Língua Inglesa fonetica e fonologia completa 1 a 10

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Língua Inglesa – fonética e fonologia
Aula 1 -  Conhecer os aspectos e as particularidades do inglês quando oralmente utilizado pelos falantes. (Know the aspects and peculiarities of the English language when orally used by the speakers);
2. compreender a sistematização e a construção de um arcabouço teórico que permita a investigação minuciosa da manifestação sonora da língua. (Understand the systematizations and the construction of a theoretical understructure that allows a detailed sound manifestation of the language).
O Caráter Científico do Estudo da Fonética e da Fonologia
Without communicative intent, pronunciation is not true speech; it is not more than the manipulation of linguistic forms. The basic process whereby one learns to pronounce English, or any other language, is by imitating the pronunciation of those who speak the language natively. Direct imitation is most effective, but circumstances often make second-hand, indirect imitation necessary. And the imitation is also most effective if it takes place under conditions that approach as nearly as possible those of normal communication. Analyzing how sounds are produced is helpful but not basic.
Learning to pronounce is a process that is normally achieved in three steps:
Learning to hear and identify a sound or sound contrast when a native speaker produces it.
Learning to produce it when the learner’s attention is focused on pronunciation.
Mastering it to the point of automatic production when attention is focused on meaning.
Phonetics
Phonetics is the scientific study of speech. It has a long history, going back certainly to well over two thousand years ago. The central concerns in phonetics are the discovery of how speech sounds are produced, how they are used in spoken language, how we can record speech sounds with written symbols and how we hear and recognize different sounds.
Phonology
The most basic activity in phonology is phonemic analysis, in which the objective is to establish what the phonemes are and arrive at the phonemic inventory of the language. For some phonologists, the most important area is the relationships between the different phonemes - how they form groups, the nature of the oppositions between them and how those oppositions may be neutralized.
Phoneme and Grapheme
Phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language that serves to distinguish two words. 
Virtually all theories of phonology hold that spoken language can be broken down into a string of sound units (phonemes), and that each language has a small, relatively fixed set of these phonemes. 
Most phonemes can be put into groups; for example, in English we can identify a group of plosive phonemes p, t, k, b, d, g, a group of voiceless fricatives f, θ, s, h, and so on.
Different languages have different phonemes and have them in different numbers, in other words, they use different phonological matrixes
Graphemes are the smallest units in a writing system capable of causing a contrast in meaning. There are about 40 distinctive phonemes in English, but 70 letters or letter combinations to symbolize phonemes. This makes pronouncing spellings easier than writing correct spellings.
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Dialect and Accent
It is usual to distinguish between dialect and accent. Both terms are used to identify different varieties of a particular language, but the word ‘accent’ is used for varieties which differ from each other only in matters of pronunciation while ‘dialect’ also covers differences in such things as vocabulary and grammar.
Accents typically differ in quality of voice, pronunciation of vowels and consonants, stress, and prosody. Although grammar, semantics, vocabulary, and other language characteristics often vary concurrently with accent, the word 'accent' refers specifically to the differences in pronunciation, whereas the word 'dialect' encompasses the broader set of linguistic differences. Often 'accent' is a subset of 'dialect'.
Craig M. Carver shows about two dozen dialect regions in the US, based mainly on vocabulary, in his American Regional Dialects. Peter Trudgill, in his Dialects of England, shows sixteen modern dialect regions in England, based on grammar, vocabulary, and accent (there are more in Wales, Scotland and Ireland). Trudgill, in International English, breaks the US into 8 accent areas, and these coincide well with Carver’s delineations.
Carver and Trudgill both stress that dialect regions are merely convenient representations of a language continuum, where language differences grow the farther apart they are, especially across the more distinct boundaries.
Studies show that 99% of American is used in pretty much the same way, the remainder flavoring the different regions. The interregional differences in England run much deeper despite its small size, since it has developed over a period about four times as long, and had significant input from other languages (Latin, Norse with the Viking invasions, French with the Norman invasion, and more Latin and Greek with the industrial and scientific revolutions).
You should be proud of having an accent or not?
We’d like to discuss “foreign accents” in general. Webster’s Dictionary defines accent as “speech habits typical of the natives of a region.” SO – we all have accents!!!
You should be proud of having an accent. In fact, there are advantages to having one. YES, we said advantages! A foreign accent tells listeners that you speak at least TWO languages. That certainly puts you far ahead of a person who can speak only one language. The world would be very dull if we all sounded the same. After all, VARIETY IS THE SPICE OF LIFE!!!!!
Unfortunately, there is a disadvantage to having a foreign accent. It may hinder affective communication in your non-native language and cause you to be misunderstood. 
 You have probably discovered that there is a big difference between the way words are spelled in English and how they are pronounced. For example the letters ch are used to represent three different sounds: machine chain mechanic.
Pretty confusing, right? That’s why we need to study.
Social Class and Accent
Social structure of the united kingdom
The social structure of the United Kingdom has historically been highly influenced by the concept of social class, with the concept still affecting British society in the early-21st century. Although definitions of social class in the United Kingdom vary and are highly controversial, most are influenced by factors of wealth, occupation and education. 
Until recently the Parliament of the United Kingdom was organized on a class basis, with the House of Lords representing the hereditary upper class and the House of Commons representing everyone else, and the British monarch is often viewed as being at the top of the social class structure.
Received Pronunciation (RP)
There seems to be some disagreement as to the origins of the term ‘received’ in the phrase, ‘Received Pronunciation’ but both A.J. Ellis’ on Early English Pronunciation, 1869-1889, as well as John Walker’s Critical Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor of the English Language of 1791 are among the possibilities for it’s early appearance. Regardless of its exact origins, the term ‘received’ originally meant ‘that which is generally accepted’ or ‘that accepted by the best society.’
RP has for many years epitomized the ‘top end of the scale’ of British English and it is what English people have traditionally meant when they’ve said that someone ‘hasn’t got an accent.’ It remains that RP is often regarded as a ‘neutral’ and often ‘correct’ accent. It is also referred to under the terms ‘BBC English’, ‘Public School English’ or even ‘Standard English’.
RP is also the accent that Americans and possibly other foreigners would likely refer to as the typical British accent. It should also be noted that there is no single accent whose role and status in the United States correspond to that of RP in England.
A number of distinctions even within RP have, over the years,been proposed by various linguists. These include ‘Mainstream’ RP, ‘Upper crust RP’, ‘Adoptive RP’, ‘Near RP’, ‘Conservative RP’, and ‘General RP’. Regardless of the differences within RP, it is an accent commonly recognized and one that has been taught as the standard English in schools for years.
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Cockney English
Cockney represents the basilectal end of the London accent and can be considered the broadest form of London local accent. It traditionally refers only to specific regions and speakers within the city. While many Londoners may speak what is referred to as ‘popular London’ they do not necessarily speak Cockney. The popular Londoner accent can be distinguished from Cockney in a number of ways, and can also be found outside of the capital, unlike the true Cockney accent.
Does the term Cockney refer to both the accent as well as to those people who speak it? The etymology of Cockney has long been discussed and disputed. One explanation is that ‘Cockney’ literally means cock's egg, a misshapen egg such as sometimes laid by young hens. It was originally used when referring to a weak townsman, opposed to the tougher countryman and by the 17th century the term, through banter, came to mean a Londoner (Liberman, 1996). Today's natives of London, especially in its East End use the term with respect and pride (‘Cockney Pride’).
Cockney is characterized by its own special vocabulary and usage, and traditionally by its own development of ‘rhyming slang’. Rhyming slang is still part of the true Cockney culture even if it is sometimes used for effect. More information on the way it works can be found under the Cockney English features section.
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Estuary English (EE)
‘Estuary English’ is a term coined in 1984 by British linguist David Rosewarne. Defined as a variety of modified regional speech it becomes a mixture of non-regional and local south-eastern English pronunciation and intonation. The Sunday Times, one of Britain’s most famous newspapers, has described it as a dialect existing between "Cockney and the Queen" and the Tory (Conservative) Minister of Education condemned it as a ‘bastardized version of Cockney dialect’.
The term ‘Estuary’ reflects the starting point for this dialect as being the region along London’s River Thames and its estuaries. Rosewarne’s initial studies were prompted by the lack of discussion surrounding accents that existed between RP and the localizable English forms. He saw what he refers to as a ‘particularly important gap in the descriptions of accents varieties in London and the South East of England’.
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The notion of the ‘Queen’s’ English or ‘King’s English’, depending on who is the ruler of the time, can be traced back to the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries where the idea that the monarch’s usage of the language should be a model in speech and writing. During these times there was a development of a prestigious speech associated with the court and aristocracy. The phrase ‘The King’s English’ was first used during the reign of James I.
Sociolinguistic Issues of ‘Queen’s’ English
The accents of the Queen Mother and Princess Margaret (the Queen’s sister) reflect the conservative RP as epitomized by the old British films and Pathe newsreels of the first part of the century. The younger members of the royal family such as Prince Edward, Prince Andrew and the in-laws of the family, the Duchess of York (Fergie) as well as the late Princess of Wales (Diana), all speak an RP closer to ‘advanced’ RP than to the conservative, more traditional accent. 
The distance between the Royal Family and the ‘subjects’ of the country was seen to be enhanced by the traditional speech of the royals. As the younger members of the Royal Family attempt to close the gap between the two, their speech reflects the changes.
Features of ‘Queen’s’ English
General pronunciation
The Queen and Older Royals might pronounce the following words as noted.
Examples:
• house = hice
• off = orf
• tower = tar  
• refined = refained
Younger royals might exhibit the following types of pronunciations:
• really = rairly 
• milk = miuk - 
• yes = yah
• St. Paul’s = St. Pauw’s
The ‘Royal ONE’
The pronominal usage of ‘one’ is not only stereotypically associated with the upper classes, and especially the Royal Family, but that is also used frequently in their real life. There are a number of ways that the word ‘one’ used in place of ‘I’ and it has also been seen to be commonly used in those people connected with the Royal Family. Friends of the family as well as household help like the Queen’s dresser or an ex-cook have been heard to use the phrase ‘one’ in place of ‘I’.
Examples:
‘One says to oneself: “Oh God, there’s one’s daughter”’. (Father of the Duchess of York – quoted from The Star, July 1986.)
‘One hesitates to use such a trite word as delighted, but of course one IS delighted’. (The Queen’s dresser – quoted on receiving his knighthood – The Guardian, June 1989.)
Listen to the way it is: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TzDPWMT5raQ
Accents within The United States
General American (GA), also known as Standard American English (SAE), is a major accent of American English. The accent is not restricted to the United States. Within American English, General American and accents approximating it are contrasted with Southern American English, several Northeastern accents, and other distinct regional accents and social group accents like African American Vernacular English.
General American, like British Received Pronunciation (RP) and most standard language varieties of many other societies, has never been the accent of the entire nation. However, it has become widely spoken in many American films, TV series, national news, commercial ads, and American radio broadcasts.
The General American accent is most closely related to a generalized Midwestern accent and is spoken particularly by many newscasters. This has led the accent to sometimes be referred to as a ‘newscaster accent’ or ‘television English’. General American is sometimes promoted as preferable to other regional accents. In the United States, classes promising ‘accent reduction’, ‘accent modification’ and ‘accent neutralization’ generally attempt to teach speech patterns similar to this accent.
General American is also the accent typically taught to people learning English as a second language in the United States, as well as outside the country to anyone who wishes to learn ‘American English’, although in much of Asia and some other places ESL teachers are strongly encouraged to teach American English no matter their own origins or accents.
Regional home of General American
It is commonly believed that General American English evolved as a result of an aggregation of rural and suburban Midwestern dialects, though the English of the Upper Midwest can deviate quite dramatically from what would be considered a ‘regular’ American Accent. The local accent often gets more distinct the farther north one goes within the Midwest, and the more rural the area, with the Northern Midwest featuring its own dialect North Central American English. The fact that a Midwestern dialect became the basis of what is General American English is often attributed to the mass migration of Midwestern farmers to California and the Pacific Northwest from where it spread.
Eastern Nebraska, southern and central Iowa, and western Illinois (not the Chicago area).
Southern American English 
Southern American English is a group of dialects of the English language spoken throughout the Southern region of the United States, from Southern and Eastern Maryland, West Virginia and Kentucky to the Gulf Coast, and from the Atlantic coast to most of Texas and Oklahoma.
Overview of Southern dialects
The Southern dialects collectively known as Southern American English stretch across the southeastern and south-central United States, but exclude the southern most areas of Florida and the extreme western and south-western parts of Texas aswell as the Rio Grande Valley (Laredo to Brownsville).
This linguistic region includes Alabama, Georgia, Tennessee, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Louisiana, and Arkansas, as well as most of Texas, Virginia, Oklahoma, Kentucky, and West Virginia. It also includes parts of southern and central Missouri, and parts of Florida and Maryland.
Southern dialects originated in large part from immigrants from the British Isles who moved to the South in the 17th and 18th centuries. Settlement also included large numbers of Protestants from Ulster, Ireland, and from Scotland. Upheavals such as the Great Depression, the Dust Bowl and World War II caused mass migrations of those and other settlers throughout the United States.
More information:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Q6sQUmPmuA
The Northeastern United States is a region of the United States as defined by the United States Census Bureau. The region comprises nine states: the New England states of Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island and Vermont; and the Mid-Atlantic states of New Jersey, New York and Pennsylvania. The Census Bureau regions are "widely used...for data collection and analysis."
Improving your English Pronunciation
If you want to check some tips in order to improve your English pronunciation go to:
http://www.english-at-home.com/pronunciation/improving-your-pronunciation/
Aula 2: A Fala e a Escrita
Humans use language to communicate. This is an obvious statement, but what is language and how do we use it? Language is basically a set of symbols with associated meanings. These symbols are delivered using a set of rules for stringing the symbols together to generate additional meaning
Humans use mostly sounds to represent these symbols, although as an Italian I can communicate common meanings by only using a range of hand gestures! We string together phonetic sounds to make words, and we string together words to make sentences. The set of rules we have created to structure our delivery of words is our grammar. For example, a basic rule is that every sentence should contain a verb (a word conveying action) and a subject (a word conveying who or what is doing the action or on whom or what the action is having an impact).
There are more than 5 million distinct words in the English language: The Oxford Dictionary of English (2005) lists more than 300,000 entries; William Shakespeare used about 15,000; the average person whose first language is English knows about 4,300 words, although they understand the exact meaning of only 70 per cent or so of these.
We string together these words into sentences to answer a basic set of questions: Who? How? What? Why? When? And where? But, the use of words to answer these questions through oral communication or written communication has significant constraints.
If you look at the last few paragraphs, you may notice that what I am trying to communicate is severely limited by the fact that I can only deliver one basic concept at a time. In other words, my communication process is linear. As a result, I have to be very careful that my concepts follow a logical sequence: concept A helps to explain concept B, which in turn helps to explain concept C. In many cases I have no choice but to tackle a subject in increasing detail. If I want to show the relationship between concept A and concept C, I have to start all over again with a new sentence. Any change in my sequential approach – for example if I want to go back to a higher level of detail – has to be usually associated with a visible break, such as a new paragraph.
So the use of the written or oral form of communication favours a specific subset of mental models: those that require a logical interpretation and which follow a sequence of increasing detail. A precise sequence is followed and the model revealed goes into greater and greater detail (linear sequential thinking). Of course, written and oral communication can be used in many other ways too, but most people get quickly turned off when subject to forms of written and oral communication that “do not get to the point”.
SPEAKING VERSUS WRITING
THE PEN IS MIGHTIER THAN THE Spoken WORD. OR IS IT?
There are always at least two people in any communication. To communicate, one person must put something "out" and another person must take something "in". We call this "output" and "input".
I speak to you (OUTPUT: my thoughts go OUT of my head).
You listen to me (INPUT: my thoughts go INto your head).
You write to me (OUTPUT: your thoughts go OUT of your head).
I read your words (INPUT: your thoughts go INto my head).
So language consists of four "skills": two for output (speaking and writing); and two for input (listening and reading). We can say this another way - two of the skills are for "spoken" communication and two of the skills are for "written" communication.
What are the differences between Spoken and Written English? Are there advantages and disadvantages for each form of communication?
When we learn our own (native) language, learning to speak comes before learning to write. In fact, we learn to speak almost automatically. It is natural. But somebody must teach us to write. It is not natural. In one sense, speaking is the "real" language and writing is only a representation of speaking. However, for centuries, people have regarded writing as superior to speaking. It has a higher "status". This is perhaps because in the past almost everybody could speak but only a few people could write. But as we shall see, modern influences are changing the relative status of speaking and writing.
We usually write with correct grammar and in a structured way. We organize what we write into sentences and paragraphs. We do not usually use contractions in writing (though if we want to appear very friendly, then we do sometimes use contractions in writing because this is more like speaking.) We use more formal vocabulary in writing (for example, we might write "the car exploded" but say "the car blew up") and we do not usually use slang. In writing, we must use punctuation marks like commas and question marks (as a symbolic way of representing things like pauses or tone of voice in speaking).
We usually speak in a much less formal, less structured way. We do not always use full sentences and correct grammar. The vocabulary that we use is more familiar and may include slang. We usually speak in a spontaneous way, without preparation, so we have to make up what we say as we go. This means that we often repeat ourselves or go off the subject. However, when we speak, other aspects are present that are not present in writing, such as facial expression or tone of voice. This means that we can communicate at several levels, not only with words.
One important difference between speaking and writing is that writing is usually more durable or permanent. When we speak, our words live for a few moments. When we write, our words may live for years or even centuries. This is why writing is usually used to provide a record of events, for example a business agreement or transaction.
When we speak, we usually need to be in the same place and time as the other person. Despite this restriction, speaking does have the advantage that the speaker receives instant feedback from the listener. The speaker can probably see immediately if the listener is bored or does not understand something, and can then modify what he or she is saying.
When we write, our words are usually read by another person in a different place and at a different time. Indeed, they can be read by many other people, anywhere and at any time. And the people reading our words, can do so at their leisure, slowly or fast. They can re-read what we write, too. But the writer cannot receive immediate feedback and cannot (easily) change what has been written.
In the past, only a small number of people could write, but almost everybody could speak. Because their words were not widely recorded, there were many variationsin the way they spoke, with different vocabulary and dialects in different regions. Today, almost everybody can speak and write. Because writing is recorded and more permanent, this has influenced the way that people speak, so that many regional dialects and words have disappeared. (It may seem that there are already too many differences that have to be learned, but without writing there would be far more differences, even between, for example, British and American English.) So writing has had an important influence on speaking. But speaking can also influence writing. For example, most new words enter a language through speaking. Some of them do not live long. If you begin to see these words in writing it usually means that they have become "real words" within the language and have a certain amount of permanence.
Modern inventions such as sound recording, telephone, radio, television, fax or email have made or are making an important impact on both speaking and writing. To some extent, the divisions between speaking and writing are becoming blurred. Emails are often written in a much less formal way than is usual in writing. With voice recording, for example, it has for a long time been possible to speak to somebody who is not in the same place or time as you (even though this is a one-way communication: we can speak or listen, but not interact).
With the telephone and radiotelephone, however, it became possible for two people to carry on a conversation while not being in the same place. Today, the distinctions are increasingly vague, so that we may have, for example, a live television broadcast with a mixture of recordings, telephone calls, incoming faxes and emails and so on. One effect of this new technology and the modern universality of writing has been to raise the status of speaking. Politicians who cannot organize their thoughts and speak well on television win very few votes.
WRITTEN ENGLISH
Because of a writing system that incorporates etymology, spelling cues not present in oral discourse can give readers additional clues to the relationship between words through a vague awareness of different morphological classes.
Anglo-Saxon words are usually characterised by a cloudy morphology (early \ ere), wildly unphonemic spelling, and the presence of silent letters and digraphs. Common affixes are “un-”, “-ful”, and “-ness”. These are the most common words used to describe everyday, informal and interpersonal matters.
Romance words are also common and bear closer resemblance to French morphemes and words (very \ vrais). There is often more regularity in their spelling.
Latin and Greek words are set apart from Romance words by very methodical morphology, Classical Latin and Greek morphemes, and consistent spelling. They usually have rigid definitions and are used more frequently in formal and scientific writing as well as in constructing technical, philosophical, and legal jargon.
Hybrids (e.g. kay, Byte, Prisoner) have the relative formality and familiarity of Romance words.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SPPECH AND WRITING
There are many differences between the processes of speaking and writing. Writing is not simply speech written down on paper. Learning to write is not a natural extension of learning to speak. Unlike speech, writing requires systematic instruction and practice.
Consider the fact that…
Virtually nobody speaks Standard Written English. This is the form of English that is appropriate for professional, business, and academic writing. For example, no one always speaks in complete sentences or pronounces the final letter of every word. However, many people learn to translate their spoken dialect into Standard Written English when they write. 
Both spoken and written dialects are linked to the social background, age, race, and gender of the writer, speaker and audience. Depending upon whom we are addressing, and what we are discussing, we can switch between formal and informal ways of communicating.
FORMAL AND INFORMAL ENGLISH
Example 1: This is to inform you that your book has been rejected by our publishing company as it was not up to the required standard. In case you would like us to reconsider it, we would suggest that you go over it and make some necessary changes.
Example 2: You know that book I wrote? Well, the publishing company rejected it. They thought it was awful. But hey, I did the best I could, and I think it was great. I'm not gonna redo it the way they said I should.
The difference between the two is obvious. The first one is formal, and the second is informal. But what is it that makes them formal and informal?
It is the style of writing, or the way we use words to say what we want to say. Different situations call for different ways of putting words together. The way we write in academic and scientific settings differs greatly from the way we write to a friend or close one. The tone, vocabulary, and syntax, all change as the occasion changes. This difference in the styles of writing is the difference between formality and informality, or the difference between formal and informal writing. There are three main language styles: 1. Formal; 2. Semi-Formal; 3. Informal.
RULES OF LANGUAGE STYLE
The following rules apply to both written and spoken English.
The follow examples illustrate the main differences between informal and formal English.
1. Active & Passive Voice
Informal: Our technician repaired the fault on 12th June. Now it’s your turn to pay us.
Formal: Although the fault was repaired on 12th June, payment for this intervention has still not been received.
2. Verb Form: Phrasal Verbs & Latin
Informal: The company laid him off because he didn't work much.
Formal: His insufficient production conducted to his dismissal.
3. Language: Direct & Formulaic
Informal: I’m sorry but … / I’m happy to say that …
Formal: We regret to inform you that … / We have pleasure in announcing that …
4. Use of Slang
Informal: He had to get some money out of a hole in the wall …
Formal: He withdrew the amount from an ATM.
 
5. Personal Form & Nominators
Informal: If you lose it, then please contact us as soon as possible.
Formal: Any loss of this document should be reported immediately …
 6. Linking Words
Informal: The bank can’t find the payment you say you’ve made.
Formal: Notwithstanding that the payment has been sent the bank fails to acknowledge it.
7. Revitalized Sentences
Informal: Anybody or any company.
Formal: … any natural person who, and any legal entity which …
 8. Modal Usage
Informal: If you need any help, give us a call.
Formal: Should you require any assistance, please feel free to contact us …
 9. Singular & Plural Person
Informal: I can help you to solve this problem. Call me!
Formal: We can assist in the resolution of this matter. Contact us on our toll-free number.
Also, to make a sentence more formal you can: 
Use ‘There’ as a subject; e.g. ‘There is a serious risk of...’ 
Use 'It' as a subject; e.g. 'It is impossible to...' 
Use ‘One’ as a subject; e.g. ‘One may ask whether...’ (‘One’ is a formal version of ‘You’ [plural] in general) 
Use the passive voice; e.g. ‘Many things can be done in order to...’
The main thing to remember is that both are correct, it is just a matter of tone and setting. Formal English is used mainly in academic writing and business communications, whereas Informal English is casual and is appropriate when communicating with friends and other close ones. Choose the style of writing keeping in mind what you are writing and to whom. But whichever style you write in - formal or informal - be sure to keep it consistent, do not mix the two.
ome examples are:
• To a friend it is acceptable to say, ‘Hey Jack, how’re you doing buddy?’
• To a Governor you would say, ‘Good afternoon Governor, how are you doing today?’
• To your girlfriend, ‘Do you want to grab a bite to eat? I need to ask you something.’
• To your girlfriend’s father, ‘Mr. Jones, would you care to have dinner with me tonight?I would like to talk to you about your daughter, and myself.’
• To a coworker, ‘Morning Joe.’
• To your boss or a client, ‘Good morning, Mr. Smith or Good morning, sir.’
• To a friend, ‘Man! Was that movie really cool or what, we need to see it again!’
• To your drama professor, ‘Professor Bogart, the motion picture which you assigned us to watch was one of the most impressive that I have ever seen. In fact, I am going to view it again tonight!’
Always use formal English when writing a business letter, an essay, or other papers for work, school or publication. You can use informal English when writing a letter to a close friend or a relative, when quoting informal usage, or in a novel or script, etc. Otherwise it is much less risky to use the formal form, especially if you have any doubts about the acceptability of the informal form, or if you need to be very clear or specific. Remember that you will never look or sound foolish by using proper grammar.
Social English is the language of everyday communication in oral and written forms. Examples include:
• when your students are talking to their friends on the playground or in the school bus;
• when you and your students are having an informal face-to-face conversation;
• when your students go to the grocery store and read the shopping list.
Academic English and social English are not two separate languages. Academic English is more demanding and complex than social English. Academic English is the language necessary for success in school. It is related to a standards-based curriculum, including the content areas of Math, Science, Social Studies, and English language arts.
	
Aula 3
Conhecer o alfabeto da língua inglesa, com quadros descritivos e analíticos das consoantes e das vogais. (Know the English alphabet, with descriptive and analytical charts of consonants and vowels);
2. compreender os dígrafos e os encontros vocálicos e consonantais. (Understand the digraphs and the vocalic and consonantal clusters).
Without a universal transcription system for phonetics and phonology, writing down the unfamiliar sounds of other languages presents an almost insuperable challenge. Take, for example, a sound which is used only paralinguistically in English (that is, for some purpose outside the language system itself), but which is a perfectly ordinary consonant in other languages, just as [b] in but or [l] in list are in English, namely the ‘tut-tut’ sound made to signal disapproval. When we see this, we do not think of a whole word, but of a repeated clicking. This description is hopelessly inadequate, however, for anyone else trying to recognize the sound in question, or learn how to make it.
Hearing a native speaker use the ‘tut-tut’ click in a language where it is an ordinary consonant does not help us understand how the sound is made or how it compares with others. Likewise, adopting the usual spelling from that language (assuming it is not one of the many without an orthography) might let us write the ‘tut-tut’ sound down; but this technique would not produce a universal system for writing sounds of the world’s languages, since linguists would tend to use their own spelling systems as far as possible, and opt for representations from the languages they happened to know for other sounds. There would be little consistency, and generalization of such a system would be difficult.
The International Phonetic Alphabet was proposed in 1888; it has been under constant review ever since by the International Phonetic Association, and the latest revision dates from 1996. Although a universal system of description and transcription might be desirable in principle, and even in practice when dealing with unfamiliar languages and sounds, readers of a book both in and on English might question the necessity of learning the IPA.
First, there is considerable ambiguity in the English spelling system, and it works in both directions: many sounds to one spelling, and many spellings to one sound. The former situation results in ‘eye-rhymes’, or forms which look as if they ought to have the same pronunciation, but don’t. There are various doggerel poems about this sort of ambiguity (often written by non-native speakers who have struggled with the system): one begins by pointing out a set of eye-rhymes – ‘I gather you already know, Of plough and cough and through and dough’. Those four words, which we might expect to rhyme on the basis of the spelling, in
fact end in four quite different vowels, and cough has a final consonant too. On the other hand, see, sea, people, amoeba and fiend have the same long [i:] vowel, but five different spellings.
Despite these multiple ambiguities, attempts are regularly made to indicate pronunciations using the spelling system. Nevertheless, none are wholly successful, for a variety of different reasons.
PHONETIC CONCEPTS
Consonant
A consonant is a speech sound made by partially or completely blocking the flow of air through the mouth (using the lips, teeth, tongue, and palate).
Consonant X Contoid
Since the word ‘consonant’ is used in describing the phonology of a language that can include sounds which could be classed phonetically as vowels (Y, W), so we ought also to have a different word which covers just those sounds which are phonetically of the type that produces a significant obstruction to the flow of air through the vocal tract: the term proposed is CONTOID.
DIGRAPH
A digraph is a combination of letters or characters used to represent a single speech sound.
“Exocentric” digraphs, where the sound of the digraph is different from that of either of its constituent letters. These are rarely considered "silent". There are examples where the phoneme has no standard single-letter representation, as with consonants ‹ng› for /ŋ/ as in sing, ‹th› for /θ/ as in thin or /ð/ as in then, and diphthongs ‹ou› in out or ‹oi› in point and where standard single-letter representation uses another letter, as with ‹gh› in enough or ‹ph› in physical instead of ‹f›.
“Endocentric" digraphs, where the sound of the digraph is the same as that of one of its constituent letters. These include  most double consonants, as ‹bb› in clubbed; though not geminate consonants, as ‹ss› in misspell, the discontiguous digraphs whose second element is "magic e", e.g. ‹a_e› in rate (cf. rat), ‹i_e› in fine (cf. fin) and others such as ‹ck› (which is in effect the "doubled" form of ‹k›), ‹gu› as in guard, vogue; ‹ea› as in bread, heavy, etc. These are difficult for writers and sometimes for readers.
A vowel digraph is two letters with the first letter making a long sound and the second letter is silent. We call this:
"first one does the talking, the second keeps on walking."
In English include EA (teach), EE (free), EY (key), IE (piece),), OO (book), OA (road) and UE (true), AU (audience), EO (people), IO (region), AI (main), OU (soul). 
The digraph oo has two sounds. One is the sound heard in hook. The other sound is the sound heard in tooth. 
BLEND OR CLUSTER
It is a combination of two or more letters, where all of the sounds can be distinguished.
Two or three consonants are blended together, each consonant sound may be heard in the blend. Some examples of consonant blends are: 
bl–black, cl–clap, fl–flip, gl–glass, pl–play, sl–slip, br–brick, cr–crab, dr–drop, fr–from, gr–grab, pr–press, tr–trap, sc–scale, sk–skip, sm–smell, sn–snail, sp–spill, rl–world, st–stop, sw–swell, str–stray (in which there are two clusters: s+t and t+r), xth–sixth (in which the cluster is x + th).
One of the most difficult clusters to be pronounced is RL, as in WORLD. Check the correct way to pronounce it:
DIPHTHONGS OR  TWIN-VOWELS OR GLIDING VOWELS
Vowel diphthong refers to the blending of two vowels sounds, both vowel sounds are usually heard and they make a gliding sound.:
More Examples:
1. here,near, dear, beer
2. late, came, lane, day, make, again
3. cure, newer, tube
4. boy, voice, oil, boil, toy, noise
5. low
6. there, wear
7. time,bite, light, try, night
8. house, ouch!, loud, mouth
In the English word “ride”, the “I” would be transcribed phonetically as “ai”, although it appears as a single letter in our writing, it actually consists of two vowels. If you say the word you should be able to hear the two. The same happens to “no”, “so” /ow/
HIATUS
In phonology, hiatus or diaeresis refers to two vowel sounds occurring in adjacent syllables, with no intervening consonant. When two adjacent vowel sounds occur in the same syllable, the result is instead described as a diphthong.
The English words hiatus and diaeresis themselves contain a hiatus between the first and second syllables.
So: Hi – a – tus  / di·aer·e·sis
SEMIVOWEL OR GLIDE
A semivowel (or glide) is a sound, such as English /w/ or /j/ (‘y’), that is phonetically similar to a vowel sound but functions as the syllable boundary rather than as the nucleus of a syllable.
TRIPHONES
Triphones is union of a diphthong plus one vowel. The first sound is always that of a diphthong. If a vowel comes after a diphthong, a small tick is attached to that diphthong in the opposite direction. This tick will indicate that there is a vowel after diphthong but will not indicate which is that vowel.
e.g. diary -  loyal – genuine - renewal – denial. 
THE LETTERS Y AND W
THE LETTER ‘Y’
Sometimes, the letter y is a consonant, and other times it is a vowel. The rule for telling the two apart is simple: The letter ‘y’ is a consonant if it is at the beginning of a syllable. If ‘y’ is anywhere else in the syllable, it is a vowel.
In general, the ‘Y’ is a consonant when the syllable already has a vowel. Also, the ‘Y’ is considered a consonant when it is used in place of the soft J sound, such as in the name ‘Yolanda’ or ‘Yoda’.In the names ‘Bryan’ and ‘Wyatt’, the ‘Y’ is a vowel, because it provides the only vowel sound for the first syllable of both names. For both of these names, the letter ‘A’ is part of the second syllable, and therefore does not influence the nature of the ‘Y’.
Examples of ‘Y’ as a Consonant: yes - yam - yell - yellow - yogurt – yacht.
Examples of ‘Y’ as a Vowel: gym - my - cycle - baby  - hairy  - sky – valley – fairy.
COUNTING PHONEMES
Let's try counting a couple of words.  
How many phonemes are there in:
a) rich? 3 /r/ /i/ /ch/(digraph)
b) pitch?  3 /p/ /i/ /tch/(digraph)
c) bring?– 4 /b/ /r/ /i/ /ng/(digraph)
d) shoot? 3 /sh/ (digraph) /oo/ (digraph) /t/
e) shy? 2 /sh/ (digraph) /y/
f) six?  4 /s / /i / / k / /s/ as the "x" has two distinct speech sounds.
g) brought? 4 /b/ /r/ /ou/ /ght/
h) through? 3 /th/ /r/ /ough/
i) thorough?4  /th/ /o/ /r/ /ough/
j) cane? 3 /c/  /a/ /n/
k) Bible? 5 /b/ /i/ /b/ /l/ /e/
Dica:
Digraphs count as 1 phoneme.
Even if a vowel has a double sound, it is 1 phoneme. For example, in the word “shy”, even with the sound /ai/, you will have 1 phoneme.
“time” has 3 phonemes /t/ /i/ /m/. At the end of the word is a magic E. It doesn’t count as a phoneme.
If the word ends in “le” the “e” is counted.
Atenção
How many words are there in “scarecrow”?
Six in Australian and uk English – s / c / are / c / r / ow. However American English has more emphasis on the first “r”, and thus there is an extra phoneme – s/ c / a / re / c/ r / ow (7 phonemes)
How many words are there in “whistle”?
Five or six. Five if you pronounce / w / I / s / e / l / Six if you aspire the H: /h / w / I / s / e / l.
Aula 4: Os Fonemas Consonantais
Analyze the classification and peculiarities of consonants;
2. understand the concepts of voiceless and voiced;
3. understand the pronunciation of consonants in final position.
THE CONSONANTS
CONSONANT AND CONTOID
A consonant is a speech sound made by partially or completely blocking the flow of air through the mouth (using the lips, teeth, tongue, and palate).
CONSONANTS – include sounds which could be classified phonetically as vowels (Y, W).  
CONTOIDS – don’t include  sounds which could be classified phonetically as vowels (Y, W).
Consonant classification
For consonants, we need to know six things to arrive at a classification:
PLACE OF ARTICULATION: The place of articulation is where in the vocal tract the obstruction of the consonant occurs, and which speech organs are involved.  
NOTE: What about the letters /c/, /q/, & /x/ ?
You may have noticed that the letters /c/, /q/, /x/ do not have a phoneme listed. This happens because they are not listed as a pure phoneme, as the sounds that they represent can be represented by other letters or spellings. 
For example: 
- the letter c can be represented by the phonemes /k/ or /s/ as in can, cent.
- the letter x as in fox can be represented by two phonemes /ks/.
- the letter q can be represented by two phonemes /kw/ as in queue.
NASAL: the air escapes only through the nose.
ORAL: the air escapes partly through the nose and partly through the mouth.
• voiced: involving vibration of the vocal cords.
• voiceless: no vibration of the vocal cords.
CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT FLAP, GLOTTAL, GLIDE and APPROXIMANT
FLAPPING RULE OR TAPPING
Intervocalic alveolar flapping (more accurately 'tapping') is a phonological process found in many dialects of English, especially North American English and Australian English, by which T and D surface as the tap [ɾ]:
There is a Lenition, i.e, a kind of consonant mutation. Lenition means 'softening' or 'weakening' (from Latin lenis = weak), and it refers to the change of a consonant considered 'stronger' into one considered 'weaker' (or fortis → lenis). 
- after vowel: butter, buddy, better;
- after r: barter;
- after l: faculty (but not immediately post-tonic: alter → al[tʰ]er, not *al[ɾ]er).
GLOTTAL
Glottal is a phonological phenomenon that occurs in everyday informal English. The phonetic symbol for a glottal stop is ʔ. In a true glottal stop there is complete obstruction to the passage of air, and the result is a period of silence. Hold your breath. 
It happens:
With a t-sound before unstressed vowel:
Fountain – Foun - tain (like a hiccup);
Cur – tain;
Bu – tton.
 Before a final T:
I can’t ;
Let me know.
In front of a p, t or k if there is not a vowel immediately following: 
e.g. captive - kÆʔptiv; 
catkin’ kÆʔtkin;
arctic’ a:ʔktik.
 NOTE: A similar case is that of tʃ when following a stressed vowel, as in in ‘butcher’ bυʔtʃə. 
To learn more: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=edxwQK1zBxw
APPROXIMANT (VOWEL-LIKE) 
Approximants are speech sounds that involve the articulators approaching each other but not narrowly enough or with enough articulatory precision to create turbulent airflow. Approximants are divided into the following two sub-classes:
Liquids: 
lateral approximants like [l] (as in less);
non-lateral approximants like [ɹ] (as in rest).
 semi-vowels - also known as "glides”. They are vowels masquerading as consonants.  
Examples of Y as a Consonant - yes - yam - yell - yellow - yogurt – yacht.
Examples of Y as a Vowel - gym - my - cycle - baby - hairy  - sky – fairy.
Examples of Y as a Semivowel – valley. 
 Examples of W as a Consonant – winged – why – swell.
Examples of W as a semivowel – bow – jaw –known – lawn.
VOICED AND VOICELESS SOUNDS
An  important way in which one speech sound may differ from another is in voicing or the lack of it. We say that a sound is voiced if our vocal cords vibrate as we pronounce it; a sound is voiceless if it is pronounced without such vibration. Press your thumb and forefinger lightly against the sides of your larynx (the central part of your throat, where sounds are made); then pronounce /z/  and  /s/ alternately. You should be able to feel the vibration of the vocal cords as you say /z/, and notice no vibration as you say /s/.  In other words, /z/ is a voiced sound and /s/ is voiceless.
Voiced
Involving vibration of the vocal cords
PRONOUNCING FINAL CONSONANTS
A final consonant is any consonant that is the last sound in a word. Consonant sounds that end words are very important. They can determine grammatical as wellas word meaning. Careful production of final consonant is necessary to convey your message correctly and to sound like a native speaker.
Words pronounced with a final consonant often have “e” as the final letter. When “e” is the last letter in a word, it is usually silent; a consonant is actually the last SOUND.Examples:            
made – phone – bite – have
a maioria foi sobre pronuncia. Não deu pra copiar.
Aula 5: Os Fonemas Vocálicos
Ao final desta aula, o aluno será capaz de:
1. Analyze the classification and peculiarities of the vocalic phonemes;
2. learn the concept of long and short vowels.
In class number three we saw: A vowel is a speech sound made by allowing breath to flow out of the mouth, without closing any part of the mouth or throat.
Vowels sounds are always voiced.
TENSENESS: This is another distinctive feature in speech sounds that deserves attention.  Tenseness, produced by the tension of the vocalization muscles, is a characteristic that occurs in English vowels (long vowel sounds) while nonexistent in Portuguese.  Let’s see the so-called Long and Short Vowel Sounds better.
THERE ARE NO NASAL VOWELS IN ENGLISH. Vowels preceding nasal consonants are nasalized, but there is no phonemic distinction between nasal and oral vowels (and all vowels are considered phonemically oral). However, the word "huh" is generally pronounced with a nasal vowel.
Notation - In the International Phonetic Alphabet the signːis used for vowel length. 
• Diacritics – Macron (ā) is used to indicate a long vowel; Breves (ă) are used to mark short vowels.
LIST OF SHORT VOWEL WORDS
• Short ‘a’ words - act, apt, ask, bat, bad, bag, cat, cap, cab, dad, dab, Dan, fan, fat, fad, gap, gab, gal, gas, ham, has, had, hat, jab, jam, lab, lad, lag, lap, man, mad, mat, map, nap, pan, Pam, pad, pal, ran, ram, rag, rat, Sam, sad, sag, sat, sap, tab, tan, tad, tag, tap, van, vat, yam, zap.
• Short ‘e’ words - Ben, bed, beg, bet, den, fed, gem, get, gel, hen, hem, jet, Ken, keg, led, leg, let, men, met, net, pen, peg, pet, red, set, ten, Ted, vet, yet, wed, wet.
• Short ‘i’ words - bin, bid, big, bit, dim, did, dig, dip, fin, fig, fit, gin, gig, him, his, hid, hit, hip, jib, Jim, jig, jip, kin, Kim, kid, kit, lid, lit, lip, nip, pin, pig, pit, rim, rid, rig, rip, sin, sit, sip, tin, tip, win, wit, zip, zit.
LIST OF SHORT VOWEL WORDS
• Short ‘o’ words - bop, con, cod, cog, cot, cop, Don, dog, dot, fog, God, got, hog, hot, jog, jot, lob, log, lot, lop, mob, mom, mop, nod, not, pod, pot, rod, rot, son, sod, ton, Tom, tot, top, won.
• Short ‘u’ words - bun, bum, bus, bud, bug, but, cud, cut, cup, dug, fun, gun, gum, Gus, gut, hum, hug, hut, jug, jut, lug, mug, nun, nut, pun, pug, pup, rub, run, rum, rug, rut, sub, sun, sum, tug.
LIST OF LONG VOWEL WORDS
• Long vowel ‘a’ words: mail – gain – bake – ape – paint - gray – nail – main.
• Long vowel ‘e’ words: sea – seal – fear – beef – wheat – sheep – tea.
• Long vowel ‘i’ words: hide – pie – dive – ride - cry.
• Long vowel ‘o’ words: road – coat – hole – rope – stove – grow – toe.
• Long vowel ‘u’ words: suite – June – true – new – chew – fruit – tune – use – clue.
vOWEL DIGRAPHS (LONG VOWEL SOUNDS)
A vowel digraph is two letters with the first letter making a long sound and the second letter is silent.  It is usually called:  "first one does the talking, the second keeps on walking." 
In English include EA (teach), EE (free), EY (key), IE (piece),), OO (book), OA (road) and UE (true), AU (audience), EO (people), IO (region), AI (main), OU (soul). 
ATTENTION: friend (the long sound is the ‘–e’, the  ‘-i’ is a silent letter).
Diphthongs may have a long vowel sound or the sound may be neither long nor short
ar - car, star, arm, shark;
er - sister, brother, waiter, barber, butter, hammer, shutter;
ir - shirt, skirt, girl, bird;
or - corn, fork, cord;
ur - church, nurse, curve, burger.
Sight words are also called IRREGULAR WORDS or OUTLAW WORDS. They are words that not follow these rules of long and short sound.
WHOM — This should have a short vowel sounds because it has a closed syllable, like sat and cot, but it has a long sound.
AGAIN, AGAINST, SAYS AND SAID — These should have long a sounds because of the ai vowel combination, like say and pain (digraph) but they have short sounds.
BEEN — This should have a long e sound, like seen, but it has a short sound
The vowels ‘i’ and ‘o’ have the long vowel sound when followed by two or more consonants. Exceptions: MONTH, FRONT, OTHER, AMONG. (SHORT VOWEL SOUND).
When the vowel ‘o’ is followed by ‘i’, the two-vowel rule is not followed, as in ‘BOIL’. – neither long nor short.
Assistir aula online, aula sobre sons
Aula 6: A Sílaba
Ao final desta aula, o aluno será capaz de:
1. Conhecer as particularidades da sílaba (particularities of the syllable);
2. dominar as regras de divisão silábica (rules of syllabification).
A syllable is the basic rhythm unit in English. The number of syllable equals the number of vowels.
As we can see from the table, the difference of language produces a big difference in the counting of the beats. This difference causes a serious intelligibility problem. Therefore, it is very important to understand how the rhythm is counted in English.
A syllable consists of an obligatory vowel segment, plus an optional consonantal segment or segments that surround the vowel. In other words, a syllable ALWAYS has a vowel. It may or may not have a consonant or consonants on the either side of the vowel. The syllable count of a sound configuration is the same as the number of vowels.
Rhyme (or rime): the rest of the syllable, after the onset (the underlined portions of the words above). The rhyme can also be divided up: 
Rhyme = nucleus + coda 
The nucleus, as the term suggests, is the core or essential part of a syllable. A nucleus must be present in order for a syllable to be present. The syllable structure analysis of the words 'read', 'flop',  'strap' and 'window' are as follows (IPA symbols are used to show the sounds in the word/syllable):
read = one syllable 
Onset = [ r ] 
Rhyme = [ i:d ]   (within the rhyme:)
Nucleus = [ i: ] 
Coda   = [ d ]
flop = one syllable 
Onset = [ f l ] 
Rhyme  = [ o p ]
Nucleus  =  [ o ]
Coda  =  [ p ]
window = 2 syllables 
First syllable:  [win]
Onset  = [ w ]
Rhyme  = [ i n ]
Nucleus = [ i ]
Coda  = [ n ]
Second syllable: [ d o ] 
Onset = [ d ]
Rhyme = [ o ]
Nucleus = [ o ]
(This syllable has no coda)
Spoken syllables are organized around a vowel sound.
The closed syllable is the most common spelling unit in English; it accounts for just under 50 percent of the syllables in running text. When the vowel of a syllable is short, the syllable will be closed off by one or more consonants. Therefore, if a closed syllable is connected to another syllable that begins with a consonant, two consonant letters will come between the syllables (com-mon, but-ter). Two or more consonant letters often follow short vowels in closed syllables (dodge, stretch, back, stuff, doll, mess, jazz). This is a spelling convention; the extra letters do not represent extra sounds.
Vowel-Consonant-e (VCe) syllables
Also known as ‘magic e’ syllable patterns, VCe syllables contain long vowels spelled with a single letter, followed by a single consonant, and a silent e. Examples of VCe syllables are found in wake, whale, while, yoke, yore, rude, and hare. Every long vowel can be spelled with a VCe pattern, although spelling ‘long e’ with VCe is unusual.
Open syllables
If a syllable is open, it will end with a long vowel sound spelled with one vowel letter; there will be no consonant to close it and protect the vowel (to-tal, ri-val, bi-ble, mo-tor). Therefore, when syllables are combined, there will be no doubled consonant between an open syllable and one that follows.
A few single-syllable words in English are also open syllables. They include me, she, he and no, so, go.
Vowel team syllables
A vowel team may be two, three, or four letters;thus, the term vowel digraph is not used. A vowel team can represent a long, short, or diphthong vowel sound. Vowel teams occur most often in old Anglo-Saxon words whose pronunciations have changed over hundreds of years. They must be learned gradually through word sorting and systematic practice. Examples of vowel teams are found in thief, boil, hay, suit, boat, and straw.
Vowel-r syllables
We have chosen the term ‘vowel-r’ over ‘r-controlled’ because the sequence of letters in this type of syllable is a vowel followed by r (er, ir, ur, ar, or). Vowel-r syllables are numerous, variable, and difficult for students to master; they require continuous review. The /r/ phoneme is elusive for students whose phonological awareness is underdeveloped. Examples of vowel-r syllables are found in perform, ardor, mirror, further, worth, and wart.
Consonant-le (C-le) syllables
Also known as the stable final syllable, C-le combinations are found only at the ends of words. If a C-le syllable is combined with an open syllable — as in cable, bugle, or title — there is no doubled consonant. If one is combined with a closed syllable — as in dabble, topple, or little — it results in a double consonant.
Para achar o número de sílabas da palavra
Count the vowels in the word.
Subtract any silent vowels, (like the silent ‘e’ at the end of a word or the second vowel when two vowels are together in a syllable).
Subtract one vowel from every diphthong, (diphthongs only count as one vowel sound).
The number of vowels sounds left is the same as the number of syllables.
The number of syllables that you hear when you pronounce a word is the same as the number of vowels sounds heard.
For example: the word ‘came’ has 2 vowels, but the ‘e’ is silent, leaving one vowel sound and one syllable. The word ‘outside’ has 4 vowels, but the ‘e’ is silent and the ‘ou’ is a diphthong which counts as only one sound, so this word has only two vowels sounds and therefore, two syllables. 
Syllabification is the process of dividing words into syllables
Learning word division is a good way for people who are learning English as a second language to understand how to pronounce certain English words. In simple terms, words should really be divided according to the syllables in that word, and also on the basis of the pronunciation. Word division is also a commonly used learning technique for children who are native speakers.
Most speakers of English have no trouble dividing a word up into its component syllables. Sometimes how a particular word is divided might vary from one individual to another, but a division is always easy and always possible.
Here are some words divided into their component syllables (a period is used to mark the end of a syllable): 
tomato = to.ma.to 
window = win.dow 
supercalifragilisticexpialidocious:  su.per.ca.li.fra.gi.lis.ti.cex.pi.a.li.do.cious (some people might put some of the periods in different places in this word).
Before reading the following rules, be aware that not all of them are a consensus among grammarians.
You will find different ways of splitting syllables. A good option to check word-division is:
The Oxford Minidictionary of Spelling and Word-Division
Take care with dictionaries on the internet.
GENERAL RULE:
A split which gives only one or two letters at the beginning of the second line is never permissible, and one which give only one or two letters at the end of the first line is undesirable, but not impermissible. (Exceptions are prefixes, such as re-, di-, etc.).
So: a word such as ‘actor’ in practice would not be desirable, as  ‘ac-tor’ would give two letters at the end of the first letter.
GENERAL RULE:
A word such as ‘painter’ in practice would not be permissible, as ‘paint-er’ would give two letters at the beginning of the second line.
Aula 7: Letras Mudas
Auxiliary letters which, with another letter, constitute digraphs, i.e. two letters combined which represent a single phoneme. For a revision, see class three.
Dummy letters with no relation to neighbouring letters and no correspondence in pronunciation: 
Some are inert letters, which are sounded in a cognate word: e.g. <n> in damn (cf. damnation); <g> in phlegm (cf. phlegmatic); <a> in practically (cf. practical). If the cognate is obvious, it may aid writers in spelling, but mislead readers in pronunciation.
The rest are empty letters which never have a sound, e.g. <w> in answer, <h> in Sarah, <s> in island, <b> in subtle, the <t> in ballet. These present the greatest difficulty to writers and often to readers.
RHOTIC AND NON-RHOTIC ACCENTS
Generally, accents can be grouped into what is called RHOTIC or NON-RHOTIC. 
A RHOTIC accent will say every /R/ that is written. Speak aloud the following sentence and if you hear and feel yourself saying every /R/ sound, you are a RHOTIC speaker. 
Let’s analyze the following sentence:
Rebecca ran quickly through the flowers and around the river to catch Rover, her overactive dog.
NON-RHOTIC speakers say the /R/ sound ONLY if it is followed by a vowel sound.  
Non-rhotic speakers would pronounce the R’s in:
Rebecca ran quickly through the flowers and around the river to catch Rover, her overactive dog.
In ‘her overactive dog’ there is a LINKING /R/ where the /R/ links one word to the next.
Aula 8: Tonicidade e Entonação
Understand stress (propriety that a vowel or a syllable has to be said with a higher or a lower intensity), its occurrences and manifestations;
2. understand intonation (cadence that the speech assumes emphasizing the aim of the speaker while carrying out the communicative process), its occurrences and manifestations.
STRESS AND INTONATION
Intonation is the tune of what you say. More specifically, it is the combination of musical tones on which we pronounce the syllables that make up our speech.  It’s closely related to sentence-stress. 
Intonation can determine grammatical meaning as well as the speaker’s attitude.  It will tell whether a person is making a statement or asking a question; it will also indicate if the person is confident, doubtful, shy, annoyed, or impatient. * Pitch = entonation
Aula 9: Some Particularities of English Phonology (Algumas Peculiaridades da Fonologia inglesa)
Analyse the concepts of restricted phonemes and allophones. (analisar os conceitos de fonemas restritos e alofones.);
2. analyse the phonological differences between British and American Accents. (analisar as diferenças fonológicas entre inglês britânico e o americano.).
A restricted phoneme is a phoneme that can only occur in a certain environment: There are restrictions as to where it can occur. English has several restricted phonemes:
 /ŋ/, as in sing, occurs only at the end of a syllable, never at the beginning 
 /h/ occurs only before vowels and at the beginning of a syllable, never at the end 
 In non-rhotic dialects, /r/ can only occur before a vowel, never at the end of a word or before a consonant.
In phonology, an allophone is one of a set of multiple possible spoken sounds (or phones) used to pronounce a single phoneme. For example, [pʰ] (as in pin) and [p] (as in spin) are allophones for the phoneme /p/ in the English language.
The aspiration of the English /p/, /t/ and /k/, when occurring word-initially or at the beginning of stressed syllables, has no equivalent in Portuguese.
Homonym
The same spelling and the same pronunciation but have different meanings. 
An example of a homonym is fluke. Fluke can mean:
• A fish and a flatworm.
• The end parts of an anchor.
• The fins on a whale's tail.
• A stroke of luck.
• A popular brand of Multimeter.
All four are separate lexemes with separate etymologies, but share the same form, fluke.
Homonym 
Other examples
• Rose (flower) and rose (past tense of rise);
• stalk (part of a plant) and stalk (follow/harass a person);
• left (past tense of leave) and left (opposite of right);
• bark (the sound of a dog) and bark (the skin of a tree).
In all the examples above we have theso called TRUE HOMONYMS.
There are two types of homonyms: homophones and homographs
Homophones
Same sound, different spelling 
• To, too, two;
• there, their, they’re;
• read (peruse) and reed (waterside plant).
Homographs
Different sound, same spelling (Also called in English HETERONYM)
• Bow (the front of a ship) and bow (a type of knot);
• row (to argue or an argument) and row (as in to row a boat or a row of seats – a pair of homophones).
 Other examples:
• Do you know what a buck does to does?
• I like to read. In fact, I read a book yesterday.
• Don't desert me here in the desert!
• With every number I read, my mind gets number and number.
Capitonyms are words that share the same spelling but have different meanings when capitalized (and may or may not have different pronunciations). Such words include polish (to make shiny) and Polish (from Poland); march (organized, uniformed, steady and rhythmic walking forward) and March (the third month of the year in the Gregorian Calendar). However, both polish or march at the beginning of sentences still need to be capitalized.
POLYSEME
Same sound, same spelling, different meaning
HOMONYM = unrelated in origin (they have different origins, they come from different languages or different words from the same language).
Skate (glide on ice) [From Dutch schaats, stilt, skate (taken as pl.), from Middle Dutch schaetse, from Old North French escache, stilt, perhaps of Germanic origin.]
Skate(a kind of fish) [From Middle English scate, from Old Norse skata.]
POLYSEME = related origin (they have the same origins, they come from the same language or the same word of the same language)
mouth (of a river) and mouth (of an animal). [From Old English mūth.]
Strange spellings
Most people are aware that the letter y can serve as both a consonant and a vowel. However, cwm (pronounced ‘koom,’ defined as a steep-walled hollow on a hillside) is a rare case of a word using w as a vowel, as is crwth (pronounced ‘krooth,’ a type of stringed instrument). Both words are in MWCD. They derive from the Welsh use of w as a vowel. The word cwm is commonly applied to Welsh place names; cwms of glacial origin are a common feature of Welsh geography.
Arguably, however, both these examples may belong in 'Words of Foreign Origin,’ as they are actual words in the Welsh language which have been absorbed in the local forms of English. See 'coombe' as the south-west English equivalent of 'cwm'.
The longest word without repeating any letters
‘Uncopyrightable,’ with fifteen letters, is the longest word in English in which no letter is used more than once.
Vowels in a row
There is only one common word in English that has five vowels in a row: ‘queueing.’
Consonants in a row
The word ‘knightsbridge’ has six consonants in a row, as does ‘latchstring.’
Vowels in alphabetical order
There are several words that feature all five vowels in alphabetical order, including ‘facetious’ and ‘abstemious.’  
Strange pairs or groups of words
EWE and YOU are a pair of words with identical pronunciations that have no letters in common. Another example is the pair EYE and I. However, such word pairs are often dependent on the accent of the speaker. For instance Americans might well believe that A and EH form such a pair whereas other English speakers might not.
Strange pronunciation
The most notorious group of letters in the English language, ough, can be pronounced at least nine different ways. 
‘UFF’ tough, enough 
‘OFF’ cough 
‘OW’ bough, slough 
‘OH’ though, dough
‘OR’ thought Pronounced ‘AW’ in American English
‘OO’ through 
‘UH’ thorough Pronounced ‘OH’ in American English
‘UP’ hiccough variant spelling of ‘hiccup,’, though the latter form is recommended in both British and US.
Differences in Pronunciation 
Perhaps the biggest difference between British and American English lies in the pronunciation. In British English, many vowels have different sounds and are usually not nasalized. Some important differences are: 
Stressed vowels are usually longer in American English. In packet, for example, the ‘a’ is longer. 
In British English, the ‘a’ in words like can't, class and fast is pronounced at the back of the mouth whereas in America English it's pronounced at the front of the mouth.
In British English the consonant /r/ is pronounced only before a vowel (for example in red and  bedroom). In all other cases the /r/ is silent, sounding more similar to the sound ‘ah’ (for example in  car, learn, over). In American English the /r/ is always pronounced wherever it appears in word.
In American English the ‘t’ between vowels is pronounced as a soft ‘d’ (/d/), so that writer and rider sound similar. British English speakers usually pronounce the ‘t’ as /t/.
The pot is hot - In British English, the ‘o’ in words like pot and hot is pronounced by rounding lips.
Aula 10: Transcription Process - Revision (Processo de Transcrição -  Revisão)  
Revised the concepts seen in the previous classes by means of examples and exercises. (revisou os conceitos das aulas anteriores por meio de exemplos e exercícios.);
2. developed a transcription work that involves the theoretical concepts as phonetics, transcription, stress and intonation. (desenvolveu um trabalho de transcrição que envolva os conceitos teóricos como fonética, transcrição, tonicidade e entonação.).
 Fonetica = Study the sounds of a language. For example, in Portuguese there are 26 letters (agora com o Novo Acordo Ortográfico) and 31 phonemes. In English there are 26 letters and 36 phonemes. (24 consonant sounds, 12 vowel sounds), and 8 diphthongs.
Fonologia = Study the variation of these sounds according to accents and dialects.
Consider the word might, in which there are three phonemes m-ight-t (represented as m/ai/t using the Phonetic Alphabet), changing just a single phoneme can completely change the meaning of this word, e.g. mate, m-a-te (represented as m/ei/t phonetically). 
A transcription that only indicates the different phonemes of a language is said to be phonemic. On the other hand, a transcription that indicates finer detail, including allophonic variation like the two English L's, is said to be phonetic.
The International Phonetic Association recommends that a phonetic transcription should be enclosed in square brackets ‘[ ]’. A transcription that specifically denotes only phonological contrasts may be enclosed in slashes ‘/ /’ instead. If one is in doubt, it is best to use brackets, for setting off a transcription with slashes one makes a theoretical claim that every symbol within is phonemically contrastive for the language being transcribed.
a) phonemic symbols / /
b) phonetic symbols [ ]
Phonetic transcription (or phonetic notation) is the visual representation of speech sounds (or phones). The most common type of phonetic transcription uses a phonetic alphabet, e.g., the International Phonetic Alphabet. (Narrow transcription, which includes allophones) Phonetic transcription is much more precise than phonemic transcription. A broad phonetic transcription gives some more information than phonemic transcription and a narrow transcription gives much more information than phonemic transcription.
Phonemic transcription does not represent precise phonetic qualities and therefore it is possible to use several possible symbols to represent one phoneme. We will follow the IPA consonants and use length marks for vowels, i.e. as Roach and Longman dictionary ( i.e. recognizes qualitative and quantitative differences). Phonemic transcription uses a restricted set of symbols to capture the meaningful sound contrasts of a language.
The English consonant system
A consonant is a speech sound which obstructs the flow of air through the vocal tract. Some consonants do this a lot and some do it very little: the ones that make maximum obstruction. There are 24 consonants in standard southern British English. They are plotted on the chart in the Table below.
The RP variety of British English, withtwenty vowel phonemes (standard American English has fifteen), has a relatively large vowel system, which is characteristic of Germanic languages (Swedish has even more vowels). There are seven short vowels, five long vowels and eight diphthongs. The vowels and their corresponding phonemic symbols are shown in the table below:
Accent: This word is used (rather confusingly) in two different senses: 
accent may refer to prominence given to a syllable, usually by the use of pitch. For example, in the word ‘potato’ the middle syllable is the most prominent; if you say the word on its own you will probably produce a fall in pitch on the middle syllable, making that syllable accented. In this sense, accent is distinguished from the more general term stress, which is more often used to refer to all sorts of prominence (including prominence resulting from increased loudness, length or sound quality), or to refer to the effort made by the speaker when producing a stressed syllable.
(2) accent also refers to a particular way of pronouncing: for example, you might find a number of English speakers who all share the same grammar and vocabulary, but pronounce what they say with different accents such as Scots or Cockney, or BBC pronunciation. The word  accent in this sense is distinguished from dialect, which usually refers to a variety of a language that differs from other varieties in grammar and/or vocabulary.
Approximant: (VOWEL-LIKE) Approximants are speech sounds that involve the articulators approaching each other but not narrowly enough or with enough articulatory precision to create turbulent airflow. Approximants are divided into the following two sub-classes: 
• liquids 
lateral approximants like [l] (as in less).
non-lateral approximants like (as in rest).
• semi-vowels - also known as ‘glides’. They are vowels masquerading as consonants.  
BBC pronunciation: The British Broadcasting Corporation is looked up by many people in Britain and abroad as a custodian of good English; this attitude is normally only in respect of certain broadcasters who represent the formal style of the Corporation, such as newsreaders and announcers, and does not apply to the more informal voices of people such as disc-jockeys and chat-show presenters (who may speak as they please). The high status given to the BBC’s voices relates both to pronunciation and to grammar, and there are listeners who write angry letters to the BBC or the newspapers to complain about ‘incorrect’ pronunciations such as ‘loranorder’ for ‘law and order.’
Although the attitude that the BBC has the responsibility to preserve some imaginary pure form of English for posterity is extreme, there is much to be said for using the ‘formal’ BBC accent as a model for foreign learners wishing to acquire an English accent. The old standard ‘Received Pronunciation (RP)’ is based on a very old-fashioned view of the language; the present-day BBC accent is easily accessible and easy to record and examine. It is relatively free from class-based associations and it is available throughout the world where BBC broadcasts can be received; however, in recent years, the Overseas Service of the BBC has taken to use a number of newsreaders and announcers who are not native speakers of English and have what is, by British standards, a foreign accent. The BBC nowadays uses quietly a large number of speakers from Celtic countries (particularly Ireland, Scotland and Wales), and the description of ‘BBC Pronunciation’ should not be treated as including such speakers.
Glottal stop, glottalisation: Glottal is a phonological phenomenon that occurs in informal English everyday. The phonetic symbol for a glottal stop is ʔ. This is found in many urban accents, notably London (Cockney), Leeds, Glasgow, Edinburgh and others, and is increasingly accepted among relatively highly-educated young people.
Intonation: Intonation generally refers to linguistically significant variations in pitch level across an utterance or part of an utterance. Intonation in English is an important vehicle for meaning. It helps the listener to get a clearer picture of what the speaker intends to mean. Intonation in English fulfills many overlapping functions including attitudinal, grammatical, discursive and pragmatic. However, there is still much to be learned about how we acquire and use intonation systematically and how it can be taught to second language learners.