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� � � � �� � � � � � ��� � � � ��� �� � � �� ff fi fl� ffi � � � � !!" # $ � %& � ' $($) *+, - $ � ./ 0 1 23 4 3562 0 1 .778 9 : ; <= = > = ?@ =A BC = D <EF G HH F @I J < D; K E K JL =A BC = DM 9 N: O L D @P@ K = = BD I ; J ? <= = BD ? EQ= ;R ?@ > L D; E = O D I <=FE I < D;M 9 : ;B L E > = K E S D L F= ? EQ N T > E ? M 9 N: O L D @P@ KD D J ;D K E B = ? B J ? = KD L = ;M 9 U E ;D ? > = B = K = V J E ; < C = D I = S D ?W = = O L D O L @ = K = M 9 X C = D ; E L C = D = B E @ <= ; L E ; O D; <= ; ; EF Y J ; < @ Z B =< @ > = ; � � � � [ 31\ 4] ^2 / _ F= L E K E K E K @ S L =A BC = D V J E <EF ` SE I K = ; O D L B E I < N T FE< L DR J I@ S D L FEFE I <E ; E O = L = K = ; O D L J F= K @ ; <a= I B @ = b R K @ ; O E L ; = = ? Jc P L = I B = K E F DKD V J E D BD F O L @ FE I < D K E D I K = d e f HH gh R KD > E L K E R = O = L E B E I D E ; O E B < L D K E V J = L <= D L K EF ;D P D a= I Q J ? D i e j Hk M l mno pqr s qt u =v w J = ? = BD I K @ A BC = D O = L = D; F N = x @ F D; K = L E K E K E K @ S L =A BC = Dy : x O L E ;; E ; J = L E ; O D; <= EF <E L F D; K E b R d R iR E h u D L K EF KD E ; O E B < L D v M l znm pqr s qt u P v w J = ? N E D I N J FE L D K E ?@IW = ; O D L B E I < N T FE< L D u `v K = L E K E K E K @ S L =A BC = Dy l znm pqr s qt u B v { K F @ < @I KD | ; E V J E D E ; O E B < L D KD > @ ; N T > E ? ; E E ; <E I K = K E } HH I F =< N E ~ HH I F R K E<E L F @I E ; E = ? Q J F= L = K @ =A BC = D > @ ; N T > E ? KD E ; O E B < L D K E V J @I <= D L K EF = O = L E B E D J I C = D I D a= I Q J ? D i e j Hk M � � � � � ���� �� �� ��� � �� � u =v b � �g i e h d u P v { K @ ; <a= I B @ = b E I < L E = ; SE I K = ; N E K = K = O D L b e h d � �g i e } �f � G H� � H� f e } � G H � � h � I N J FE L D K E SE I K = ; EF G �h e H�H G h N E @ Q J = ? = H�H G } � G H � � e fffif HH e fl ` e fffif HH SE I K = ;ffi �h u B v _ ; = I KD = E x O L E ;;C = D KD @ <EF u =v O DK EF D; E ;B L E > E L d e b � �g i h e } � G H� � � H� f f e } � G H � � h e } HH gh { ;; @ F R = ? Jc > @ D ? E<= KD E ; O E B < L D K E V J @I <= D L K EF = O = L E B E EF i e j H � M � � � � [ 31\ 4] ^2 . _ F S N D < D I K E BD F O L @ FE I < D K E D I K = d BD ?@ K E BD F J F E ? N E< L D I EF L E O D J ;DM { O N D; = BD ?@ ;C = DR N E K E<E B <= KD J F S N D < D I O D;; J @I KD BD F O L @ FE I < D K E D I K = d ! e d " # d R EF J F= K @ L EA BC = D S D L F= I KD J F a= I Q J ? D i BD F = K @ L EA BC = D KD S N D < D I @I B @ K E I <E u > EY= Z Q JL = = P = @ x D v M φ θ $ $ $ $ % & & & & ' ' λ 0 λ´ (E , P ) (E , P) oo (E´, P´) 0 (m c , 0)2 l znm pqr s qt u =v : ;B L E > = = ; EV J =A BCD E ; K E BD I ; E L > =A BC = D K E E I E L Q @ = E K E F D FE I < D ?@I E= L V J E O E L F @ <EF K E K Jc @ L = L E ? =A BC = D # d e � h � u G� BD; i v O = L = = > = L @ =A BC = D KD BD F O L @ FE I < D K E D I K = KD S N D < D I K E > @ KD = D E ; O = ?W =FE I < D u I C = D N E I E B E ;; N = L @ D K E K Jc @ L = L E ? =A BC = D O = L = # dv l mno pqr s qt u P v _ F SE @ x E K E L = @ D; � K E BD F O L @ FE I < D K E D I K = d e H� ff H gh E N E E ; O = ?W = KD O E ? D = ? > D ;D P J F a= I Q J ? D K E i e }f � EF L E ? =A BC = D = D SE @ x E @I B @ K E I <E M � = ? B J ? E D BD F O L @ FE I < D K E D I K = KD; L = @ D; E ; O = ?W = KD;M u � = KD;� � e � � � � G H� � � � R = F= ;; = KD E ? N E< L D I h e � � G � G H � � �� E � e j �H � G H � h ffi � M v l znm pqr s qt u B v � = ? B J ? E = S L =A BC = D K E E I E L Q @ = O E L K @ K = O E ? D S N D < D I M � � � � � ���� �� �� ��� � �� � u =v �D I ; E L > =A BC = D K E E I E L Q @ = � � d " h � � e � � d ! " h � � � �D I ; E L > =A BC = D K E F D FE I < D � d e � d ! �� � i " h � � �� � � H e � d ! � �g i � h � � ��g � u P v _ ; = I KD = E x O L E ;;C = D O = L = # d D P <EF D; # d e � � � � G H� � u � � G � G H � � v u j �H � G H � v u G� H� ~Gv � ~ � G H � � h e H�HHH ~ gh e fl d ! e d " # d e H� ff HH ~ gh u B v � L =A BC = D K E E I E L Q @ = O E L K @ K = e ��ff fifl � ��ff fi ffi ��ff fifl e � fi fi ffi � H�HH j � � � � [ 31\ 4] ^2 8 { Z Q JL = G{ = P = @ x D F D; < L = J F= ? E I <E K E L = @ D K E B JL > =< JL = � R = O D @ = K = ;D P L E J F= O ? = B = K E > @ K L D E @? J F @I = K = O D L ? Jc V J E ; E O L D O =Q= I D = L BD F BD F O L @ FE I < D K E D I K = d M � = O = L =< D E I BD I < L = | ; E @ FE L ;D I D = L M { D ? = KD N E F D; < L = K = = Z Q JL = K E @I <E L SE L aE I B @ = G � EF S D L F= K E = I N E @ ; BD I B aE I < L @ BD; u = I N E @ ; K E X E � < D I v M � = @ ; = I N E @ ; DBD LL EF O = L = K @ SE L E I <E ; > = ? D L E ; K E � E ; E K E > EF �= E ; O E ;; JL = > = L @ N = > E ? R b R K = B =F= K = K E = L E I < L E = O ? = B = K E > @ K L D E = ? E I <E M � ; L = @ D; L E ? E > = I <E ; O = L = = S D L F=A BC = D K = Z Q JL = K E @I <E L SE L aE I B @ = E ; < C = D L E O L E ; E I <= KD; I = Z Q JL = G �M Vidro Ar Vidro r R d Luz incidente FIG. 1A FIG. 1C 1 2 ��� � l znm pqr s qt u =v � E<E L F @I E = BD I K @ A BC = D K E F N = x @ F D K E @I <E L SE L aE I B @ = E I < L E D; L = @ D; G E ff EF S J I A BC = D K E b R d E h M : x O ?@ V J E B ? = L =FE I <E BD F D > DB aE BD I B ? J @ J O D L E ; <= BD I K @ A BC = DM l znm pqr s qt u P v { O = L < @ L K = QE D FE< L @ = KD = O = L =< DR L E O L E ; E I <= K = I = � @ Q M G{ R > aE | ; E V J E � � e � � " u � � bv � M { O = L < @ L K E ;; = E x O L E ;;C = D E KD L E ; J ? <= KD KD @ <EF u =v F D; < L E V J E = O D; @ A BC = D � KD; F N = x @ F D; K E @I <E L SE L aE I B @ = EF S J I A BC = D K E h R � E d O = L = d ffi � �� G u @ ; < D N E R K E ; O L E c E <E L F D; V J E K E O E I K =F K E d ffi �v N E � e � u ff h " Gv�d ff fi l znm pqr s qt u B v X = Z Q JL = G � O = L = D; = I N E @ ; K E X E � < D I O DK EF ; E L > @ ; <= ; GG S L = I Y= ; P L @?W = I <E ;M � E<E L | F @I E D L = @ D K E B JL > =< JL = � K = ? E I <E ; J O D I KD V J E = ? Jc @I B @ K E I <E O D;; J @ BD F O L @ FE I < D K E D I K = K E f HH gh E V J E = ? E I <E <EF G �h K E K @ a=FE< L DM � � � � � ���� �� �� ��� � �� � u =v �E > = I KD EF BD I <= = F J K = I A B = K E S= ; E K E � I = L E � E x C = D KD L = @ D G R = @I <E L SE L aE I B @ = > = @ ; E L BD I ; < LJ < @ > = V J = I KD = K @ SE L E I A B = K E O E L B JL ;D; N D O < @ BD;R EF J I@ K = K E ; K E BD F O L @ FE I < D K E D I K = R ; =< @ ; Z c E L ffb d � G ff e h D I K E h e H� G � ff � fififi u P v { EV J =A BC = D KD @ <EF u =v O DK E ; E L L EE ;B L @ <= BD F D ffb e uh " G ff vdfi { QE D FE< L @ = KD = O = L =< D N E <= ? V J E � � e � � " u � � bv � M U E ;D ? > E I KD O = L = � � E ; J P ; < @ < J @I KD = BD I K @ A BC = D K E F N = x @ F D;R D P <EF D; � � e � h " G ff� �d � G } � h " G ff� � d � e � h " G ff� �d �G� G } � h " G ff� d � �D F D d ffi � G R O DK EF D; K E ; O L E c = L D ; EQ J I KD <E L F DM � D Q D � e � u ff h " Gv�d ff u B v { Z Q JL = F D; < L = GG S L = I Y= ; P L @?W = I <E ; e fl h e G H M _ ; = I KD D L E ; J ? <= KD KD N T <EF u P v R � e ff� � u ff h " Gvd e ff � u f � G H� � v � ffG �f HH � G H � � � f h fi � � � � [ 31\ 4] ^2 � { O D <aE I B @ = O D L J I@ K = K E K E N = L E= @ LL = K @ = K = O D L J F BD L O D I EQ L DR I D @I <E L > = ? D K E S L EV� J aE I B @ = � � � � " b �� N E K = K = O E ? = S N D L F J ? = K E � ? = I B � R � u� �� v b � e ff� � � � � � G E � ff �� � � G b � fi l mno pqr s qt u =v � D; < L E V J E I D ?@ F @ <E K E = ? <= ; S L EV� J aE I B @ = ; u � � � � � � v � u��� v ; E L E K Jc �= S N D L F J ? = K E � @ E I R K = K = O D L � u� �� v � ff� � � � � � E � � ff �� l zno pqr s qt u P v _ ; E D L E ; J ? <= KD KD N T <EF = I <E L @ D L O = L = F D; < L = L V J E D F N = x @ F D K E @I <E I ; @ K = K E DBD LL E O = L = J F= S L EV� J aE I B @ = � ��� <= ? V J E � ��� ffi � e BD I ; <= I <E R E K E<E L F @I E D > = ? D L K E ; <= BD I ; <= I <E M � � � � � ���� �� �� ��� � �� � u =v w J = I KD � � � � � � R E x O u � � ffi � � � v � G E = S N D L F J ? = K E � ? = I B � O DK E ; E L = O L D x @ F= K = O D L � u� �� v � ff� � � � � � E x O u � � � ffi � � � v u P v � � � � e ff� � � � � j � � E x O u � � � ffi � � � v � � � � � � � E x O u � � � ffi � � � v e ff� � � � � � E x O u � � � ffi � � � v �j � � � � � � e H fi u Gv �D F D � u� �� v � H R � u H�� v e H E � u� � � �� v e H R D > = ? D L K E � V J E ; =< @ ; S= c u Gv N E D F N = x @ F D K = K @ ; < L @P J @ A BC = DM � D Q DR � ��� � e j � � � fi
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