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Lesson 3, verb types: lexical and auxiliary – difference between mood and aspect
Goals: 
1. Recognize the differences between "lexical" and "auxiliary" verbs;
2. learn the differences between "mood", "tense" and "aspect".
Verbs
A verb is a word that expresses an action (to run), occurrence (to happen), or state of being (to appear). It is one of the nine parts of speech in English grammar. Non-action verbs are also referred to as linking or stative verbs, such as to be, to seem, to sound. 
Verbs comprise the third largest group of words in English (about 10%) and appear in any sentence as a major mandatory element tying the subject and predicate together. Verbs indicate time (past, present, future) and are used in English in relatively many verb tenses. The verb can be thought of as the center, heart, or anchor of an English sentence.
	Verbs of
	Examples
	Action
	Maria dances at the studio and performs every Sunday.
	Occurrence
	Maria became a professional dancer.
	State of being
	Maria's studio has stood there ever since she was a child.
English verbs have 6 principal parts with which other forms are derived using verb auxiliaries: base/stem, simple past/preterit, past participle, present participle and the infinitive (the “name” of the verb). [1: \ ˈpre-tə-rət \ variants: or preterite]
Some also include the third person singular in the present tense as a principle part, as it is the only verb form that kept its inflectional ending in Modern English.
	
	Symbol
	Regular Verb
	Irregular Verb
	Infinitive
	to+ V1
	to watch
	to see
	Base Form/Stem
	V1
	watch
	see
	Present Simple third person singular
	V1 + s
	watches
	sees
	Past Simple / Preterit
	V2
	watched
	saw
	Past Participle
	V3
	watched
	seen
	Present Participle
	Ving
	watching
	seeing
Tense – Aspect – Mood
Tense–aspect–mood, commonly abbreviated tam and also called tense–modality–aspect or tma, is the grammatical system in a language that covers the expression of tense (location in time), aspect (fabric of time – a single block of time, continuous flow of time, or repetitive occurrence), and mood or modality (degree of necessity, obligation, probability, ability).
Although some grammars identify anywhere between twelve and sixteen English tenses, the nineteen finite, or conjugated, verb forms in English express more than just tense. Being more precise, English has:
• three tenses: present, past and future;
• four aspects: simple, progressive, perfect, perfect-progressive;
• four moods: indicative, subjunctive, conditional and imperative.
Past tenses
The Simple Past states that an action or situation was finished in the absolute past and bears no connection with the present. The point of time in the past in which the action occurred is well defined. Most Simple Past verbs end in ‘ed’ (regular verbs). 
Others very useful verbs have different Simple Past forms and must be learned (irregular verbs).
I visited my uncle in Paris last summer.
The Present Perfect Simple has quite a few grammar rules you need to follow, as it can be regarded as both a present and past tense. As a past tense, it states that an action has been completed in the past, but without reference to the time of occurrence. The action may have an influence on the current state of affairs in the present. 
This tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb have (have/has) with the past participle form of the verb.
I have already done my homework (so now I am free to go out).
The Past Progressive describes an action which went on during a stretch of time in the past and finished. Other actions may have happened at the same time (short and immediate or ongoing). This tense is formed by using the verb be (was/were) with the present participle form of the verb ending in ‘ing’.
While I was walking down the street yesterday, I suddenly met my boss.
The Past Perfect Simple states that an action was completed in the past before another point in time or action in the past (the latter expressed in the Past Simple), or that the action happened in the very distant past. This tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb have (had) with the past participle form of the verb.
By the time Dona had saved enough money, she bought a new car.
The Past Perfect Progressive describes an ongoing action that began in the past, continued incessantly, and was completed before another point in time in the past or before another more recent past action. This tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb have (had) together with the auxiliary verb been and the present participle form of the verb ending with ‘ing’.[2: /ɪnˈsesntli/ (usually disapproving) without stopping synonym constantly]
We had been walking the streets of Paris for hours until we finally took a break.
Future Tenses
The Future Simple states or predicts that an action or situation will take place in the future. This tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb will with the base form of the verb. Under “Future Simple”, we can put three more future forms that convey different nuances in meaning, as the following examples show:
1. I think we will eat out tomorrow evening
[unsure future prediction, future with will]
2. We are going to eat out tomorrow evening.
[sure, and intended future plans, future with be going to]
3. We are eating out tonight.
[arrangement for the near future, using the Present Progressive]
4. Our dinner at Chez Paul starts at 20:00 tomorrow evening, so be there on time!
[preset future schedule, using the Present Simple]
The Future Progressive describes an ongoing action that will be in process around a point of time in the future. This tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb will together with the auxiliary verb be and the present participle form of the verb ending in ‘ing’.
Tomorrow at 12 o’clock I will be giving a lecture at the university so I will not be answering any calls.
The Future Perfect Simple states that a future action will be completed before a point in time or before another action in the future. This tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb will together with the auxiliary verb have (have) and the past participle form of the verb.
Dona will have graduated from university by the end of June.
The Future Perfect Progressive describes an ongoing future action that will continue incessantly and be completed before a point in time or before another action in the future. This tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb will, the auxiliary verb ‘have’ (have), and the auxiliary verb been together with the present participle form of the verb ending in ing.
I will have been waiting here for three hours by six o'clock.
Aspect
Aspect is the expression of the temporal structure of an action or state. Aspect in English expresses ongoing actions or states with or without distinct end points. English has four aspects: simple, progressive, perfect, and perfect-progressive.
The progressive (or continuous) expresses incomplete or ongoing actions or states at a specific time. 
For example, the use of the progressive aspect in ‘I am reading the book’ indicates that I started reading the book in the past and am still reading the book in the present and presumably the future. 
The formula for forming the present progressive is [simple present "to be" + present participle]. The formula for forming the past progressive is [simple past "to be" + present participle].
Another example: Ron is cooking dinner at the moment. [He is still doing it and is not finished]
The perfect aspect expresses the consequences resulting from a previous action or state. 
For example, the use of the perfect aspect in ‘I have read the book’ focuses on the end result of my reading the book (my having reading the book) as opposed to the process of reading the book. The formula for forming the present perfect is [simple present "to have" + past participle]. The formula for forming the past perfectis [simple past "to have" + past participle].
Another example: Ron has already seen this film. [The action is completed. It may influence our present choice of what film to see, since we don’t want Ron to see it again].
The perfect-progressive aspect expresses incomplete or ongoing actions or states that began in the past and continue to a specific time. For example, the use of the perfect-progressive aspect in ‘I had been reading the book’ indicates that I started reading the book in the past and continued to read the book until a specific point in time at which I stopped reading the book. The formula for forming the present perfect-progressive is [simple present "to have" + past participle "to be" + present participle]. The formula for forming the past perfect-progressive is [simple past "to have" + past participle "to be" + present participle].
Another example: By 1996, Dona had been dieting rather seriously and subsequently lost a lot of weight. [Dona was in an ongoing process that was completed in 1996. This influenced what followed – the loss of weight]
The simple (or zero) does not relate to the flow of time and merely states whether or not the action occurs.
Example: Dona works in London. [simple factual statement]
Mood
Mood is the expression of modality of an action or state. Modality is the expression of possibility, necessity, and contingency. Modality can be expressed through modal verbs as well as through grammatical mood in English.[3: /moʊˈdæl.ə.t̬i/][4: /kənˈtɪn.dʒən.si/ formal something that might possibly happen in the future, usually causing problems or making further arrangements necessary]
1. The indicative mood allows speakers to express assertions, denials, and questions of actuality or strong probability. Most sentences in English are in the indicative mood because the indicative is the most commonly used mood. 
Examples:
Little Rock is the capital of Arkansas.
Ostriches cannot fly.
Have you finished your homework?
2. The imperative mood allows speakers to make direct commands, express requests, and grant or deny permission. The form of the English imperative is identical to the base form of any English verb. The negative form of the English imperative is created by inserting the do operator and the negative adverb not before the base form of the verb.
Examples:
Go there now! 
Do not postpone this any longer!
3. The Conditional Mood regards the action as not factually occurring in reality, but only as a result of a potential fulfillment of some condition.
Examples: 
If I win the lottery, I will go on a trip around the world.
If I won the lottery, I would go on a trip around the world.
If you had told me about the party, I would have come with you (but you didn’t).
4. The Subjunctive Mood expresses desires, wishes, and assumptions that are not necessarily to be fulfilled in reality. It is used in specific figures of speech and is of little use in Modern English.
Examples:
I demand that she leave at once!
If only you were here!
If that be the case, then…
Note: Modern English speakers use indicative mood most of the time, resorting to a kind of “mixed subjunctive” that makes use of helping verbs:
If I should see him, I will tell him. 
Americans are more likely to say: If I see him, I will tell him.
LEXICAL VERBS AND AUXILIARY VERB
In class one, we looked at the elements of a sentence and explained that a sentence is made up of a subject and a predicate. The subject is the person or thing performing the action that the sentence is talking about. Everything else in the sentence is the predicate; for example:
I love you madly.
In this sentence, I is the subject because ‘I’ is the person doing the loving, and ‘love you madly’ is the predicate. If you look at the predicate, you will see that it begins with a verb – in this case, the verb love. All sentences must include a verb, because the verb tells us what action the subject is performing.
Many sentences, but not all, contain an object – a person or thing that is being acted upon. In this case, the object is you. And many sentences also contain other information, presented in various types of grammatical phrases – in this case, the word madly is an adverbial phrase. But objects and adverbial phrases are not needed to make a sentence and we won’t cover them here.
Main verbs can take five forms, which indicate things like tense and aspect. They are the base, present, present participle, past and past participle:
Base: laugh
Present (-s): laughs
Present participle (-ing): laughing
Past: laughed
Past participle (-ed): laughed
This pattern of forms, in which the past and the past participle is the same, applies to all regular verbs. (Apart from the verb 'to be', which is highly irregular, irregular verbs tend to differ in the past and the past participle; for example, ‘write’ has ‘wrote’ for the past and ‘written’ for the past participle.)
The form the verb is in tells us whether it is finite or non-finite. A verb is finite if it displays tense and non-finite if it does not. We know that the present tense uses the base and present forms and the past tense use the past form. Therefore, the base, present and past forms are all finite forms of the verb.
The non-finite forms are the present participle, past participle and infinitive. The infinitive is a form of the verb that does not show person, tense or aspect. It usually takes the form 'to laugh' and 'to write', but the 'to' is not always present. For example, the sentence ‘I must write’ uses the infinitive of the verb 'to write'. When “to” is not used this is called “bare infinitive”.
The issue of finite and non-finite verbs is crucial because it takes us to the last requirement of a sentence – it must have a finite verb; that is, it must show tense. Phrases that do not contain a finite verb leave us hanging; for example:
Writing the book (present participle) Written the book (past participle) To write the book (infinitive)
Even by adding a subject, you cannot make a meaningful sentence; for example: You writing the book. Contrast these with the verb forms that are finite:
You write the book or Write the book! (base form)
She writes the book. (present form)
She wrote the book. (past form)
II. 1 LEXICAL VERB OR FULL VERB
In linguistics a lexical verb or full verb is a member of an open class of verbs that includes all verbs except auxiliary verbs. Lexical verbs typically express action, state, or other predicate meaning. The verb phrase of a sentence is generally headed by a lexical verb. It is the main verb of the sentence.
Example: Charlie raises his hand.
II.2 AUXILIARY VERBS OR HELPING VERBS
Just as the name implies, helping verbs, sometimes called auxiliary verbs, help out the main verb in a sentence. They accomplish this by giving more detail to how time is portrayed in a sentence. For this reason, they are used in [verb conjugation] to show the progressive and the perfect tenses of verbs.
On their own, helping verbs don’t show meaning in that they don’t communicate much when they stand alone. Their sole purpose is to help the main verb, which provides the real meaning.
Helping verbs help explain the ‘sometimes’ complicated nuances of meaning. For example, they can show expectation, probability, obligation, potential, and directions. Though this may sound complicated, it’s really not. There aren’t that many helping verbs in the English language. They all fall into one of two groups: primary helping verbs and modal helping verbs.
II.2.1 Primary helping verbs
The primary helping verbs are be, do, and have. They’re called primary because they can help main verbs or they can actually be the main verb. Here are some examples of the primary verbs being used as helping verbs.
1. “Be” verbs. The term “be verbs” is a little deceiving because they include more than the word “be.” They help show a state of being or a state of existing. Sounds a little boring, doesn’tit? Well, they don’t show any action, that’s for sure. That’s why expressive writing discourages using a lot of “be” verbs. Here is a list of “be” verb forms: am, is, are, was, were, been, being, be.
And here are a few used in sentences:
Katy is watching television. (this shows a continuous tense.)
The other children are playing outside. (this example shows the passive tense.)
ATTENTION:
Be has characteristics of both lexical and auxiliary verbs. As a lexical verb, it can be inflected with tense and person, and be can be the main verb of a sentence. However, be also shares some auxiliary NICE properties such as negation, inversion, code and emphasis.
Examples:
Charlie is a clever student. Charlie is the troublemaker.
Charlie has been to the Principal's twice already.
Why don't you be more considerate? Note the "do" support!
Be as an auxiliary verb is used with progressive, passive. The auxiliary be has NICE (negation, inversion, code and emphasis) properties.
Examples:
Charlie was raising his hand.
The teacher didn't think Charlie was raising his hand, but he was. Charlie was told to sit down.
Charlie was being kept in the Principal's office. (aux + ger.-part. + past part.)
You are not to tell anyone. *(You are being not tell anyone.)
Are we to be here all day?
2. Have. The helping verb have is used to make perfect tenses. The perfect tense shows action that is already completed.
I have finished washing the dishes. (Dish washing is complete!)
3. Do. The verb “do” can perform a variety of functions:
To make negatives: I do not care for broccoli.
To ask questions: Do you like broccoli?
To show emphasis: I do you want you to eat your broccoli.
To stand for a main verb: Sam like broccoli more than Carmen does.
II.2.2 Modal helping verbs
Modal helping verbs help “modify” the main verb so that is changes the meaning somewhat. A modal auxiliary verb gives more information about the function of the main verb that it governs. Modals have a wide variety of communicative functions, but these functions can generally be related to a scale ranging from possibility ("may") to necessity ("must"), in terms of one of the following types of modality:
epistemic modality, concerned with the theoretical possibility of propositions being true or not true (including likelihood and certainty) Example: You must be starving. ("It is necessarily the case that you are starving.")
deontic modality, concerned with possibility and necessity in terms of freedom to act (including permission and duty)[5: /diˈɑːntɪk/ (linguistics) (of a word or sentence) expressing duty]
Example: You must leave now. ("You are required to leave now.")
An ambiguous case is ‘You must speak Spanish.’
This may be intended epistemically ("It is surely the case that you speak Spanish", e.g. after having lived in Spain for a long time), or deontically ("It is a requirement that you speak Spanish", e.g. if you want to get a job in Spain).
Here are the modal verbs:
1. WOULD has three alternative uses:
past tense combined with habitual aspect (Last summer, I would run every day.)
conditional mood for a present or future action (If I could, I would do it now / next week.). In the first person, intentional modality may also be present.
past tense, prospective aspect for an action occurring after the past-tense viewpoint (After I graduated in 1990, I would work in industry for the next ten years.)
The negative form would not + verb negates the main verb, but in the conditional and intentional mood in the first person the intentional modality may also be negated to indicate negative intention.
2. WILL has a number of different uses involving tense, aspect, and modality:
It can express aspect alone, without implying futurity: In "He will make mistakes, won't he?", the reference is to a tendency in the past, present, and future and as such expresses habitual aspect.
It can express either of two types of modality alone, again without implying futurity: In "That will be John at the door", there is an implication of present time and probabilistic mode, while "You will do it right now" implies obligatory mode.
It can express both intentional modality and futurity, as in "I will do it."
It can express futurity without modality: "The sun will die in a few billion years."
As with would, the negative form ‘will not’ negates the main verb but in the intentional mode may also indicate negative intentionality.
In each case, the time of viewpoint can be placed in the past by replacing will with would.
SHALL indicates futurity or intention in the first person (I shall go); for the other persons, it indicates obligation, often negative as in ‘you shall not lie’, but this usage is old-fashioned.
MUST can be used either for near-certainty mode (He must understand it by now.) or for obligatory mode (You must do that.). The past tense form ‘must have understood’ applies only to the near-certainty mode; expressing obligation in the past requires the lexical construction ‘had to + verb’.
HAD BETTER indicates obligatory mode (He had better do that soon.). There is no corresponding past tense form.
SHOULD has several uses:
present or future tense combined with possibility mode: If he should be here already, ...; If he should arrive tomorrow, ...
mild obligatory mode in the present or future tense: He should do that now / next week. The past tense can be substituted by using the form ‘He should have done that’, with a morphological change to the main verb.
probabilistic mode in the present or future tense: This approach should work. The corresponding past tense form ‘should have worked’ implies impersonal obligation rather than probability.
7. MAY can indicate either the mode of possibility or that of permission:
possibility in the present or future: He may be there already, He may arrive tomorrow. The form ‘He may have arrived’, with a morphological change to the main verb, indicates not just the mode of possibility but also the aspectual feature of viewing a past event from a present viewpoint. This form applies only to this possibility usage.
permission in the present or future: You may go now / next week. There is no corresponding way to indicate the presence of permission in the past.
8. CAN has several uses:
present ability: I can swim. The past tense is expressed by ‘I could swim.’
present permission (in informal speech): ‘You can go now.’ In the past tense one can use could (When I was a child, according to my parents' rules I could swim once a week).
present moderate probability (seldom used): ‘That can be true.’ There is no past form, since the more common ‘that could be true’ conveys the same (present) tense.
MIGHT conveys slight likelihood in the present or future (He might be there already, he might arrive tomorrow). It can also convey slight advisability (You might try that). The past can be substituted using the form might have + morphologically altered main verb.
COULD is used in several ways:
mild permission or advisability in the present: ‘You could do that.’ The equivalent past form is could have + morphologically altered main verb (you could have done that).
permission in the past: She said I could graduate in one more year.
ability in the past: I could swim when I was five years old.
slight probability in the present: ‘That could be Mary at the door.’ The past tense equivalent is ‘That could have been Mary at the door yesterday.’, with a morphologically altered main verb.
conditional ability: ‘I could do that if I knew how to swim.’ In the past one can say ‘I could have done that if I had known how to swim.’
slight intention in the present: ‘I could do that for you (and maybe I will).’ There is no past equivalent.
11. NEED: Need can be used as a present tense modal auxiliary, indicating necessity, that is invariant for person/number in questions and negatives only: ‘Need he go?’, ‘He need not go.’ The corresponding past tense constructions are ‘Need he havegone?’, ‘He need not have gone.’
12. DARE: Dare can be used as a present tense modal auxiliary that is invariant for person/number in questions and negatives only: ‘Dare he go?’ , ‘He dare not go.’
Important 
1. Modals might and should are no longer used with past tense meaning.
 
2. The English verbs dare and need have both a modal use (he dare not do it), and a non-modal use (he doesn't dare to do it).
 
3. British: We use can to indicate capability or possibility, e.g. "I don't know if I can lift this piano by myself." The implication here is on whether you have the physical capacity or mental acuity to get the piano lifted. May is used when you are asking permission. "May I lift your piano for a little exercise?”. Here you wish the permission of someone to carry out an action.[6: /əˈkjuː.ə.t̬i/ formal the ability to hear, see, or think accurately and clearly]
American: We use can to indicate capability, possibility or permission. May is used when you are asking permission.
 
About this, there is a funny story:
Once Bernard Shaw, the famous Irish play writer received a note from an American director, who wanted to play Pygmalion at a theater in New York.
He wrote: Dear sir, can I play Pygmalion here in New York?
Shaw’s answer: I don’t know if you can, but you may. 
4. 'Must' and 'Have to' in the positive or question form are used to speak about responsibilities and obligations. Sometimes, 'must' and 'have to' can be exchanged, but the general rule is:
Must is used for strong personal obligations (I must do this right now!). Something that you or a person feels is necessary.
Have to is used for responsibilities (I have to file reports every week.) 
'Don't have to' and 'Mustn't' have very different meanings. 'Don't have to' is used to express that something is not required. 'Mustn't' is used to express that something is prohibited.
 
Let’s see:
I have to go – (perhaps you have to catch the bus – external cause)
I must go – (personal obligation – internal cause)
Modal Properties
Unlike auxiliaries, modals carry meaning and "mood". They express the speaker’s opinion about the following verb phrase. "They are used before the infinitives of other verbs, and add certain kinds of meaning connected with certainty, or with obligation, and freedom to act." 
 
The lexical forms of modals mean almost the same but have some grammatical differences. (can–is able to, knows how to; will – is going to; must – have to; should – ought to, etc.)
 
Take a look at CAN as an example:
English Quasi – Modal Verbs[7: quasi- prefix UK ​ /kweɪ.zaɪ-/ US ​ /kweɪ.zaɪ-/ used to show that something is almost, but not completely, the thing described]
Quasi-modals are a subcategory of modal verbs. Similar to modals verbs, quasi-modal verbs are common auxiliary verbs in the English language that express modality, which is the expression of subjective attitudes and opinions including possibility, necessity, and contingency. Also referred to as semi-modal verbs, the four quasi-modal verbs in English are:
OUGHT TO – should, duty, obligation, advisability, desirability, likelihood, probability.
You ought to stain your fence this year. (advisability)[8: [transitive] to change the colour of something using a coloured liquid]
USED TO – formerly, once but no longer, previously habitually.
My sister used to read a book a night. (previously habitually)
WOULD RATHER – preference, prefer to.
I would rather eat a bug than study math. (preference)
HAD BETTER/BEST – should, duty, obligation, advisability.
She had better teach her children some manners. (duty)
Position of Quasi-modal Verbs
Like modal verbs, quasi-modal verbs always appear in the initial position at the beginning of a verb phrase functioning as a predicate. The seven possible English verb phrase combinations that contain quasi-modal verbs are:
      quasi-modal verb + base form = ought to study
      quasi-modal verb + be + present participle = ought to be reading
      quasi-modal verb + have + past participle = ought to have eaten
      quasi-modal verb + be + past participle = ought to be cleaned
      quasi-modal verb + have + been + present participle = ought to have been thinking
      quasi-modal verb + have + been + past participle = ought to have been washed
      quasi-modal verb + have + been + being + past participle = ought to have been being finished
 
Quasi-modal Verbs versus Modal Verbs
Quasi-modal verbs differ from modal verbs in form. While full modals are single words, quasi-modals consist of either a verb plus a preposition functioning as a particle or a verb plus an adverb. For example:
      ought to, used to = verb + preposition [particle]
      would rather, had better = verb + adverb
Note, however, that the quasi-modal verb ought to sometimes lacks a prepositional particle in negative and interrogative constructions. For example:
      He ought to buy a new car.
      He ought not buy a new car.
Visit the pages:
Modal verbs: introduction
<http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Icna9vsAh7Q>.
 
Modal verbs part 2: can (ability)
<http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wibvPmBe1QY>.
 
Modal verbs part 3: may / mustn't (permission)
<http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HKegdzsaPTI>.
 
Modal verbs part 4: must / needn't (obligation) 
<http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YDoPmjdwDLU>.
 
Grammar in Songs: Modal Verbs
<http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3KcSEnVnQ98>.
 
Obligation modals
<http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uPXuLoBQwsQ>.
For an end, look at this example of modals in a context:
Programs such as Napster and Gnutella allow you to download MP3 files from other people's hard drives without paying a penny to the artist or entertainment industry. With a Napster client such as Macster (or the Mac-compatible Furi client for Gnutella) and a broadband Internet connection, Mac users can download an album's worth of MP3 files in less than an hour. This leads us to the second factor: high-speed Internet access.
The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), an industry group that represents major record labels, filed suit against Napster. As we went to press, a judge had decided not to dismiss the lawsuit against Napster, leaving open the possibility of a trial.
How does this affect you?
 
It might put Napster out of business, and if you're a devoted Napster user, this is certainly sad news. But Metallica's actions could bring the controversy closer to home. The fact that Metallica was able to obtain the screen names of these users should concern those who post and download files on Napster. 
Should the recording industry wish to get personal and go after individuals - and you engage in this kind of file trading - it's possible that you'll be taken to task (prosecuted) for your actions.
 
Where will this all lead? While the recording industry should have seen this coming, the fact is they didn't. Moving copyrighted files across the Internet is both easy to do and easy to get away with - but it won't be for long. Though the RIAA and Metallica aren't likely to start getting people who download an MP3 or two tossed into the pokey, they will take other steps than prosecution to protect their rights and work. This means that stricter copy-protection schemes will be introduced in the near future. This too is still a short-term solution; though copy-protection measures will surely reduce piracy, savvy people will find a way to skirt them.
 With this in mind, the entertainment industry must eventually bow to the realities of this new wired world, shift its current distribution model, and seek alternative means of compensation - with actions such as advertising on online distribution centers, offering "bonus" material that can be purchased only online, and streaming "pay to play" content on demand.
Multiple Auxiliaries
Most clauses contain at least one main verb, and they can contain zero, one, two, three, or perhaps even more auxiliary verbs. The followingexample contains three auxiliary verbs and one main verb:
The paper will have been scrutinized by Fred.
The auxiliary verbs are in bold and the main verb is underlined. Together these verbs form a verb catena (chain of verbs), i.e. they are linked together in the hierarchy of structure and thus form a single syntactic unit. The main verb scrutinized provides the semantic core of sentence meaning, whereby each of the auxiliary verbs contributes some functional meaning. A single finite clause can contain more than three auxiliary verbs, e.g.
Fred may be being judged to have been deceived by the explanation.
Viewing this sentence as consisting of a single finite clause, there are five auxiliary verbs and two main verbs present. From the point of view of predicates, each of the main verbs constitutes the core of a predicate, and the auxiliary verbs contribute functional meaning to these predicates. The periphrastic verb combinations in the example just given are represented now using the dependency grammar tree of the sentence; the verb catena is in green:[9: (grammar) using separate words to express a grammatical (1) relationship, instead of verb endings, etc.]
The particle to is included in the verb catena because its use is often required with certain infinitives. The hierarchy of functional categories is always the same.
The verbs expressing modality appear immediately above the verbs expressing aspect, and the verbs expressing aspect appear immediately above the verbs expressing voice.
DIAGNOSTICS FOR IDENTIFYING AUXILIARY VERBS IN ENGLISH
The verbs listed in the previous section can be classified as auxiliaries based upon two diagnostics: they allow subject–auxiliary inversion (the type of inversion used to form questions etc.) and (equivalently) they can take not as a post-dependent (a dependent that follows its head). 
The following examples illustrate the extent to which subject–auxiliary inversion can occur with an auxiliary verb but not with a full verb:
The following examples illustrate that the negation not can appear as a post-dependent of a finite auxiliary verb, but not as a post-dependent of a finite full verb:
Visit the pages:
If you are trying to liven up your grammar lessons, try some of these creative ideas for helping and linking verbs.
<https://www.sierracollege.edu/_files/resources/student-services/academic-support/writing-center/documents/Linkhelpverb.pdf>.
Helping Verbs Song
<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-F2JWKY63K0>.
In this class, you: 
Recognized the differences between "lexical" and "auxiliary" verbs; learned the differences between "mood", "tense" and "aspect".
Next class, you will study:
Form and use of the present tense verbs: the present simple, the present progressive, the present perfect simple and the present perfect progressive; common time expressions related to the present tense verbs.

Outros materiais