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UNIGRANRIO – Universidade do Grande Rio
Instituto de Humanidades – Teoria e Prática em Língua Inglesa V – Cód.: IHM405
	English Phonetics and Phonology
Phonetics (from the Greek Word phone=sound / voice) is a fundamental branch of linguistics and itself has three different aspects:
Articulatory Phonetics – describes how vowels and consonants are produced or “articulated” in various parts of the mouth and throat.
Acoustic Phonetics – a study of how speech sounds are transmitted: when sound travels through the air from the speaker’s mouth to the hearer’s ear it does vibrations in the air.
Auditory Phonetics – a study of how speech sounds are perceived: looks at the way in which the hearer’s brain decodes the sound waves back into the vowels and consonants originally intended by the speaker.
Phone is the sound produced, such as a simple vowel or consonant sound. It is the smallest “distinctive unit sound” of a language. It distinguishes one word from another in a given language. When we change a phoneme in a word, we produce another word that has a different meaning. Example: cat X bat. 
Phonology deals with the way speech sounds behave in particular languages or in languages generally. Phonology explains not only the sound patterns found in a particular language, but the patterns found in all languages. It is concerned with the abstract, grammatical characterization of systems of sounds or signs.How do sounds change due to the sounds around them? (For example, why does the plural of pot end with an 's'-sound, the plural of bag end with a 'z'-sound, and the plural of brush end in something sounding like 'iz' How do sounds combine in a particular language? (For example, English allows - 't' , ‘c’ and 'b' to be followed by 'l' - cattle, atlas, clean ,blouse
The Sounds of English and their Representation
In English, there is no one-to-one relation between the system of writing and the system of pronunciation. The alphabet which we use to write English has 26 letters but in Standard English there are approximately 44 speech sounds.
	Issues in English Pronunciation – Main Problems
Reasons for problems:
People are used to hearing and making sounds which only exist in their mother tongue.
So it is important to make yourself aware of how sounds in a different language are made and practice listening to them and saying them as much as possible.
To make language sounds we move our jaw, tongue, lips, and the vocal cords in our throat in a number of different ways. If your brain is not used to telling your tongue to move into a certain position in your mouth in order to make a particular sound, then you may have difficulty saying that sound clearly.
Solutions for these problems:
Your brain should be trained:
Recognize that there are differences between some English and some Portuguese sounds. 
Hear clearly and think about how sounds are made when you are listening.
Discover how these sounds are made:
- how far open your jaw should be
- if the tip of your tongue should be touching the inside of your upper teeth or if it should be lying flat
- if your lips should be 'rounded' like when you are going to kiss someone or 'spread', like when you smile
- if the vocal cords in your throat should be vibrating or not (we talk about this in terms of 'voiced' or 'voiceless’ sounds)
Practice moving your jaw, tongue, lips etc. as correctly as possible so that you are able to make the problematic English sounds clearly.
Be aware of the way sounds are written to show correct pronunciation and use the dictionary when necessary.
You also should be aware of: word stress, sentence stress, linking.
Problems experienced by Brazilian students:  
The influence of spelling on pronunciation
These vowel sounds: // and //e/ and /,/i:/, and  
Vowels at the end of a word, extra vowels
Nasality
These consonant sounds: /r/, /d/, 
These consonant clusters: skr, spl, spr, str, st and rnd
Word stress, as 70% of word stress falls on the penultimate syllable in Portuguese
Intonation on question sentences, and also complex tones, resulting in a significant foreign accent.
Sentence Stress and Weak forms
Assimilation
Elision
Liaison 
Vowels & Diphthongs 
English has more vowel sounds and diphthongs than Portuguese. It is difficult to give an exact number though, as differing authorities offer conflicting explanations. Shepherd (1987) offers 12 simple vowels and 10 diphthongs in English, and 8 and 6 for Portuguese.  Both Parkinson (1990) and Schutz (2000) suggest that there are just 7 vowel sounds in Portuguese. Whatever the exact number, what is certain is that there are more vowel sounds in English than in Portuguese. 
Due to these differences in vowel sounds, Brazilian may experience a number of challenges, for example:
// and /
 // may be confused with the sound / for example, the students say /It is difficult for Brazilians to pronounce the RP /, for example, and they find it easier to produce a word closer to the American /kThey may also consciously choose to use American pronunciation, as young people in Brazil are often influenced by American English from TV, videos and music.
/e/ and /            
The Brazilian vowel /ê/ is found between the English /e/ and / but a little closer to the former. Student 1, for example, was trying to pronounce the word /as the perfectly acceptable/, but instead said /les/.
 - The Schwa
There is no exact equivalent of the schwa in Portuguese. If unstressed syllables are given their full value, this can cause problems when trying to produce correct stress and rhythm, and can hinder intelligibility. It can be seen in the three dialogues that these students do not use weak forms: 	 
,and 
In Portuguese, the English sound may be confused with This is because  is frequently spelled with the letter `o`, for example, cot, pot, spot, which often corresponds with the Portuguese /ó/, as in `pó`, which sounds similar to (Schutz, 2000). may be used instead of the diphthong :
		/ becomes /		
/i:/
This is a very difficult sound for many Brazilians who tend to shorten it to /An example of this is saying /instead of . 
Vowels at the end of a word
Beginner learners of English in Brazil may leave the vowels at the end of a word unstressed, like /instead of
Extra vowels
Brazilian learners may include an extra vowel before an s+ consonant cluster. 
            For example:	/
Intrusive vowels may be inserted between consonants, like instead of
Extra vowels may be added on to the end of words, for example, saying / instead of /This is because Brazilian Portuguese follows a consonant-vowel pattern, with very few final syllable consonants (Parkinson, 1990).  
Nasality 
Nasality can be found in Portuguese, with the velum being lowered, enabling part of the air stream to pass through the nasal cavity. This is another reason why Brazilians may find it difficult to distinguish between certain English vowels sounds.  The letters which are usually nasalized are ã and õ, but other vowels may be nasalized as nasal consonants tend to nasalize the preceding and following vowels.
GROUP OF SOUNDS
Short vowels
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Long vowels
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Diphthongs (double vowel sounds)
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Voiceless consonants
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Voiced consonants
��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_voiced_2.shtml" ��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_voiced_3.shtml" ��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_voiced_4.shtml" ��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_voiced_5.shtml" ��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_voiced_6.shtml" ��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_voiced_7.shtml" ��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_voiced_8.shtml" ��
Other consonants
��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_other_2.shtml" ��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_other_3.shtml" ��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_other_4.shtml" ��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_other_5.shtml" ��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_other_6.shtml" ��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_other_7.shtml" ��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_other_8.shtml" ��
The following sounds are usually voiceless:
��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_voiceless_2.shtml" ��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_voiceless_3.shtml" ��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_voiceless_4.shtml" ��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_voiceless_5.shtml" ��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_voiceless_6.shtml" ��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_voiceless_7.shtml" ��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_voiceless_8.shtml" �� 
These next sounds are described as voiced but are only fully voiced when they are between other voiced sounds.
��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_voiced_2.shtml" ��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_voiced_3.shtml" ��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_voiced_4.shtml" ��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_voiced_5.shtml" ��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_voiced_6.shtml" ��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_voiced_7.shtml" ��� HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/con_voiced_8.shtml" ��
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