LI ASPECTOS MORFOSSINTATICOS - CONTEUDO ONLINE

Prévia do material em texto

AULA 01 – ELEMENTOS NO PERÍODO SIMPLES: SUJEITO, PREDICADO E ESTRUTURA FRASAL 
 
Ao final desta aula, você será capaz de: 
1. Recognize the differences between “text”, “sentence”, “clause”, “phrase” and “word”; 
2. Learn the types of sentences elements: “subject”, “predicate”; 
3. Study the cases of subject-verb agreement. 
 
The Structure of the English Sentence 
Present the grammatical units that form a hierarchical order: 
 A text consists of one or more sentences 
 A sentence consists of one or more clauses 
 A clause consists of one or more phrases 
 A phrase consists of one or more words 
 A word consists of one or more morphemes 
In grammar, a clause is a pair of words or group of words that consists of a subject and a predicate, although in 
some languages and some types of clauses, the subject may not appear explicitly as a noun phrase. It may instead be 
marked on the verb (this is especially common in null subject languages.) 
The most basic kind of sentence consists of a single clause; more complicated sentences may contain multiple 
clauses, including clauses contained within clauses. 
Clauses are often contrasted with phrases. Traditionally, a clause was said to have both a finite verb and its subject, 
whereas a phrase either contained a finite verb but not its subject (in which case it is a verb phrase) or did not contain 
a finite verb. 
 
Seven Basic Clause Patterns 
 SV: subject + verb 
e.g The solider has recovered. 
 SVC: subject + verb + complement 
e.g I am happy. 
 SVO: subject + verb + objective 
e.g She forgot the key. 
 SVOO: subject + verb + objective + objective 
e.g He gave me a present. 
 SVOC: subject + verb + objective + complement 
e.g He calls her little sister. 
 SVA: subject + verb + adverbial 
e.g The sun rises each day. 
 SVOA: subject + verb + objective + adverbial 
e.g China is a large country with a long history. 
In the sentence "I didn't know that the dog ran through the yard," "that the dog ran through the yard" is a clause, as 
it is the sentence as a whole, while "the yard," "through the yard," "ran through the yard," and "the dog" are all phrases. 
In grammar, a phrase is a group of words that functions as a single unit in the syntax of a sentence. 
Phrases may be classified by the type of head taken by them: 
 
The house at the end of the street is a phrase. It acts like a noun. It contains the phrase at the end of the street , 
a prepositional phrase which acts like an adjective. Most phrases have a central word which defines the type of phrase. 
This word is called the head of the phrase. 
 
Setence 
A sentence is a grammatical unit of one or more words, bearing minimal syntactic relation to the words that precede 
or follow it, often preceded and followed in speech by pauses, having one of a small number of characteristic intonation 
patterns, and typically expressing an independent statement, question, request, command, etc. 
Sentences are generally characterized in most languages by the presence of a finite verb, e.g. "The quick brown 
fox jumps over the lazy dog". 
Sentence elements are the groups of words that combine together to comprise the ‘building units’ of a well-formed 
sentence. A sentence element approach to grammar assumes a top-down methodology. In other words, it starts with 
the sentence as a whole and then divides it into its functional components. 
There are Seven Types of Sentence Element: 
 Subject (Simple and Compound); 
 Predicate (Simple and Compound; Verbal, Nominal and Adjective); 
 Verb Transitivity (Intransitive, Transitive, Ditransitive, Tritransitive, Ambitransitive, Circumstantial and 
Linking); 
 Object (Direct, Indirect, Prepositional); 
 Predicative (aka Predicate complement- subject complements and object complements) ; 
 Adnominal Functors (Adnominal Adjectives and Noun Complement); 
 Adverbial (Adjunct, Obligatory, Conjunct, Disjunct). 
 
In the sentence every type of sentence element is present and is represented in this example by a single word. 
They elected him president yesterday. 
They (=subject), elected (=verb), him (=object), president (=predicative), yesterday (=adverbial) 
• She dances. (verb only predicate) 
• John reads the book. (direct object) 
• John's mother, Felicity, gave me a present. (indirect object without a preposition) 
• She listened to the radio. (prepositional object) 
• They elected him president. (predicative /object complement) 
• She met him in the park. (adverbial) 
 
Subject and Predicate 
In English, the basic order is "Subject-Verb-Object;" this means that in a simple sentence, the first noun phrase is 
the subject, and the subsequent predicate includes the verb phrase and may contain an object. This allows English 
speakers to understand that in the sentence: "The boy kicked the ball," 
The "boy" is the subject, and therefore the one doing the kicking, whereas the "ball" is the object being kicked. 
If someone wrote the sentence, "The ball kicked the boy," 
The meaning would be reversed somewhat strangely, and "Kicked the ball the boy," would immediately be 
recognized as a violation of basic syntactical order and read as nonsense. 
Every complete sentence contains two parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject is what (or whom) the sentence 
is about, while the predicate tells something about the subject. In the following sentences, the predicate is enclosed 
in braces ({}), while the subject is highlighted. 
Judy {runs}. 
Judy and her dog {run on the beach every morning}. 
In order to determine the subject of a sentence, first isolate the verb and then make a question by placing “who?'' 
or “what?'' before it - the answer is the subject. 
The audience littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and spilled popcorn. 
The verb in the above sentence is “littered.'' Who or what littered? The audience did. “The audience'' is the subject 
of the sentence. The predicate (which always includes the verb) goes on to relate something about the subject: what 
about the audience? It “littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and spilled popcorn.'' 
The relation between a subject and its predicate is sometimes called a nexus. 
 
Types of Subject and Predicate 
 
• SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SUBJECT: Simple a piece of pepperoni pizza would satisfy his hunger. 
Compound: Team pennants, rock posters and family photographs covered the boy's bedroom walls. Her uncle 
and she walked slowly through the Inuit art gallery and admired the powerful sculptures exhibited there. 
• SIMPLE AND COMPOUND PREDICATE: Simple a piece of pepperoni pizza would satisfy his hunger. 
Compound: Her uncle and she walked slowly through the Inuit art gallery and admired the powerful sculptures 
exhibited there. 
• VERBAL, NOMINAL AND ADJECTIVE PREDICATE: A Verbal Predicate (Predicado Verbal) occurs when, in a 
sentence, the linking verb is followed by a noun or a pronoun. Example: They gave him his hat. 
 
A Nominal Predicate or Predicate Noun (Predicado Nominal) is a noun phrase that functions as the main predicate 
of a sentence (there is a linking verb). Example: George III is the king of England. 
An Adjective Predicate or Predicate Adjective (Predicado Nominal) is an adjective that functions as a predicate 
(there is a linking verb). Example: Jenny is attractive. 
So, as you can see there are two types of “Predicado Nominal” in English, one (Nominal Predicate) when the 
Predicate is a noun phrase and the other one (Adjective Predicate) when the predicate is an adjective. 
NOTE: In linguistic typology, a null-subject language is a language whose grammar permits an independent clause 
to lack an explicit subject. Such a clause then is said to have a null subject. This is the case of Portuguese. 
Other languages (sometimes called non-null-subject languages)require each sentence to include a subject: this is 
the case for English. 
• "Bumped into George this morning." (I) 
• "Agreed to have a snifter to catch up on old times." (We) 
• "Told me what the two of you had been up to." (He) 
• "Went down to Brighton for the weekend?" (You) 
 
 
Look at these subjectless sentences in Portuguese and their translation in English 
• Tive um problema. - I had a problem. 
• Está chovendo. - It's raining. 
• Fez-se o possível. - We (they) did the best. 
• Quebraram uma janela. - Somebody broke a window. 
• Ontem caiu um avião. - An airplane crashed yesterday. 
• Esses dias apareceu lá na companhia um vendedor. - A salesman came to the office the other day. 
 
Even in such non-null-subject languages as English, it is standard for clauses in the imperative mood to lack explicit 
subjects; for example: "Take a break; you're working too hard.“"Shut up!” 
 
Subject – Verb Agreement 
1. Subjects and verbs must agree in number. It means that the verb agrees with HEAD of the subject. This is 
the cornerstone rule that forms the background of the concept. 
The dog growls when he is angry. The dogs growl when they are angry. 
2. Don’t get confused by the words that come between the subject and verb; they do not affect agreement. 
The dog, who is chewing on my jeans, is usually very good. 
The mayor, who has been convicted along with his four brothers on four counts of various crimes but who also 
seems, like a cat, to have several political lives, is finally going to jail. 
David, who likes basketball very much, is one of the school team members. 
3. Prepositional phrases between the subject and verb usually do not affect agreement. 
The colors of the rainbow are beautiful. 
4. When sentences start with “there” or “here,” the subject will always be placed after the verb, so care 
needs to be taken to identify it correctly. 
There is a problem with the balance sheet. Here are the papers you requested. 
NOTE: Depending on the number, we can use either a singular or a plural verb with those nouns for which both singular 
and plural forms of words are the same. For examples, 'means', 'barracks', 'crossroads', 'series', 'sheep', 'deer' etc. There 
are different means to solve the problem. This is not an efficient means to solve the problem. 
 
SPECIAL CASES: 
5. A plural verb is used when an adjective preceded by 'the' acts as a subject to represent a class of people. 
The rich are willing to help the poor. 
6. AND - plural The cow and the pig are jumping over the moon. 
NOTE: 
• AND - refer to the same person or thing – singular. Red beans and rice is my mom's favorite dish. Bread and 
cheese is my favorite for breakfast. 
• AND -If the words each, every, or no come before the subject- singular. No smoking and drinking is allowed. 
Every man and woman is required to check in. 
7. A singular verb is used when the subject is an infinitive, a gerund phrase or a noun clause. 
To reduce the price is the best way to increase takings. Standing in the water was a bad idea. Swimming in the 
ocean and playing drums are my hobbies. If the subject is compound – plural. 
To walk and to chew gum require great skill. 
8. Both heads are singular and connected by or, nor, neither/nor, /or, and not only/but also - singular. 
Jessica or Christian is to blame for the accident. 
Is either my father or my brothers responsible? 
• Both heads are plural – plural 
Dogs and cats are both available at the pound. 
• If one of them is plural and the other one is singular it agrees with the nearest: 
Are either my brothers or my father responsible? 
Either my father or my brothers are going to sell the house. 
Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the house. 
Do your sisters or your girlfriend want any pizza? 
• When two subjects are connected by 'or', 'either...or', 'neither...nor' and 'not only...but also', the 
verb should be in agreement with the second subject. 
Neither you nor I am the winner. 
9. When noun and pronoun subjects like some, half, none, more, all, etc., are followed by a prepositional 
phrase – agrees with the object: 
All of the chicken is gone. All of the chickens are gone. 
10. Expressions - with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, or as well as – the verb should 
agree with the first subject. 
The President, accompanied by his wife, is traveling to India. 
All of the books, including yours, are in that box. 
I, as well as my parents, am going to immigrate to Singapore. 
11. Anyone, everyone, someone, no one, nobody – singular 
Everyone has done his or her homework. 
Somebody has left her purse. 
• All, some - singular or plural depending on what they're referring to. (Is the thing referred to 
countable or not?): Some of the beads are missing. Some of the water is gone. 
• None – it can be either singular or plural; it often doesn't matter whether you use a singular or a 
plural verb: None of you claims responsibility for this incident? None of you claim responsibility for this 
incident? 
• Unless something else in the sentence determines its number. None of the students have done their 
homework. (In this last example, the word their precludes the use of the plural verb. 
Everyone and everybody - singular = Everybody is here. "Everyone has finished his or her homework. 
Each – singular = Each of the students is responsible for doing his or her work in the library. Each is responsible. 
12. After the words 'a lot of', 'most of the', 'some of', 'the majority of', 'all of', 'none of', etc, either singular or 
plural, depending on whether a countable or an uncountable noun is used. 
Most of the students are talking about their new teacher. 
A lot of trouble was caused by your little sister. 
NOTE: A plural verb is used when 'a number of' and 'a group of' are followed by plural nouns or pronouns. A number of 
F.5 students are worried about their future. 
13. Units of measurement - singular 
Four quarts of oil was required to get the car running. 
• Fractional expressions such as half of, a part of, a percentage of, a majority of are sometimes singular 
and sometimes plural, depending on the meaning. 
A large percentage of the older population is voting against her. 
A large percentage of the voters are voting against her 
Two-fifths of the troops were lost in the battle. 
Two-fifths of the vineyard was destroyed by fire. 
Forty percent of the students are in favor of changing the policy. 
Forty percent of the student body is in favor of changing the policy. 
• Sums and products of mathematical processes are expressed as singular and require singular verbs. 
Two and two is four. 
Four times four divided by two is eight. 
• The expression "more than one" (oddly enough) takes a singular verb: "More than one student has tried 
this." 
14. Collective nouns like herd, senate, class, crowd, etc. - singular 
The herd is stampeding. 
The team runs during practice. 
The committee decides how to proceed. 
15. DOLLARS - When talking about an amount of money, it requires a singular verb, but when referring to the 
dollars themselves, a plural verb is required. 
Five dollars is a lot of money.Dollars are often used instead of rubles in Russia. 
16. Words such as glasses, pants, pliers, clothes, goods, savings, pyjamas, spectacles, and scissors - plural 
My glasses were on the bed. 
My pants were torn. 
• Unless they're preceded the phrase pair of (in which case the word pair becomes the subject – possible 
for some of them). 
A pair of plaid trousers is in the closet. 
17. Uncountable nouns such as 'news', 'advice', 'information', 'knowledge', 'rubbish', 'furniture', etc, must be 
followed by singular verbs. 
The furniture is made in Sweden. 
NOTE: To make these uncountable nouns countable, we can use some phrases like 'a piece of','pieces of', 'a heap of', 
'heaps of', etc. Peter gives me these pieces of information which are very useful for the project. 
18. 'Economics', 'mathematics', 'physics', 'gymnastics', 'politics', ‘measles’ crisis', 'apparatus 'etc. - singular 
Mathematics is what I am weak in. 
Measles is a dangerous disease for pregnant women. 
• However, a plural verb is used when these words are preceded by possessive adjectives or articles. 
Her politics are very radical. 
19. The names of sports teams that do not end in "s" will take a plural verb: 
The Miami Heat have been looking … , 
The Connecticut Sun are hoping that new talent … . 
20. Titles of books, movies, novels, etc. - singular 
The Burbs is a movie starring Tom Hanks. 
21. If your sentence compounds a positive and a negative subject and one is plural, the other singular, the 
verb should agree with the positive subject. 
The department members but not the chair have decided not to teach on Valentine's Day. 
It is not the faculty members but the president who decides this issue. 
It was the speaker, not his ideas, that has provoked the students to riot. 
22. There are a number of words like government, e.g. family, company, team, staff, committee, audience, 
jury, department, committee, which can be followed by a singular verb or a plural verb. It depends on how 
you perceive the noun, whether as a unit, or as a group of individuals. Formality also comes into it. 
Generally it would be more formal to use a singular verb agreement (as the Queen does). 
The average family eats three portions of fruit a day. (the group ‘family’) 
My family are great lovers of fruit and vegetables. (one sees a family as individuals) 
The family is going to have a picnic this Sunday. (The group 'family' in this case is considered as a single unit.) 
The staff work in a co-operative manner. ('Staff' in this case involves every member of the group.) 
NOTE: Are" is correct when referring to police in general because 'are' is plural; use is when referring to a single person 
or a specific department. 
The police are blocking off the street where the accident occurred. 
A police officer is getting information from the neighbors. 
The police department is at the corner of First and Main streets. 
 
Notional Agreement 
Agreement (or concord) of verbs with their subjects and of pronouns with their antecedent nouns on the basis of 
meaning rather than grammatical form. 
Examples and Observations: 
• "I know that our Government are letting our troops down, big time." (Jacqui Janes to Prime Minister Gordon 
Brown, quoted by Philip Webster, "Emotional Gordon Brown on Defensive." The Times, Nov. 10, 2009) 
• "None of them were in court to hear the judges uphold their appeal." (Steven Erlanger, "Terror Convictions 
Overturned in France." The New York Times, Feb. 24, 2009) 
• "Over on England's south coast, the surfers of Bournemouth are just as keen as those in Cornwall, but suffer one 
big disadvantage: the coast gets very poor-quality waves. But Bournemouth borough council were not prepared 
to let this prevent them from encouraging surfers, and their wallets, to visit." (Alf Alderson, "Could the Perfect 
Wave for Surfing Be Artificial--and in Bournemouth?" The Guardian, Nov. 9, 2009) 
• "When mathematical equations are pronounced as English sentences, the verb is usually in the singular: Two 
plus two is (or equals) four. By the same token, subjects containing two noun phrases joined by plus are usually 
construed as singular: The construction slowdown plus the bad weather has made for a weak market. This 
observation has led some to argue that in these sentences, plus functions as a preposition meaning 'in addition 
to.' . . . It makes more sense to view plus in these uses as a conjunction that joins two subjects into a single 
entity requiring a single verb by notional agreement.“ (One Hundred Words Almost Everyone Confuses and 
Misuses. Houghton, 2004) 
Also Known As: notional concord, semantic agreement, agreement ad sensum, logical agreement, synesis, 
constructio ad sensum 
 
Proximity Agreement 
In applying the principle of subject-verb agreement (or concord), the practice of relying on the noun that is closest 
to the verb to determine whether the verb is singular or plural. See also: 
"In addition to grammatical concord and notional concord, the principle of proximity sometimes plays a part in 
subject-verb agreement. This principle is the tendency, especially in speech, for the verb to agree with the closest 
(pro)noun, even when that (pro)noun is not the head of the subject noun phrase. For example: 
Do you think [any of them] are bad Claire? [Not one of the people who's auditioned] were up to par." (Douglas Biber 
et al. Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Pearson, 2002) 
"Grammarians have also observed that that certain constructions 'sound right' to educated native speakers of English, 
even though the constructions defy formal or notional agreement. Such expressions exemplify the principle of attraction 
(or proximity), under which the verb tends to take the form of the closest subject: 
For those who attended the second day of the annual meeting, there was an early morning panel and afternoon 
workshops. 
But as [Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage] cautions, 'Proximity agreement may pass in speech and other 
forms of unplanned discourse; in print it will be considered an error.'" (Amy Einsohn, The Copyeditor's Handbook. Univ. 
of California Press, 2006) 
Also Known As (aka): proximity principle, agreement by proximity, attraction, blind agreement, principal of 
attraction. 
 
LET’S PRACTICE 
Select the alternative that completes the following sentences: 
I. Either the physicians in this hospital or the chief administrator ____ going to have to make a decision. 
II. _____ my boss or my sisters in the union going to win this grievance? 
III. Some of the votes __________ to have been miscounted. 
Explanation: c) is – is – seem 
When subjects are connected by or, the subject closer to the verb (which is, in this case, singular) determines the 
number of the verb. 
The subject closer to the verb (my boss) determines the number of the verb. 
Some is the subject in this sentence; it is plural because the word votes makes it a countable indefinite pronoun. 
 
Select the alternative that completes the following sentences: 
I. The tornadoes that tear through this county every spring _____ more than just a nuisance. 
II. Everyone selected to serve on this jury _____ to be willing to give up a lot of time. 
III. Kara Wolters, together with her teammates, _________ a formidable opponent on the basketball court. 
Explanation: c) are – has – presents 
The subject is tornadoes. You were not confused by the words and phrases that came between the subject and its verb. 
Everyone is a singular word. 
The subject is not compounded by phrases such as along with, together with, and as well as. 
 
Select the alternative that completes the following sentences: 
I. He seems to forget that there _______ things to be done before he can graduate. 
II. There ___ to be some people left in that town after yesterday's flood. 
III. Some of the grain __________ to be contaminated. 
Explanation: d) are – have – appears 
The subject (things, in this case) comes after the verb in constructions that begin with here or there. 
The subject is people, which is plural, and that determines the verb (not the word there). 
Some is the subject of this sentence and, since it is not really countable (you can't count the grain), it is singular. 
 
 
AULA 02 – ELEMENTOS NO PERÍODO SIMPLES: VERBO, OBJETO E COMPLEMENTOS 
ESTRUTURA FRASAL E TRANSITIVIDADE 
 
Ao final desta aula, você será capaz de: 
a) Study verb transitivity; 
b) learn the types of sentences elements: “object”, “predicative”,“adnominal functors” and “adverbial”. 
 
The Structure Of The English Sentence 
In linguistics, transitivity is a property of verbs that when relates to whether a verb can take direct objects and how 
many such objects a verb can take. 
Traditional grammar makes a binary distinction between intransitive verbs that cannot take a direct object (such as fall 
or sit in English) and transitive verbs that take one direct object (such as throw, injure, kiss in English). 
In practice, many languages (including English) interpret the category more flexibly, allowing: ditransitive verbs, verbs 
that have two objects; or even ambitransitive verbs, verbs that can be used as both a transitive verb and an intransitive 
verb. Further, some verbs may be idiomatically transitive, while, technically, intransitive. This may be observed in the 
verb walk in the idiomatic expression To walk the dog. 
Some verbs can be either transitive verbs or intransitive verbs, depending on the context: 
• Direct Object - I hope the Senators win the next game. 
• No Direct Object - Did we win? 
 
Types of Verbs: 
1. Intransitive verbs (no object) 
Some verbs do not require any further elements to make their meaning complete: although there may be further 
elements in the sentence, these are not essential. 
This is called intransitive complementation. It involves verbs such as: appear, arrive, come, cough, decrease, die, 
disappear, drown, fall, go, happen, lie (tell an untruth), matter, rain, rise, sneeze, snow, stop, swim, work. 
Also note that the verb be, when followed by an adverbial expressing place or time, is used as an intransitive verb. 
He is in London at the moment. 
 
2. Transitive verbs (one object) (aka Monotransitive verb) 
Mr. Jenner breaks the windows. 
The verb to break is monotransitive, and requires one object. It would be ungrammatical to say Mr. Jenner breaks, 
unless the verb to break conveys a different meaning. 
NOTE: Most verbs can be used both as Transitive and as Intransitive verbs. It is, therefore, better to say that a verb 
is used Transitively or Intransitively rather than that it is Transitive or Intransitive. 
 
 
 
A few verbs in common use are distinguished as Transitive or Intransitive by their spelling, the Transitive being causative 
forms of the corresponding Intransitive verbs. 
 
3. Ditransitive verb (two objects) 
According to certain linguistics considerations, these objects may be called direct and indirect, or primary and 
secondary. English has a number of generally ditransitive verbs, such as give and grant, and many transitive verbs that 
can take an additional argument (commonly a beneficiary or target of the action), such as pass, read, bake, etc.: 
He gave Mary ten dollars. 
He passed Paul the ball. 
Jean read him the books. 
She is baking him a cake. 
English grammar allows for these sentences to be written alternately with a preposition (to or for): 
He gave ten dollars to Mary. 
He passed the ball to Paul. 
Jean read the books to/for him. 
She is baking a cake for him., etc. 
The latter form is grammatically correct in every case, but in some dialects the former (without a preposition) is 
considered ungrammatical, or at least unnatural-sounding, when both objects are pronouns (as in He gave me it). 
Sometimes one of the forms is perceived as wrong for idiosyncratic reasons fixed in or the verb simply dictates one 
of the patterns and excludes the other: 
Give a break to me (grammatical, but always phrased Give me a break) 
He introduced Susan his brother (usually phrased He introduced his brother to Susan) 
 
4. Tritransitive verb 
It takes four arguments; one of it is a prepositional phrase: I’ll trade you this bicycle for your binoculars. Or a “that 
clause”: I bet you a pound that he has forgotten. Subject + two objects + that clause or prepositional clause. 
 
5. Ambitransitive verbs (one or no object) 
Miss Gold eats a banana every morning. 
The verb to eat is ambitransitive and permits, but do not requires, an object. The sentence Miss Gold eats every 
morning is grammatically correct. 
 
6. Circumstantial verbs (an object and an adverb) 
John put the book on the shelf. 
The verb to put requires an object and an adverb. Neither John put on the shelf, nor John put the book are 
grammatical sentences, at least in English. 
 
7. Linking verbs 
A linking verb connects a subject to a predicate complement (predicative): 
Example: Some of us thought that the play was very good. 
 
NOTE: COMMON TEST PREP POINTS 
It is extremely important to be able to understand whether a verb is transitive or intransitive. For many verbs in class, 
if your teacher thinks that the verb is hard to understand, we will ask something like this: T: Do we cry or do we cry 
something? Then, the student should respond something like this: S: Just cry. In this case, we would say that cry is 
intransitive. 
BE CAREFUL!: One reason that understanding this point is so important is that it is very easy to become confused about 
whether a verb is transitive or intransitive. Consider the following example: I went to the store yesterday. (Is went 
transitive or intransitive?). Many people, including native speakers, will tell you that went is transitive since we have 
many words after went. However, to say that went is transitive would be a BIG mistake! 
So, what are all those other words after went? Well, first of all, to the store is a prepositional phrase. Second, 
yesterday is an adverb. 
One more thing: just to make life easier, instead of saying transitive and intransitive all the time, we will say vi 
(since that's what most dictionaries say) if the verb is intransitive and vt (again, since that's what most dictionaries say) 
if the verb is transitive. 
 
• Typically, linking verbs are a form of the verb TO BE: IS, WAS, AM, ARE, WERE, BEEN 
Examples: 
The crew's mission is to create the best topographic map of Earth. 
The solution was judges who would mete out longer prison sentences. 
Some see this as a societal commitment to imprisonment on a scale that would have been unthinkable a quarter 
of a century ago in this, or any other, country. 
• BUT THE VERB "TO BE " DOES NOT ALWAYS MEAN A LINKING VERB. Forms of the verb TO BE can act as auxiliary 
verbs for transitive, intransitive and linking verb. The auxiliary verb is not linking but rather helping the main 
verb. 
Examples: 
Juvenile crime has been plummeting since 1995. (auxiliary verb to the lexical verb plummeting (intransitive verb) 
Nyoko was crossing a bridge when the earthquake hit. (auxiliary verb to the lexical verb crossing. (transitive verb) 
Margaret Ann was feeling tired.(auxiliary verb to the lexical verb feeling. (linking verb) 
• The verb TO BE can act as an intransitive verb when what follows it indicates location rather than state of 
being. This intransitive form of the verb TO BE is easily identified by the prepositional phrase that follows it. 
Examples: 
Changes in the criminal statutes are behind the staggering increase in the incarceration rate. (BEHIND signifies 
location, not state of being. Therefore, the verb is intransitive.) 
Professor Freelove has been in a coma since the car accident. (IN A COMA indicates a location, not state of being. 
Although COMATOSE is a state of being, being IN A COMA is not. Therefore, the verb is intransitive.) 
Lucia's books are on the refrigerator. (ON THE REFRIGERATOR indicates a location, not state of being. Therefore, 
the verb is intransitive.) 
• The verb TO BE is not a linking verb when is acts as part of a verb presented in passive voice. It is part of a 
transitive verb. 
Examples: 
When Clinton was elected president, some groups had high hopes he would champion their cause. (ELECTED is the 
main verb. It is weakened by the use of WAS and the failure to make a subject dothe action, but WAS is not a 
linking verb. It is part of a transitive verb.)Umberto is coached by a former Olympic champion. (COACHED is the 
main verb. It is weakened by the use of IS and by not making the champion coach Umberto. It is part of a transitive 
verb.) 
 
• Some verbs may be linking or not, depending on the context. Let’s have a look at some of them: 
1. LOOK 
Linking: The monkey looked hungry. 
(Hungry monkey or monkey is hungry) In this sentence looked is a linking verb. 
Action - Transitive: The monkey looked for food. "For food" is a prepositional phrase and it must be omitted 
before checking. The sentence remaining after omitting the prepositional phrase is "The monkey looked". There 
is no noun or adjective to link monkey to. Looked is an action verb in this sentence. 
2. TASTE 
Linking: The soup tasted good. 
Check: soup is good, good soup, soup = good 
Action - Transitive: I tasted the soup. 
Check: I am the soup (no), soup am I (no) I = soup (no) 
3. GROW 
Linking: He grew tired of walking. 
“Of walking” is a prepositional phrase and not included in the check. You should omit the prepositional phrase 
to check: "He grew tired". 
Check: He is tired, tired is he, he = tired. 
Action - Transitive: He grew tomatoes here. 
4. APPEAR 
Linking: Mother appeared happy at her party. 
Omit the prepositional phrase, "at her party". Now the sentence reads, "Mother appeared happy." 
Check: mother is happy, happy mother, mother = happy. 
Action - Intransitive: Mother appeared quietly in the room. 
Omit the prepositional phrase, "in the room". The sentence now reads: Mother appeared quietly. Quietly is an 
adverb, omit the adverb. "Mother appeared." There is no noun or adjective to link mother to, so appeared is 
used as an action verb. 
5. SOUND 
Linking: The bugle sounds loud. 
Check: bugle is loud, loud bugle, bugle = loud (yes, yes, and yes) 
Action – Intransitive: The bugle sounded loudly. 
Check: Bugle is loudly. (no) 
Loudly describes the verb. It answers the question How? Loudly is an adverb, omit the adverb. That leaves the 
sentence "The bugle sounded." 
6. TURNED 
Linking: The nation's mood turned sour. 
Check: The subject is not engaged in an action. TURNED links MOOD and a state of being: SOUR. 
Action - Transitive: The judge turned the pages quickly. 
Check: The subject was engaged in an action (TURNED) and that action transferred to an object (PAGES). 
Action - Intransitive: The lawyer turned suddenly toward the back of the courtroom. 
Check: The subject was engaged in an action (TURNED) and that action was done in a particular way (SUDDENLY) 
but not to someone or something. 
 
 
Other Considerations 
I. IMPERSONAL VERBS 
In linguistics, an impersonal verb is a verb that cannot take a true subject, because it does not represent an action, 
occurrence, or state-of-being of any specific person, place, or thing. The term weather verb is also sometimes used, 
since such weather-indicating verbs as to rain are usually impersonal. 
In English, an impersonal verb always takes an impersonal pronoun (it in English), as its syntactical subject: It 
snowed yesterday. Verbs meaning existence may also be impersonal. "There are (some) books." / "There is a book." 
Some linguists consider the impersonal subject of weather verbs to be "dummy pronouns", while others interpret them 
differently. 
 
II. UNACCUSATIVE AND ERGATIVE VERBS 
In linguistics, an unaccusative verb is an intransitive verb whose subject is not a (semantic) agent; that is, it does 
not actively initiate, or is not actively responsible for, the action of the verb. 
An unergative verb is an intransitive verb distinguished semantically by having an agent subject. For example, in 
English, run, talk and resign are unergative verbs (while fall and die are unaccusative). 
He ran towards the tree yesterday. 
He resigned the Presidency. 
Joan fell on the street yesterday. 
Jimmy died last month. 
Many unaccusatives alternate with a corresponding transitive construction where the unaccusative subject appears 
in direct object position: 
The ice melted. ≈ The sun melted the ice. 
The window broke. ≈ The golf ball broke the window. 
Unaccusative past participles can be used as nominal modifiers with active meaning, while unergative past participles 
cannot: 
• unaccusative: the melted snow, the departed guests, the fallen soldiers. 
• unergative: the shouted victim, the slept child, the hesitated leader. 
 
III. RAISING VERBS 
Other examples of semantically empty it are found with raising verbs in "unraised" counterparts. For example: It 
seems that John loves coffee. (corresponding "raised" sentence: John seems to love coffee.) 
 
Objects 
In English there are three kinds of objects: direct, indirect and prepositional. 
1. Direct Object: The advertising executive drove a flashy red Porsche. 
2. Indirect Object: I gave her some flowers. I gave some flowers to her. 
3. Prepositional Object: 
I have my doubts about this method – to have doubts about. 
I’m not at all content with this computer – to be content with. 
I don’t like listening to him – to listen to. 
I warned her for the consequences. – to warn for. 
I gave the book to Mary – to give something to someone. 
See the difference between an indirect object and a prepositional object: 
• Paul won the prize. ("the prize" is a direct object.) Paul gave Mary the letter. ("Mary" is an indirect object. 
"letter" is a direct object.) Paul gave the letter to Mary. ("Mary" is prepositional object "to" and is an indirect 
object. "letter" is again a direct object.) 
So, with an object preceded by a preposition can be replaced by a pronoun and be placed in front of the direct 
object or can be used without the preposition in front of the direct object, it is an indirect object or a prepositional 
object. If it cannot be replaced by a pronoun, it is a prepositional object, only. The sentence “I gave the book to Mary” 
can be written “I gave Mary the book” or, depending on the context, “I gave her the book”. In this case “to Mary” is 
the indirect object and also the prepositional object. In the sentence “I warned her for the consequence”, “for the 
consequences” cannot be placed before “her” (direct object), so, it’s a prepositional object. 
A pro-drop language (from "pronoun-dropping") is a language in which certain classes of pronouns may be omitted 
when they are in some sense pragmatically inferable (the precise conditions vary from language to language, and can 
be quite intricate). The phenomenon of "pronoun-dropping" is also commonly referred to in linguistics as zero or null 
anaphora. (this is the case of Portuguese). 
English is considered a non-pro-drop language. It means that pronouns and nouns cannot be omitted if the verb 
requires an object. This pronoun is called dummy pronoun (formally expletive pronoun or pleonastic pronoun). 
Example: He ordered a cheeseburger, and even though it took them a while to, he did get some french fries with it. 
So, in Portuguese I can say: Eu gosto quando chove. 
In English, as the verb “to like” requires an object, we have to say: I like it when it rains. 
Another example:Portuguese: Eu entreguei para ela. English: I delivered her the book. 
4. Dummy objects are sometimes used to transform transitive verbs to transitive light verbs form (a light verb is 
a verb that has little semantic content of its own and it therefore forms a predicate with some additional 
expression, which is usually a noun. 
5. Common verbs in English that can function as light verbs are do, give, have, make, take, etc.) 
e.g. do → do it, "to engage in sexual intercourse"; 
make → make it, "to achieve success"; 
get → get it, "to comprehend". 
6. Prepositional objects are similar, e.g. with it, "up to date"; out of it, "unconscious" or "dazed". All of thesephrases, of course, can also be taken literally. He ordered a cheeseburger, and even though it took them a 
while to make it, he did get some french fries with it. 
7. Double Object Verbs 
a) Some verbs have two objects –an indirect object and a direct object: 
 
These clauses have the structure: V + N (indirect object) + N (direct object). 
b) We can use a prepositional phrase with to or for with an indirect object: 
 
These clauses have the structure : V + N (direct object) + Prepositional phrase (indirect object). 
 
c) Common verbs with for and an indirect object are: 
 
Examples: 
They booked a table for me at the restaurant. 
We made toys for all the children. 
 
d) Common verbs with to and an indirect object are: 
 
Examples: 
He gave his programme to the man sitting next to him. 
They sent Christmas cards to all their customers. 
 
e) If the indirect object is a long phrase we normally use to or for: 
Examples: 
He showed his ticket to the policeman standing by the door. 
We kept something to eat and drink for all the people who arrived late. 
 
f) If the indirect object is a pronoun we normally use the N + V + N + N pattern: 
Examples: 
I poured him another drink. 
Their mother read them another story. 
 
Take a look at the following site to learn more about the differences between TO and FOR: 
 
 
 
Identifying Predicate Structures: 
1) Identify the subject and predicate 
2) Determine whether the verb is a linking or action verb: 
What type of verb is this? 
 Linking: Predicate Nominative and Predicate Nominative 
 Action: Direct Object and Indirect Object 
 
COGNATE OBJECT OR COGNATE ACCUSATIVE. 
Intransitive Verbs sometimes take after them an Object akin or similar in meaning to the Verb. Such an Object is 
called the Cognate Object or Cognate Accusative. (Latin Cognatus, akin.) 
• I have fought a good fight. 
• He laughed a hearty laugh. 
• I dreamt a strange dream. 
• He sleeps the sleep of the just. 
• Let me die the death of the righteous. 
• She sighed a deep sigh. 
• She sang a sweet song. 
• He ran a race. 
• Aurangzeb lived the life of an ascetic. 
Notice that while in Portuguese these verbs are transitive, in English they remain intransitive. 
 
ADVERBIAL OBJECT OR ADVERBIAL ACCUSATIVE 
A noun used adverbially to modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb denoting time, place, distance, weight, value 
etc, is called an Adverbial Object or Adverbial Accusative, and is said to be in the Accusative Case adverbially; as, 
• He held the post ten years. 
• I can't wait a moment longer. 
• He swam a mile. 
• He weighs seven stone. 
• The watch cost fifty rupees. 
Predicative (Aka Predicate Complement- Subject Complements and Object Complements) 
 
SUBJECT COMPLEMENT 
He seems nice. 
Bob is a postman. 
The driver is tired. 
 
OBJECT COMPLEMENT 
We painted the door white. 
They elected him president. 
That shrimp dish made him sick. 
They called her a thief. 
I consider him my friend. 
The judge ruled her out of order. 
I consider the driver tired. 
Paint it black. 
In addition to the transitive verb and the intransitive verb, there is a third kind of verb called a linking verb (copula). 
The word (or phrase) which follows a linking verb is called not an object, but a predicative. The predicate can be: 
• subject complement (predicativo do sujeito) 
• object complement (predicativo do objeto) 
Let’s remind the predicate. A reminder of basic sentence structure 
_subject_|_predicate_ 
The two diagrams below are the basic sentence structure of linking verbs. 
_subject_|_linking verb_\_predicate noun_ 
_subject_|_linking verb_\_predicate adjective_ 
• A predicate noun is located in the predicate and it renames the subject. 
• A predicate adjective is located in the predicate and it describes the subject. 
 
Adnominal Functors 
Adnominal functors are functors for modifications exclusively modifying (semantic) nouns. They can be of two types: 
1) ADNOMINAL ADJECTIVES: (adjuntos adnominais) 
in the Lewinsky case 
notion of time 
the Tate gallery 
a box of paper 
one half of the cake 
harsh weather 
five children 
a vessel with a displacement of 9700 tons 
2) NOUN COMPLEMENT (complemento nominal) 
He is interested in you. 
Notice that when there is a noun complement, it is demanded by the nominal phrase. Who is interested, is interested 
in someone or something. 
 
Adverbials 
The subject, verb phrase, objects and predicatives form the core of a sentence. Any other element is adverbial; it 
concerns the circumstances of the sentence (when, where) or relates the sentence to something else. There are four 
adverbials in the sentence below. 
Lorna arrived (1)here (2)yesterday (3)by car (4)despite the rain. 
Adverbials may always be added to a sentence, but some main verbs require adverbials for a well formed-sentence, as 
in the following example: Lorna put the book onto the table. 
As sentence elements, there are four main TYPES OF ADVERBIALS: 
1) Adverbial adjunct – integral to sentence meaning and can be removed leaving a well-formed sentence. 
Mr. Bibby saw her yesterday. 
2) Obligatory adverbial – integral to sentence meaning but cannot be removed. 
They treated her well. 
3) Adverbial conjunct - linking the sentence to another, and is removable. 
You thought it was true; however, I thought otherwise. 
4) Adverbial disjunct - making a comment on the sentence 
Stupidly, I answered the question. 
 
Kinds Of Adverbs 
1) Adverbs of Manner 
She moved slowly and spoke quietly. 
2) Adverbs of Place 
She has lived on the island all her life. 
She still lives there now. 
3) Adverbs of Frequency 
She takes the boat to the mainland every day. 
She often goes by herself. 
4) Adverbs of Time 
She tries to get back before dark. 
It's starting to get dark now. 
She finished her tea first. 
She left early. 
5) Adverbs of Purpose 
She drives her boat slowly to avoid hitting the rocks. 
She shops in several stores to get the best buys. 
 
 
 
AULA 03 – ELEMENTOS NO PERÍODO SIMPLES: VERBO, OBJETO E COMPLEMENTOS 
ESTRUTURA FRASAL E TRANSITIVIDADE 
 
Ao final desta aula, você será capaz de: 
1) Recognize the differences between "lexical" and "auxiliary" verbs; 
2) learn the differences between "mood", "tense" and "aspect". 
 
Verbs 
A verb is a word that expresses an action (to run), occurrence (to happen), or state of being (to appear). It is one 
of the nine parts of speech in English grammar. Non-action verbs are also referred to as linking or stative verbs, such 
as to be, to seem, to sound. 
Verbs comprise the third largest group of words in English (about 10%) and appear in any sentence as a major 
mandatory element tying the subject and predicate together. Verbs indicate time (past, present, future) and are used 
in English in relatively many verb tenses. The verb can be thought of as the center, heart, or anchor of an English 
sentence. 
 
 
English verbs have 6 principal parts with which other forms are derived using verb auxiliaries: base/stem, simple 
past/preterit, past participle, present participle and the infinitive (the “name” of the verb). 
Some also include the third person singular in the present tense as a principle part, as it is the only verb form that 
kept its inflectional ending in Modern English. 
 
 
 
Tense – Aspect - Mood 
Tense–aspect–mood, commonly abbreviated tam and also called tense–modality–aspect or tma, is the grammatical 
system in a language that covers the expression of tense (location in time), aspect (fabric of time – a single block of 
time, continuous flow of time, or repetitive occurrence), and mood or modality (degree of necessity, obligation, 
probability, ability). 
Although some grammars identify anywhere between twelve and sixteenEnglish tenses, the nineteen finite, or 
conjugated, verb forms in English express more than just tense. Being more precise, English has: 
• Two tenses: present and past; 
• four aspects: simple, progressive, perfect, perfect-progressive; 
• four moods: indicative, subjunctive, conditional and imperative. 
 
Past Tenses 
 
1) The Simple Past 
The Simple Past states that an action or situation was finished in the absolute past and bears no connection with 
the present. The point of time in the past in which the action occurred is well defined. Most Simple Past verbs end in 
ed (regular verbs). 
Others very useful verbs have different Simple Past forms and must be learned (irregular verbs). 
I visited my uncle in Paris last summer. 
2) The Present Perfect Simple 
The Present Perfect Simple has quite a few grammar rules you need to follow, as it can be regarded as both a 
present and past tense. As a past tense, it states that an action has been completed in the past, but without reference 
to the time of occurrence. The action may have an influence on the current state of affairs in the present. 
This tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb have (have/has) with the past participle form of the verb. 
I have already done my homework (so now I am free to go out). 
3) The Past Progressive 
The Past Progressive describes an action which went on during a stretch of time in the past and finished. Other 
actions may have happened at the same time (short and immediate or ongoing). This tense is formed by using the verb 
be (was/were) with the present participle form of the verb ending in ing. 
While I was walking down the street yesterday, I suddenly met my boss. 
4) The Past Perfect Simple 
The Past Perfect Simple states that an action was completed in the past before another point in time or action in 
the past (the latter expressed in the Past Simple), or that the action happened in the very distant past. This tense is 
formed by using the auxiliary verb have (had) with the past participle form of the verb. 
By the time Dona had saved enough money, she bought a new car. 
5) The Past Perfect Progressive 
The Past Perfect Progressive describes an ongoing action that began in the past, continued incessantly, and was 
completed before another point in time in the past or before another more recent past action. This tense is formed by 
using the auxiliary verb have (had) together with the auxiliary verb been and the present participle form of the verb 
ending with ing. We had been walking the streets of Paris for hours until we finally took a break. 
Future Tenses 
1. The Future Simple states or predicts that an action or situation will take place in the future. This tense is 
formed by using the auxiliary verb will with the base form of the verb. Under “Future Simple”, we can put three 
more future forms that convey different nuances in meaning, as the following examples show: 
a. I think we will eat out tomorrow evening [unsure future prediction, future with will] 
b. We are going to eat out tomorrow evening. [sure and intended future plans, future with be going to] 
c. We are eating out tonight. [arrangement for the near future, using the Present Progressive] 
d. Our dinner at Chez Paul starts at 20:00 tomorrow evening, so be there on time! [preset future schedule, 
using the Present Simple] 
2. The Future Progressive describes an ongoing action that will be in process around a point of time in the future. 
This tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb will together with the auxiliary verb be and the present participle 
form of the verb ending in ing. 
Tomorrow at 12 o’clock I will be giving a lecture at the university so I will not be answering any calls. 
3. The Future Perfect Simple states that a future action will be completed before a point in time or before 
another action in the future. This tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb will together with the auxiliary 
verb have (have) and the past participle form of the verb. 
Dona will have graduated from university by the end of June. 
4. The Future Perfect Progressive describes an ongoing future action that will continue incessantly and be 
completed before a point in time or before another action in the future. This tense is formed by using the 
auxiliary verb will, the auxiliary verb have (have), and the auxiliary verb been together with the present 
participle form of the verb ending in ing. 
 
Aspect 
Aspect is the expression of the temporal structure of an action or state. Aspect in English expresses ongoing actions 
or states with or without distinct end points. English has four aspects: simple, progressive, perfect, and perfect-
progressive. 
1. THE PROGRESSIVE (OR CONTINUOUS): 
Expresses incomplete or ongoing actions or states at a specific time. 
For example, the use of the progressive aspect in 1 am floating the book indicates that I started floating the book in 
the past and am still floating the book in the present and presumably the future. 
The formula for forming the present progressive is [simple present -to be • present participle]. The formula for forming 
the past progressive is [simple past to be • present participle). 
Another example: Ron is cooking dinner at the moment.pie is still doing it and not finished) 
2. THE PERFECT ASPECT: 
Expresses the consequences resulting from a previous action or state. 
For example, the use of the perfect aspect in I have floated the book focuses on the end result of my floating the book 
(my having floated the book) as opposed to the process of floating the book. The formula for forming the present perfect 
is [simple present to have + past participle]. The formula for forming the past perfect is [simple past "to have + past 
participle]. 
Another example: Ron has already seen this film. [The action is completed. It may influence our present choice of what 
film to see, since we don't want Ron to see it again]. 
3. THE PERFECT-PROGRESSIVE ASPECT: 
Expresses incomplete or ongoing actions or states that began in the past and continue to a specific time. For example, 
the use of the perfect-progressive aspect in I had been floating the book indicates that I started floating the book in 
the past and continued to float the book until a specific point in time at which I stopped floating the book. The formula 
for forming the present perfect-progressive is [simple present to have + past participle 'to be' + present participle]. The 
formula for forming the past perfect-progressive is [simple past to have + past participle to be + present participle]. 
Another example: By 1996, Dona had been dieting rather seriously and subsequently lost a lot of weight. [Dona was in 
an ongoing process that was completed in 1996. This influenced what followed the loss of weight] 
4. THE SIMPLE (OR ZERO) 
Does not relate to the flow of time and merely states whether or not the action occurs. 
Example: Dona works in London. [simple factual statement] 
 
Mood: is the expression of modality of an action or state. Modality is the expression of possibility, necessity, and 
contingency. Modality can be expressed through modal verbs as well as through grammatical mood in English. 
1. The indicative mood allows speakers to express assertions, denials, and questions of actuality or strong 
probability. Most sentences in English are in the indicative mood because the indicative is the most commonly 
used mood. Examples: 
Little Rock is the capital of Arkansas. 
Ostriches cannot fly. 
Have you finished your homework? 
2. The imperative mood allows speakers to make direct commands, express requests, and grant or deny 
permission. The form of the English imperative is identical to the base form of any English verb. The negative 
form of the English imperative is created by inserting the do operator and the negative adverb not before the 
base form of the verb.Examples: 
Go there now! 
Do not postpone this any longer! 
3. The Conditional Mood regards the action as not factually occurring in reality, but only as a result of a potential 
fulfillment of some condition. Examples: 
If I win the lottery, I will go on a trip around the world. 
If I won the lottery, I would go on a trip around the world. 
If you had told me about the party, I would have come with you (but you didn’t). 
4. The Subjunctive Mood expresses desires, wishes, and assumptions that are not necessarily to be fulfilled in 
reality. It is used in specific figures of speech and is of little use in Modern English. Examples: 
I demand that she leave at once! 
If only you were here! 
If that be the case, than… 
Note: Modern English speakers use indicative mood most of the time, resorting to a kind of “mixed subjunctive” that 
makes use of helping verbs: 
If I should see him, I will tell him. 
Americans are more likely to say: If I see him, I will tell him. 
 
Lexical Verbs and Auxiliary Verb 
In class one, we looked at the elements of a sentence and explained that a sentence is made up of a subject and a 
predicate. The subject is the person or thing performing the action that the sentence is talking about. Everything else 
in the sentence is the predicate; for example: I love you madly. 
In this sentence, I is the subject because I am the person doing the loving, and love you madly is the predicate. If 
you look at the predicate, you will see that it begins with a verb – in this case, the verb love. All sentences must include 
a verb, because the verb tells us what action the subject is performing. 
Many sentences, but not all, contain an object – a person or thing that is being acted upon. In this case, the object 
is you. And many sentences also contain other information, presented in various types of grammatical phrases – in this 
case, the word madly is an adverbial phrase. But objects and adverbial phrases are not needed to make a sentence and 
we won’t cover them here. Main verbs can take five forms, which indicate things like tense and aspect. They are the 
base, present, present participle, past and past participle: 
Base: laugh 
Present (-s): laughs 
Present participle (-ing): laughing 
Past: laughed 
Past participle (-ed): laughed 
This pattern of forms, in which the past and the past participle is the same, applies to all regular verbs. (Apart from 
the verb 'to be', which is highly irregular, irregular verbs tend to differ in the past and the past participle; for example, 
‘write’ has ‘wrote’ for the past and ‘written’ for the past participle.) 
The form the verb is in tells us whether it is finite or non-finite. A verb is finite if it displays tense and non-finite if 
it does not. We know that the present tense uses the base and present forms and the past tense use the past form. 
Therefore, the base, present and past forms are all finite forms of the verb. 
The non-finite forms are the present participle, past participle and infinitive. The infinitive is a form of the verb 
that does not show person, tense or aspect. It usually takes the form 'to laugh' and 'to write', but the 'to' is not always 
present. For example, the sentence I must write uses the infinite of the verb 'to write'. When “to” is not used this is 
called “bare infinitive”. The issue of finite and non-finite verbs is crucial because it takes us to the last requirement of 
a sentence – it must have a finite verb; that is, it must show tense. Phrases that do not contain a finite verb leave us 
hanging; for example: 
Writing the book (present participle) 
Written the book (past participle) 
To write the book (infinitive) 
Even by adding a subject, you cannot make a meaningful sentence; for example: You writing the book. Contrast 
these with the verb forms that are finite: 
You write the book or Write the book! (base form) 
She writes the book. (present form) 
She wrote the book. (past form) 
1. LEXICAL VERB OR FULL VERB 
In linguistics a lexical verb or full verb is a member of an open class of verbs that includes all verbs except auxiliary 
verbs. Lexical verbs typically express action, state, or other predicate meaning. The verb phrase of a sentence is 
generally headed by a lexical verb. It is the main verb of the sentence. 
Example: Charlie raises his hand. 
2. AUXILIARY VERBS OR HELPING VERBS 
Just as the name implies, helping verbs, sometimes called auxiliary verbs, help out the main verb in a sentence. They 
accomplish this by giving more detail to how time is portrayed in a sentence. For this reason, they are used in [verb 
conjugation] to show the progressive and the perfect tenses of verbs. 
On their own, helping verbs don’t show meaning in that they don’t communicate much when they stand alone. 
There sole purpose to help the main verb, which provides the real meaning. 
Helping verbs help explain the sometimes complicated nuances of meaning. 
For example, they can show expectation, probability, obligation, potential, and directions. Though this may sound 
complicated, it’s really not. There aren’t that many helping verbs in the English language. They all fall into one of two 
groups: primary helping verbs and modal helping verbs. 
 
a) Primary helping verbs 
The primary helping verbs are be, do, and have. They’re called primary because they can help main verbs or they 
can actually be the main verb. Here are some examples of the primary verbs being used as helping verbs. 
• “Be” verbs. The term “be verbs” is a little deceiving because they include more than the word “be.” They help 
show a state of being or a state of existing. Sounds a little boring doesn’t it? Well, they don’t show any action, 
that’s for sure. That’s why expressive writing discourages using a lot of “be” verbs. Here is a list of “be” verb 
forms: am, is, are, was, were, been, being, be. And here are a few used in sentences: Katy is watching 
television. (this shows a continuous tense.) The other children are playing outside. (this example shows the 
passive tense.) 
ATTENTION: Be has characteristics of both lexical and auxiliary verbs. As a lexical verb, it can be inflected with tense 
and person, and be can be the main verb of a sentence. However, be also shares some auxiliary NICE properties such 
as negation, inversion, code and emphasis. Examples: 
Charlie is a clever student. 
Charlie is the troublemaker. 
Charlie has been to the Principal's twice already. 
Why don't you be more considerate? Note the "do" support! 
Be as an auxiliary verb is used with progressive, passive. The auxiliary be has NICE (negation, inversion, code and 
emphasis) properties. Examples: 
Charlie was raising his hand. 
The teacher didn't think Charlie was raising his hand, but he was. 
Charlie was told to sit down. 
Charlie was being kept in the Principal's office. (aux + ger.-part. + past part.) 
You are not to tell anyone. *(You are being not tell anyone.) 
Are we to be here all day? 
• Have. The helping verb have is used to make perfect tenses. The perfect tense shows action that is already 
completed. I have finished washing the dishes. (Dish washing is complete!) 
• Do. The verb “do” can perform a variety of functions: 
To make negatives: I do not care for broccoli. 
To ask questions: Do you like broccoli? 
To show emphasis: I do you want you to eat your broccoli. 
To stand for a main verb: Sam like broccoli more than Carmen does. 
b) Modal helping verbs 
Modal helping verbs help “modify” the main verb so that is changes the meaning somewhat. A modal auxiliary verb 
gives more information about the function of the main verb that it governs. Modals have a wide variety of communicative 
functions, but these functions can generally be related to a scale ranging from possibility ("may") to necessity ("must"), 
in terms of one of the following types of modality:• Epistemic modality, concerned with the theoretical possibility of propositions being true or not true (including 
likelihood and certainty) Example: You must be starving. ("It is necessarily the case that you are starving.") 
• Deontic modality, concerned with possibility and necessity in terms of freedom to act (including permission and 
duty) Example: You must leave now. ("You are required to leave now.") An ambiguous case is You must speak 
Spanish. 
This may be intended epistemically ("It is surely the case that you speak Spanish", e.g. after having lived in Spain 
for a long time), or deontically ("It is a requirement that you speak Spanish", e.g. if you want to get a job in Spain). 
Here are the modal verbs: 
1. WOULD has three alternative uses: 
• past tense combined with habitual aspect (Last summer I would run every day) 
• Conditional mood for a present or future action (If I could, I would do it now / next week). In the first 
person, intentional modality may also be present. 
• past tense, prospective aspect for an action occurring after the past-tense viewpoint (After I graduated in 
1990, I would work in industry for the next ten years) 
• The negative form would not + verb negates the main verb, but in the conditional and intentional mood in 
the first person the intentional modality may also be negated to indicate negative intention. 
2. WILL has a number of different uses involving tense, aspect, and modality: 
• It can express aspect alone, without implying futurity: In "He will make mistakes, won't he?", the reference 
is to a tendency in the past, present, and future and as such expresses habitual aspect. 
• It can express either of two types of modality alone, again without implying futurity: In "That will be John 
at the door", there is an implication of present time and probabilistic mode, while "You will do it right now" 
implies obligatory mode. 
• It can express both intentional modality and futurity, as in "I will do it." 
• It can express futurity without modality: "The sun will die in a few billion years." 
• As with would, the negative form will not negates the main verb but in the intentional mode may also 
indicate negative intentionality. In each case the time of viewpoint can be placed in the past by replacing 
will with would. 
3. SHALL indicates futurity or intention in the first person (I shall go); for the other persons, it indicates 
obligation, often negative as in you shall not lie, but this usage is old-fashioned. 
4. MUST can be used either for near-certainty mode (He must understand it by now) or for obligatory mode (You 
must do that). The past tense form must have understood applies only to the near-certainly mode; expressing 
obligation in the past requires the lexical construction had to + verb. 
5. HAD BETTER indicates obligatory mode (He had better do that soon). There is no corresponding past tense 
form. 
6. SHOULD has several uses: 
• Present or future tense combined with possibility mode: If he should be here already… If he should arrive 
tomorrow 
• Mild obligatory mode in the present or future tense: He should do that now / next week. The past tense 
can be substituted by using the form He should have done that, with a morphological change to the main 
verb. 
• Probabilistic mode in the present or future tense: This approach should work. The corresponding past tense 
form should have worked implies impersonal obligation rather than probability. 
7. MAY can indicate either the mode of possibility or that of permission: 
• Possibility in the present or future: He may be there already, He may arrive tomorrow. The form He may 
have arrived, with a morphological change to the main verb, indicates not just the mode of possibility but 
also the aspectual feature of viewing a past event from a present viewpoint. This form applies only to this 
possibility usage. 
• Permission in the present or future: You may go now / next week. There is no corresponding way to indicate 
the presence of permission in the past. 
8. CAN has several uses: 
• Present ability: I can swim. The past tense is expressed by I could swim. 
• Present permission (in informal speech): You can go now. In the past tense one can use could (When I was 
a child, according to my parents' rules I could swim once a week). 
• Present moderate probability (seldom used): That can be true. There is no past form, since the more 
common that could be true conveys the same (present) tense. 
9. MIGHT conveys slight likelihood in the present or future (He might be there already, he might arrive tomorrow). 
It can also convey slight advisability (You might try that). The past can be substituted using the form might 
have + morphologically altered main verb. 
10. COULD is used in several ways: 
• Mild permission or advisability in the present: You could do that. The equivalent past form is could have + 
morphologically altered main verb (you could have done that). 
• Permission in the past: She said I could graduate in one more year. 
• Ability in the past: I could swim when I was five years old. 
• Slight probability in the present: That could be Mary at the door. The past tense equivalent is That could 
have been Mary at the door yesterday, with a morphologically altered main verb. 
• Conditional ability: I could do that if I knew how to swim. In the past one can say I could have done that if 
I had known how to swim. 
• Slight intention in the present: I could do that for you (and maybe I will). There is no past equivalent. 
11. NEED: can be used as a present tense modal auxiliary, indicating necessity, that is invariant for person/number 
in questions and negatives only: 
• Need he go?, He need not go. The corresponding past tense constructions are Need he have gone?, He need 
not have gone. 
12. DARE: can be used as a present tense modal auxiliary that is invariant for person/number in questions and 
negatives only: Dare he go?, He dare not go. 
Important: 
1) Modals might and should are no longer used with past tense meaning. 
2) The English verbs dare and need have both a modal use (he dare not do it), and a non-modal use (he doesn't 
dare to do it). 
3) British: We use can to indicate capability or possibility, e.g. "I don't know if I can lift this piano by myself." The 
implication here is on whether you have the physical capacity or mental acuity to get the piano lifted. May is 
used when you are asking permission. "May I lift your piano for a little exercise?”. Here you wish the permission 
of someone to carry out an action. 
American: We use can to indicate capability, possibility or permission. May is used when you are asking permission. 
About this, there is a funny story: 
Once Bernard Shaw, the famous Irish play writer received a note from an American director, who wanted to play 
Pygmalion at a theater in New York. He wrote: Dear sir, can I play Pygmalion here in New York? Shaw’s answer: I don’t 
know if you can, but you may. 
4) 'Must' and 'Have to' in the positive or question form are used to speak about responsibilities and obligations. 
Sometimes, 'must' and 'have to' can be exchanged, but the general rule is: 
• Must is used for strong personal obligations (I must do this right now!). Something that you or a person feels 
is necessary. 
• Have to is used for responsibilities (I have to file reports every week.) 
• 'Don't have to' and 'Mustn't' have very different meanings. 'Don't have to' is used to express that something 
is not required. 'Mustn't' is used to express that something is prohibited. 
Let’s see: 
I have to go – (perhaps you have to catch the bus – external cause) 
I must go – (personal obligation – internal cause) 
 
 
 
Modal Properties 
Unlike auxiliaries, modals carry meaning and "mood". They express the speakers opinion about the following verb 
phrase. "They areused before the infinitives of other verbs, and add certain kinds of meaning connected with certainty, 
or with obligation, and freedom to act." 
The lexical forms of modals mean almost the same, but have some grammatical differences. (can–is able to, knows 
how to; will – is going to; must – have to; should – ought to, etc.) 
Take a look at CAN as an example: 
 
 
English Quasi – Modal Verbs 
Quasi-modals are a subcategory of modal verbs. Similar to modals verbs, quasi-modal verbs are common auxiliary verbs 
in the English language that express modality, which is the expression of subjective attitudes and opinions including 
possibility, necessity, and contingency. Also referred to as semi-modal verbs, the four quasi-modal verbs in English are: 
• OUGHT TO – should, duty, obligation, advisability, desirability, likelihood, probability. 
You ought to stain your fence this year. (Advisability) 
• USED TO – formerly, once but no longer, previously habitually. 
My sister used to read a book a night. (Previously habitually) 
• WOULD RATHER – preference, prefer to. 
I would rather eat a bug than study math. (Preference) 
• HAD BETTER/BEST – should, duty, obligation, and advisability. 
She had better teach her children some manners. (Duty) 
 
Position of Quasi-modal Verbs 
Like modal verbs, quasi-modal verbs always appear in the initial position at the beginning of a verb phrase 
functioning as a predicate. The seven possible English verb phrase combinations that contain quasi-modal verbs are: 
• quasi-modal verb + base form = ought to study 
• quasi-modal verb + be + present participle = ought to be reading 
• quasi-modal verb + have + past participle = ought to have eaten 
• quasi-modal verb + be + past participle = ought to be cleaned 
• quasi-modal verb + have + been + present participle = ought to have been thinking 
• quasi-modal verb + have + been + past participle = ought to have been washed 
• quasi-modal verb + have + been + being + past participle = ought to have been being finished 
 
Quasi-modal Verbs versus Modal Verbs 
Quasi-modal verbs differ from modal verbs in form. While full modals are single words, quasi-modals consist of 
either a verb plus a preposition functioning as a particle or a verb plus an adverb. For example: 
• ought to, used to = verb + preposition [particle] 
• would rather, had better = verb + adverb 
• Note, however, that the quasi-modal verb ought to sometimes lacks a prepositional particle in negative and 
interrogative constructions. For example: 
• He ought to buy a new car. 
• He ought not buy a new car. 
 
Visit the pages: 
Modal verbs: introduction 
<http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Icna9vsAh7Q>. 
Modal verbs part 2: can (ability) 
<http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wibvPmBe1QY>. 
Modal verbs part 3: may / mustn't (permission) 
<http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HKegdzsaPTI>. 
Modal verbs part 4: must / needn't (obligation) 
<http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YDoPmjdwDLU>. 
Grammar in Songs: Modal Verbs 
<http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3KcSEnVnQ98>. 
Obligation modals 
<http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uPXuLoBQwsQ>. 
 
 
For an end, look at this example of modals in a context: 
Programs such as Napster and Gnutella allow you to download MP3 files from other people's hard drives without 
paying a penny to the artist or entertainment industry. With a Napster client such as Macster (or the Mac-compatible 
Furi client for Gnutella) and a broadband Internet connection, Mac users can download an album's worth of MP3 files in 
less than an hour. This leads us to the second factor: high-speed Internet access. 
The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), an industry group that represents major record labels, filed 
suit against Napster. As we went to press, a judge had decided not to dismiss the lawsuit against Napster, leaving open 
the possibility of a trial. 
How does this affect you? 
It might put Napster out of business, and if you're a devoted Napster user, this is certainly sad news. But Metallica's 
actions could bring the controversy closer to home. The fact that Metallica was able to obtain the screen names of 
these users should concern those who post and download files on Napster. 
Should the recording industry wish to get personal and go after individuals - and you engage in this kind of file 
trading - it's possible that you'll be taken to task (prosecuted) for your actions. 
Where will this all lead? While the recording industry should have seen this coming, the fact is they didn't. Moving 
copyrighted files across the Internet is both easy to do and easy to get away with - but it won't be for long. Though the 
RIAA and Metallica aren't likely to start getting people who download an MP3 or two tossed into the pokey, they will 
take other steps than prosecution to protect their rights and work. This means that stricter copy-protection schemes 
will be introduced in the near future. This too is still a short-term solution; though copy-protection measures will surely 
reduce piracy, savvy people will find a way to skirt them. 
With this in mind, the entertainment industry must eventually bow to the realities of this new wired world, shift 
its current distribution model, and seek alternative means of compensation - with actions such as advertising on online 
distribution centers, offering "bonus" material that can be purchased only online, and streaming "pay to play" content 
on demand. 
 
Multiple Auxiliaries 
Most clauses contain at least one main verb, and they can contain zero, one, two, three, or perhaps even more 
auxiliary verbs. The following example contains three auxiliary verbs and one main verb: 
The paper will have been scrutinized by Fred. 
The auxiliary verbs are in bold and the main verb is underlined. Together these verbs form a verb catena (chain of 
verbs), i.e. they are linked together in the hierarchy of structure and thus form a single syntactic unit. The main verb 
scrutinized provides the semantic core of sentence meaning, whereby each of the auxiliary verbs contributes some 
functional meaning. A single finite clause can contain more than three auxiliary verbs, e.g. 
Fred may be being judged to have been deceived by the explanation. 
Viewing this sentence as consisting of a single finite clause, there are five auxiliary verbs and two main verbs 
present. From the point of view of predicates, each of the main verbs constitutes the core of a predicate, and the 
auxiliary verbs contribute functional meaning to these predicates. The periphrastic verb combinations in the example 
just given are represented now using the dependency grammar tree of the sentence; the verb catena is in green: 
 
The particle to is included in the verb catena because its use is often required with certain infinitives. The hierarchy 
of functional categories is always the same. 
The verbs expressing modality appear immediately above the verbs expressing aspect, and the verbs expressing 
aspect appear immediately above the verbs expressing voice. 
 
DIAGNOSTICS FOR IDENTIFYING AUXILIARY VERBS IN ENGLISH 
The verbs listed in the previous section can be classified as auxiliaries based upon two diagnostics: they allow 
subject–auxiliary inversion (the type of inversion used to form questions etc.) and (equivalently) they can take not as a 
post-dependent (a dependent that follows its head). 
The following examples illustrate the extent to which subject–auxiliary inversion can occur with an auxiliary verb 
but not with a full verb: 
• He was working today. 
Was he working today? Auxiliary verb was allows subject–auxiliary inversion. 
• She can see it. 
Can he see it? Auxiliary verb can allows subject–auxiliary inversion. 
• She sees it. 
Sees he it? - Full verb sees does not allow subject–auxiliary inversion. 
The following examples illustrate that the negation not can