atom by bombarding it with neutrons. atomic weapons.
Russell Ohl, George Southworth, Jack Scaff, and Henry Theuerer 1939 Provides a necessary precursor to the invention of the transistor 
discover the existence of p- and n-type regions in silicon. eight years later.
Wilhelm Kroll develops an economical process for titanium extraction. 1940 Establishes the primary means of producing the high-purity 
 titanium needed for products ranging from high-performance 
 aircraft to corrosion-resistant reactors.
Frank Spedding develops an effi cient process for obtaining high- 1942 Enables the development of the atomic bomb in the Manhattan 
purity uranium from uranium halides. Project.
Great Materials Moment Date Signifi cance
Nominees for the Greatest Moments in Materials Science and Engineering (cont.)
2006 November • JOM 55
John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain, and William Shockley invent 1948 Becomes the building block for all modern electronics and the 
the transistor. foundation for microchip and computer technology.
Bill Pfann invents zone refi ning. 1951 Enables the preparation of high-purity materials, such as the 
 improved semiconductors critical for electronic applications.
Nick Holonyak, Jr., develops the fi rst practical visible-spectrum light- 1952 Marks the beginning of the use of III-V alloys in semiconductor 
emitting diode (LED). devices, including heterojunctions and quantum well heterostructures.
S. Donald Stookey discovers a heat-treatment process for transforming 1952 Leads to the introduction of Pyroceram and CorningWare.
glass objects into fi ne-grained ceramics.
A team in Sweden produces the fi rst artifi cial diamonds by using high 1953 Gives rise to the industrial diamond industry, with applications in 
heat and pressure. machining, electronics, and a variety of other areas.
Gerald Pearson, Daryl Chapin, and Calvin Fuller unveiled the Bell 1954 Serves as the very foundation for solar energy production as well 
Solar Battery—the world’s fi rst device to successfully convert useful as photo-detector technology.
amounts of sunlight directly into electricity. 
Peter Hirsch and coworkers provide experimental verifi cation by 1956 Not only is dislocation theory verifi ed unequivocally, but the 
transmission electron microscopy of dislocations in materials. power of transmission electron microscopy in materials research is
 demonstrated.
Jack Kilby integrates capacitors, resistors, diodes, and transistors into 1958 Makes possible microprocessors and, thereby, high-speed, effi cient, 
a single germanium monolithic integrated circuit or “microchip.” convenient, affordable, and ubiquitous, computing and
 communications systems.
Frank VerSnyder develops the directionally solidifi ed columnar- 1958 Enables performance enhancements for jet engines, saving airlines 
grained turbine blade. millions of dollars per year in fuel costs alone.
Pol Duwez uses rapid cooling to make a gold-silicon alloy that 1959 Represents the fi rst true metallic glass, which has been applied in 
remains amorphous at room temperature. transformer cores and offers signifi cant potential.
Richard Feynman presents “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom” 1959 Introduces the concept of nanotechnology (while not naming it as 
at a meeting of the American Physical Society. such).
Arthur Robert von Hippel publishes Molecular Science and 1959 Creates an emerging discipline aimed at designing new materials 
Molecular Engineering. on the basis of molecular understanding. 
Stephanie Kwolek invents the high-strength, low-weight plastic 1964 Improves the performance of tires, boat shells, body armor, 
Kevlar. components for the aerospace industry, and more.
Cambridge Instruments introduces a commercialscanning electron 1965 Provides an improved method for the high-resolution imaging of 
microscope. surfaces at greater magnifi cations and with much greater depth of 
 fi eld than possible with light microscopy.
Karl J. Strnat and coworkers discover magneto-crystalline anisotropy 1966 Leads to the fabrication of high-performance permanent magnets 
in rare-earth cobalt intermetallic compounds. of samarium-cobalt and, later, neodymium-iron-boron for use in 
 electronic devices and other areas.
Larry Hench and colleagues develop bioactive glass for orthopedic use. 1969 Changes the paradigm in biomaterials to include interfacial 
 bonding of the implant with host tissues.
James Fergason, utilizing the twisted nematic fi eld effect, makes 1970 Completely redefi nes many products and applications, including 
fi rst operating liquid crystal displays. computer displays, medical and industrial devices, and the vast 
 array of consumer electronics.
Bob Maurer, Peter Schultz, and Donald Keck invent low-loss optical 1970 Provides the basis for the increased bandwidth that revolutionized 
fi ber. telecommunications.
Hideki Shirakawa, Alan MacDiarmid, and Alan Heeger announce the 1977 Leads to the development of fl at panel displays using organic light-
discovery of electrically conducting organic polymers. emitting diodes, solar panels, and optical amplifi ers.
Heinrich Rohrer and Gerd Karl Binnig invent the scanning tunneling 1981 Provides three-dimensional atomic-scale images of metal surfaces 
microscope. and quickly becomes widely used in research to characterize 
 surface roughness and observe surface defects.
Robert Curl, Jr., Richard Smalley, and Harold Walter Kroto discover 1985 Opens the possibility that carbon can assume an almost infi nite 
that some carbon arranges itself in the form of soccer-ball-shaped number of different structures.
molecules with 60 atoms called buckminsterfullerenes or “buckyballs.”
Paul Chu creates a superconducting yttrium-barium-copper oxide 1987 Opens the possibility of large-scale application of superconducting 
ceramic. materials.
Don Eigler spells out “IBM” with individual xenon atoms using a 1989 Demonstrates that atoms can be manipulated one by one, the basis 
scanning tunneling electron microscope. for “bottoms-up” production of nanostructures.
Sumio Iijima discovers nanotubes, carbon atoms arranged in tubular 1991 Creates expectations of important structural and nonstructural 
structures. applications as nanotubes are about 100 times stronger than steel at 
 just a sixth of the weight while also possessing unusual heat and 
 conductivity characteristics.
Eli Yablonovich produces “photonic crystals” by drilling holes in a 1991 Forms a basis for the development of “photonic transistors.”
crystalline material so that light of a certain wavelength cannot 
propagate in the material. 
Great Materials Moment Date Signifi cance
Nominees for the Greatest Moments in Materials Science and Engineering