Aula 10 Língua Inglesa - Estrutura Sintática II

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LÍNGUA INGLESA- ESTRUTURA SINTÁTICA II
Prof. Fábio Simas
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In this class you are going to:
Review the main points of this subject.
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INTRODUÇÃO DA AULA!!!
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Here we are!
This is our last class.
Now we are going to review the main points of this syntactic structure: phrasal verbs, main types and aspects; inversion cases; types of clauses and sentences; types of questions; relations of coordination and the main coordinating conjunctions, stating the difference between correlative conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs.
I hope you have enjoyed this fascinated subject and have found it very helpful and interesting.
See you!
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Phrasal verbs are part of a large group of verbs called “multi-part” or "multi-word” verbs. The preposition or adverb that follows the verb is called a particle.
Phrasal verbs and other multi-word verbs are an important part of the English language. However, they are mainly used in spoken English and informal texts. They should be avoided in academic writing where it is preferable to use a formal
verb such as “to postpone” rather than “to put off”, to congregate” rather than “to get together”, “to exit” rather than “to get out”. (QUIRK, 1985)
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One can discern at least three main types of phrasal verb constructions depending upon whether the verb combines with a preposition, a particle, or both. The words constituting the phrasal verb constructions in the following examples are in bold:
a) PARTICLE PHRASAL VERBS (VERB+PARTICLE)
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INTRANSITIVE (no direct object)
I don't like to get up. (rise from bed)
He was late because his car broke down. (cease to function) 
I was too close to the car in front so I dropped back. (drive more slowly to increase the distance between yourself and the vehicle in front.)
TRANSITIVE (direct object)
We will have to put off the meeting. (postpone)
They turned down my offer (refuse).
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Note that when a phrasal verb takes a direct object, the adverb can be put before or after the object:
Could you please pay the money back / pay back the money as soon as possible after Easter?' 
He ripped the contract up / ripped up the contract even before he had read it.‘
They frightened the deer away / frightened away the deer when they got too close to them.' 
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However, if the object is a pronoun, the adverb must be placed after the object: 
Could you please pay it back as soon as possible after Easter?
He ripped it up even before he had read it.
They frightened them away when they got too close to them.
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b) PREPOSITIONAL PHRASAL VERBS (VERB+PREPOSITION)
Prepositional verbs are made of: verb + preposition
Because a preposition always has an object, all prepositional verbs have direct objects (it means that they are always transitive). Here are some examples of prepositional verbs:
Did you talk about me? (discuss)
I can't do without TOBACCO. - I can't do without IT.   
I can't do THIS JOB.  - I can't do IT.
This is the structure: verb + particle + object (noun) or verb + particle + object (pronoun)
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Differently from the first case, this kind of phrasal verb is inseparable.
I ran into MY FRIEND at the night-club. - I ran into HIM at the night-club.
I won't stand for THIS NONSENSE. - I won't stand for IT.
She takes after HER FATHER. - She takes after HIM.
The accountant is looking over THE FIGURES - The accountant is looking over THEM
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NOTE: In pronunciation there is an important difference. In particle phrasal verbs the stressed syllable is in the particle; in prepositional verbs, the stressed syllable is in the verb.
Phrasal Verb: They called UP the man. (to telephone)
Prepositional Verb: They CALLED on the man. (to visit) 
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c) PARTICLE-PREPOSITIONAL PHRASAL VERBS (VERB + PARTICLE + PREPOSITION)
She looked up to him (respected) 
He doesn't get on with his wife. have a friendly relationship with 
We have run out of eggs. (use up, exhaust)
These phrasal verbs are ALWAYS inseparable. 
I'm looking forward to meeting John. OR I'm looking forward to meeting him. 
They didn't get on with their mother. OR They didn't get on with her. 
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When the auxiliary comes before the subject and the rest of the verb phrase follows the subject (inversion 
is usually necessary) 
Rarely had he seen such a sunset. (not Rarely he had see…) 
Inversion brings about fronting, the re-ordering of information in a sentence to give emphasis in a particular place. Often this causes an element to be postponed until later in the sentence, focusing attention on it. In formal English and in written language in particular, we use inversion to make it more emphatic or dramatic. 
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A word or group of words that express a complete idea or thought is called a sentence.
A is he teacher. (makes no sense, therefore it is not a sentence)
He is a teacher. (makes complete sense, therefore it is a sentence) 
Sentences can be nominal or verbal.
Nominal: Fire! (without verb)
Verbal: The house is on fire. (with a verb)
A verbal sentence is also called a CLAUSE. 
 
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a) ASSERTIVE OR DECLARATIVE SENTENCES
An assertive or declarative sentence is a sentence that states a fact. Such sentences are simple statements. They state, assert, or declare something. 
Tomorrow I will do it. 
She did not want to go to the movies with me. 
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b) INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES
An Interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks a question.
What do you think I should wear the pink shoes or the white sneakers? 
What happened to you yesterday? 
The major types of questions fall into three categories: 
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b.1) RHETORICAL: questions used to emphasize a point or to reinforce an idea or statement
Rhetorical questions don’t require an answer. Politicians, lecturers, priests and others may use rhetorical questions when addressing large audiences to help keep attention. (BLOSSER, 1975)
Who would not hope to stay healthy into old age?
This is not a question that requires an answer, but our brains are programmed to think about it thus keeping us more engaged with the speaker.
Another example would be: Do you think I was born yesterday?
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b.2) CLOSED OR DICHOTOMOUS: Questions Used To Check Retention Or To Focus Thinking On A Particular Point
1)YES-NO QUESTIONS  
Would you like to go out?
2)ALTERNATIVE QUESTION OR CHOICE QUESTION
Would you like beef, chicken or the vegetarian option?
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3)TAG QUESTIONS. 
Tag questions are a grammatical structure in which a declarative statement or an imperative is turned into a question by adding an interrogative fragment (the"tag").
You remembered the eggs, right? 
 4)MATCHING QUESTION TYPE 
Matching questions have a content area and a list of names or statements which must be correctly matched against another list of names or statements. For example "Match the Capital with the Country" with the two lists "Canada, Italy, Japan" and "Ottawa, Rome, Tokyo". 
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5)MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTION TYPE
The IT capital of India is
Bangalore
Mumbai
Mexico
Hyderabad
6)EMBEDDED ANSWERS OR CLOZE TEST OR GAP FILL 
A cloze test (also cloze deletion test) is an exercise, test, or assessment consisting of a portion of text with certain words removed (cloze text), where the participant is asked to replace the missing words.
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Today, I went to the ________ and bought some milk and eggs. I knew it was going to rain, but I forgot to take my ________, and ended up getting wet on the way ________.	
7)TRUE/FALSE 
In response to a question (that may include an image), the respondent selects from two options: True or False. 
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8)DECLARATIVE QUESTION
A declarative questions is a yes-no question that has the form of a declarative sentence but is spoken with rising intonation at the end. Declarative sentences are commonly used in informal speech to express surprise or ask for verification. The most likely response to a declarative question is agreement or confirmation.
Henry Rowengartner: Wow, you ate that whole thing?
Frick: Why, sure! It wasn't that much. (Rookie of the Year, 1993)
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b.3) OPEN: questions used to promote discussion or interaction. 
1) LEADING OR ‘LOADED’ QUESTIONS (FACTUAL OR DISPLAY QUESTIONS)
A leading question, usually subtly, points the respondent’s answer in a certain direction.  It suggests the expected answer. They are asked to identify a certain piece of information (called ‘wh- questions’), again with a limited set of answers. It solicits reasonably simple, straight forward answers based on obvious facts or awareness. 
What is your name? 
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1.1) Simple Bits of Information 
Who was the leader of the Free French forces during W.W.II? 
Who is the main character in Margaret Mitchell's novel, Gone With the Wind? 
1.2) Facts Organized into a Logical Order (Sequence of Events) 
What are the steps a bill goes through before it becomes a law?
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 1.3) Embedded questions
Embedded question is a question included in another question or statement. Embedded questions feel less abrupt, and so have a softening effect. For example, compare the following:
What time is it? (simple question)  
Sorry. I don't know the time. (simple statement)
1.5) Echo question
A type of direct question that repeats part or all of something which someone else has just said.
Telemachus: We're waiting for Odysseus to come home.
Antinuous: You're waiting for who to do what? (Albert Ramsdell Gurney, The Comeback, 1993)
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These questions have two or more distinct parts, each requiring an answer:
What do you think of this issue? Do you agree with it, and if not, why, and what other issues would you see as being relevant to this specific case?
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We can use clever questioning to essentially funnel the respondent’s answers – that is ask a series of questions that become more(or less)  restrictive at each step, starting with open questions and ending with closed questions or vice-versa.
Tell me about your most recent holiday. What did you see while you were there? Were there any good restaurants? Did you try some local delicacies? Did you try Clam Chowder?
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This type of question helps to get under the surface of an initial answer. It requires to go beyond the first response. 
4.1) Clarifying 
Will you please rephrase your statement? 
4.2) Increasing Critical Awareness 
What are you assuming? 
4.3) Refocusing 
If this is true, what are the implications for . . . ? 
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These are questions that set up a possible situation or problem and ask the interviewee for a possible course of action. They are questions with no right or wrong answers, but which encourage exploration of possibilities. They require both concrete and abstract thinking to arrive at an appropriate response.
How would the story have been different if John had been a tall, strong boy instead of disabled?
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Answers to these types of questions are usually within a very finite range of acceptable accuracy. These may be at several different levels of cognition -- comprehension, application, analysis, or ones where the answerer makes inferences or conjectures based on personal awareness, or on material read, presented or known.
On reflecting over the entirety of the play Hamlet, what were the main reasons why Ophelia went mad? 
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NOTE: Example of divergent questions that are both essential and divergent:  
Like many authors throughout time, Shakespeare dwells partly on the pain of love in Hamlet. Why is painful love so often intertwined with good literature. What is its never ending appeal to readers?  
Questions which require people to figure out answers rather than remember them. They require generalizations related to facts in meaningful patterns.
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Requires judgment, value or choice based upon comparing of ideas or objects to established standards. 
Which of the two books do you believe contributed most to an understanding of the Victorian era? Why?
7.1) Evaluation
7.2) Inference 
Requires inductive or deductive reasoning 
Inductive: Discovery of a general principle from a collection of specific facts. 
Deductive: Logical operation in which the worth of a generalization is tested with specific issues. 
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We have examined the qualities these world leaders have in common. What might we conclude, in general, about qualities necessary for leadership? Why? (Inductive) 
7.3 Comparison 
Requires the person to determine if ideas/objects are similar, dissimilar, unrelated, or contradictory. 
Is a mussel the same thing as a clam? 
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c) EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES
An exclamatory sentence is a sentence that expresses sudden and strong feelings, such as surprise, wonder, pity, sympathy, happiness, or gratitude.
I cannot wait to be a grown-up! 
We beat that other team good! 
d) IMPERATIVE SENTENCES
An imperative sentence is a sentence which gives a command, makes a request, or express a wish.
Do the dishes. (an order)
Please do me this favor. (a request)
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1) SIMPLE SENTENCE
A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb, and it expresses a complete thought. 
Some students like to study in the mornings.
Juan and Arturo play football every afternoon.
Alicia goes to the library and studies every day.
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2) COMPOUND SENTENCE 
A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences joined by 
a) A comma followed by a coordinating conjunction: and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so (Helpful hint: The first letter of each of the coordinators spells FANBOYS.)
The dog barked, and the cat yowled. 
Alejandro played football, so Maria went shopping.  
Alejandro played football, for Maria went shopping.
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b) A semicolon: 
The dog barked; the cat yowled. 
c) A comma, but ONLY when the simple sentences are being treated as items in a series: 
The dog barked, the cat yowled, and the rabbit chewed. 
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3) COMPLEX SENTENCE 
A complex sentence has an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses. A complex sentence always has a subordinator such as because, since, after, although, or when or a relative pronoun such as that, who, or which.
When he handed in his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last page.  
The teacher returned the homework after she noticed the error. 
The students are studying, because they have a test tomorrow.
After they finished studying, Juan and Maria went to the movies. 
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4) COMPLEX-COMPOUND SENTENCE
A compound-complex sentence is made from two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. 
1. Although I like to go camping, I haven't had the time to go lately, and I haven't found anyone to go with. 
independent clause: "I haven't had the time to go lately"
independent clause: "I haven't found anyone to go with"
dependent clause: "Although I like to go camping... " 
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2. We decided that the movie was too violent, but our children, who like to watch scary movies, thought that we were wrong. 
independent clause: "We decided that the movie was too violent" 
independent clause: "(but) our children thought that we were wrong"
dependent clause: who like to watch scary movies 
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According to the Yale Graduate Writing Center On-line Tutorial, the most common sentence structure problems are:
A SENTENCE FRAGMENT is an incomplete sentence. It usually lacks either a subject or a verb, or both, or contains only a dependent clause. 
INCORRECT: Studying very hard on weekends. 
CORRECT: Studying on weekends is very hard. 
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A RUN-ON SENTENCE is a sentence in which two or more independent clauses are written one after another with no punctuation (fused sentences) or with incorrect punctuation (comma splice). 
INCORRECT: His family went to Australia then they immigrated to Canada. (NO PUNCTUATION)
CORRECT: His family went to Australia; then they immigrated to Canada.
A RAMBLING SENTENCE is a sentence that contains several clauses connected by coordinating conjunctions such as: and, or, but, yet, for, nor, and so. 
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INCORRECT: I was happy to walk down the aisle as a bridesmaid in my sister’s wedding, but I was very embarrassed when I stumbled in the middle of the ceremony, for when I recovered, I looked up and saw my sister and I thought she was going to faint, because I could see her standing in the doorway waiting to begin her own walk down the aisle, and her face was all white, she looked like she was going to throw up.
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CORRECT: I was happy to walk down the aisle as a bridesmaid in my sister’s wedding. However, I was very embarrassed when I stumbled in the middle of the ceremony--especially when I recovered. I looked up and saw my sister and I thought she was going to faint. I could see her standing in the doorway, waiting to begin her own walk down the aisle. Her face was all white and she looked like she was going to throw up!
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A CHOPPY SENTENCE is a sentence that is too short. Although short sentences can be effective, overuse of them is considered poor style in academic writing. 
INCORRECT: Wind is an enduring source of power. Water is also an unlimited energy source. Dams produce hydraulic power. They have existed for a long time. Windmills are relatively new. 
CORRECT: Both wind and water are enduring sources of power. Dams have produced hydraulic power for a long time, but windmills are relatively new. 
 
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A SPRAWL SENTENCE is a sentence made up of many clauses with excessive subordination and coordination. 
INCORRECT: In the event that we get the contract, we must be ready by June 1 with the necessary personnel and equipment to get the job done, so with this end in mind a staff meeting, which all group managers are expected to attend, is scheduled for February 12. 
CORRECT: An all-staff meeting including all group managers is scheduled for February 12. During this meeting we should discuss the issue of personnel and equipment preparation and schedule a plan for completing the contract by June 1st, if the contract is received. 
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NON-PARALLEL STRUCTURES are parts of a sentence which are listed as a sequence, but do not follow the same grammatical or structural principle. Parallelism in writing means that each item in a list or comparison should follow the same grammatical pattern. 
By this principle, an article or a preposition applying to all the members of a series must either be used only before the first term or else be repeated before each term.
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Correlative expressions (both, and; not, but; not only, but also; either, or; first, second, third; and the like) should be followed by the same grammatical construction. Many violations of this rule can be corrected by rearranging the sentence. 
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When making comparisons, the things you compare should be couched in parallel structures whenever that is possible and appropriate.
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The elements of a syntactic term must belong to the same word class.
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A clause is a statement or a question that generally consists of a subject and a verb phrase and constitutes a complete thought. Sentences can consist of a single clause (one verb), or more than one (a compound, complex or complex-compound sentence, as seen in lesson 6).
V.1 TYPES OF CLAUSE
According to CELCE-MURCIA, 1999, there are two major types of clauses main (or independent) clause and subordinate (or dependant) clause.
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COORDINATION 
It uses coordinating conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs (with appropriate punctuation), or punctuation to combine short independent clauses into a single sentence. Coordination implies the balance of elements that are of equal semantic value in the sentence. (the coordination conjunctions are and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so)
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The football game has been postponed. We'll have to do something else. 
The football game has been postponed (independent clause); we'll have to do something else (independent clause). - The semicolon is used for coordination.
The football game has been postponed (independent clause), so we'll have to do something else (independent clause). – SO is the coordinating conjunction.
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SUBORDINATION 
It uses subordinating conjunctions or relative pronouns to transform independent clauses (main clauses or ideas) into dependent clauses (subordinate clauses or ideas). Subordinate clauses are subordinate to (and thus hold less semantic value than) the independent clause(s) to which they are linked. 
The football game has been postponed. We will have to do something else.
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The lab results confirm our diagnosis. They have been sent to the attending physician. (2 simple sentences with no coordination or subordination but note how subordination occurs below) 
The lab results that (relative pronoun) confirm our diagnosis, have been sent to the attending physician. 
Note that ‘the lab results have been sent to the attending physician’ is the independent clause and ‘that confirm our diagnosis’ is the dependant clause.
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A conjunction is a part of speech that connects (conjoins):
a) two words
Paul and David  
cold and wet  
tired but happy  
b) clauses. 
Paul plays football and David plays chess.  
I play tennis but I don't play well.  
We can eat now or we can wait till later.  
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VI.1 COORDINATION AND COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
VINCE (1994) points out that coordinating conjunctions allow us to connect independent clauses of the same level of importance in a single sentence and avoid paragraphs composed of many short, repetitive simple sentences. Seven different coordinating conjunctions allow us to create distinct relationships between clauses: AND – BUT – OR – YET – FOR – NOR -SO
It may help you remember these conjunctions by recalling that they all have fewer than four letters. Also, remember the acronym FANBOYS: For-And-Nor-But-Or-Yet-So. 
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The author gives us the following explanation on these conjunctions: (quoted in http://englishmistakeswelcome.com/conjunctions.htm and
http://srjcwritingcenter.com/clearsentcs/coor_subor/coor_sub.html)
AND (addition)
Tony drove to the golf course and played nine holes before lunch. (He drove first, played second.)
Andrew is handsome and is still single! 
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YET (exception)
Jackson sings beautifully, yet he prefers to listen to others. 
The visitors complained loudly about the heat, yet they continued to play golf every day.
BUT (opposition, contrast)
Mr. Lee seemed to waste time, but he completed all the work. 
Amanda never gets tough, but she still commands a lot of respect. 
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NOR (negative-contrast)
He is neither sane nor brilliant. 
That is neither what I said nor what I meant.
That is not what I meant to say, nor should you interpret my statement as an admission of guilt.
OR (alternative)
Clyde must like to chat or he wouldn't keep fighting with his bad connection to stay on-line. 
Iowa is the best place in the world to live, or at least Annie tries to tell us that. 
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FOR (reason)
She refuses to admit she hates her boss, for she dislikes conflict with anyone. 
John thought he had a good chance to get the job, for his father was on the company's board of trustees. 
SO (consequence)
At the ticket counter, Manny discovered he had forgotten our concert tickets, so we had to miss half the show while we went home to get them. 
So, the sheriff peremptorily removed the child from the custody of his parents.
 
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VI.2 CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
VINCE (1994) points out that correlative conjunctions are used in pairs, in order to show the relationship between the ideas expressed in different parts of a sentence. For instance, in the following example, the expression either ... or is used to indicate that the ideas expressed in the two clauses represent two alternative choices of action.
Either you should study harder, or you should take a different course.
She led the team not only in statistics but also by virtue of her enthusiasm. 
Polonius said, "Neither a borrower nor a lender be." 
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VI.3 CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS
The conjunctive adverbs such as however, moreover, nevertheless, consequently, as a result are used to create complex relationships between ideas. Here the semicolon immediately precedes the conjunctive adverb and is followed by a comma. 
I would go shopping with you; however, I am expecting company.
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LÍNGUA INGLESA- ESTRUTURA SINTÁTICA II
According to VINCE (1994, quoted in http://www.ucl.ac.uk/internet-grammar/conjunct/polysynd.htm) there are three types of coordination clauses:
Syndetic coordination
Asyndetic coordination
Polysyndetic coordination
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Conjoins are usually coordinated using one of the coordinators and, but, or or. In the following sentence, the bracketed conjoins are coordinated using and:   
He came towards me and asked for information.
This type of coordination, with a coordinator present, is called SYNDETIC COORDINATION.   
 
Coordination can also occur without the presence of a coordinator, as in the following:  
He strode into the bank, asked for information.
No coordinator is present here, but the conjoins are still coordinated. This is known as ASYNDETIC COORDINATION.   
 
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POLYSYNDETIC COORDINATION is used for effect, for instance to express continuation:  
 
This play will [run] and [run] and [run]   
He just [talks] and [talks] and [talks] 
What is the difference?
Learn the Difference when you want the style or rhythm of your writing to reflect the meaning:
a)Independent Clauses with compound sentence construction.
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The asyndetic coordination here makes the sentence sounds authoritarian. It puts emphasis on all three events. Caesar knew what he was doing: beautiful Roman rhetoric.
So . . . in the first example, we would say that this is a compound or balanced sentence construction , which demonstrates asyndetic coordination and climactic order. It also has parallel structure.
I came; I saw; I conquered. = A
I came; I saw, and I conquered= S
I came, and I as saw, and I conquered= P
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Combining Verbs and Forming Compound Predicates
She talked, talked, talked=A 
She talked, talked, and talked= S
She talked and talked and talked=P
Do you see how fast she talks in the first example? How does this differ from how she talks in the third example? It is faster than the third one, and the second one may be considered a middle speed.
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The above sentences are simple sentences with compound predicates.
Over the river, through the woods, beside the mountain(,) lies the dragon
Over the river, through the woods, and beside the mountain (,) the dragon dwells. 
Over the river and through the woods and beside the mountain(,) dwells the dragon.
Which journey seems longer? I think the third one, the polysyndetic one. The repetition of the coordination makes the rhythm slower. 
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LÍNGUA INGLESA- ESTRUTURA SINTÁTICA II
Take a look at these sites:
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/quizzes/indep_clause_quiz.htm
http://eslbee.com/cgi-bin/quiztest.cgi?shadrach
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/cgi-shl/quiz.pl/sentence_types_quiz.htm
http://esl.fis.edu/grammar/multi/satzType.htm
http://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/types-of-sentences.html
http://www.musicalenglishlessons.org/grammar/phrasalverbconstructions.htm
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LÍNGUA INGLESA- ESTRUTURA SINTÁTICA II
In this class, you:
Reviewed the main points of this subject.
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LÍNGUA INGLESA- ESTRUTURA SINTÁTICA II