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O mercado mundial dos dias de hoje é dominado por falantes de inglês como segunda língua e língua estrangeira, ultrapassando o número total de nativos. Apesar disso, ainda há a necessidade de entender como se deu todo esse processo, para que o aprendizado seja mais contextualizado, relacionando a língua e a sua evolução até, por ser tão estudada, ser conhecida como “língua franca” – ou língua de contato. 1. Construção da língua inglesa Embora os primeiros habitantes das Ilhas Britânicas tenham ajudado a iniciar um caminho para os novos colonizadores, eles não tiveram tanta participação na história específica da língua inglesa. A primeira marca deixada na língua foi trazida pelos Celtas. 1.1 The Celts Por volta de 700 a.C., os Celtas começaram a migrar para a ilha, provavelmente vindos da Europa central ou da região mais a leste, parte sul da Rússia. O povo celta continuou sua migração pelos setecentos anos seguintes. Apesar de o conhecimento sobre o povo celta não ser extenso, sua importância é tamanha, principalmente para povos nas Highlands da Escócia, País de Gales e Irlanda, que ainda mantêm a língua celta como viva (Gaelic, Welsh e Irish, respectivamente). Além dessa herança, a língua inglesa recebeu certos presentes dos celtas, como alguns verbos regulares e palavras como loch, whisky, trousers e penguin. 1.2 The Romans Júlio César chegou à Britannia – nome então do atual Reino Unido – em 55 a.C., mas o exército romano ocupou a ilha somente um século depois, aproximadamente em 43 a.C. Eles estavam determinados a controlar o território e encontraram pouca resistência vinda dos celtas, cujas tribos brigavam entre si e se enfraqueciam, além de não serem fortes como o bem treinado exército romano. Estiveram na Grã-Bretanha por quase 500 anos, retirando seus últimos soldados em 409 d.C. Entretanto, as mudanças e o desenvolvimento nas terras permaneceram, representando o berço de muitas cidades de hoje em dia. Dentre as muitas influências romanas, o latim foi sua marca mais importante. Graças a ele, temos muitas palavras similares (cognatos) entre português e inglês – drama, animal, doctor, triangle –, assim como verbos regulares. 1.3 The Saxon Invasion A riqueza da Grã-Bretanha, resultado de seu clima ameno e séculos de paz, eram uma tentação para a ganância. Em um primeiro momento, as tribos germânicas somente pilharam (saquearam) a ilha, mas, após 430 d.C., elas começaram a se estabelecer. As invasões foram feitas pelas três maiores tribos germânicas: Jutos, Saxões e Anglos. areas of Britain the settlers occupied Angles Jutes Saxons Northumbria Mercia East Anglia Wessex A presença da cultura anglo-saxã ainda é evidente hoje em dia. Algumas palavras somente existem na língua inglesa em decorrência de sua influência, como os verbos irregulares, palavras como always, beach, drink, teach, milk, kindergarten, horse, assim como os dias da semana – homenagem aos deuses germânicos Tig (Tuesday), Wodin (Wednesday), Thor (Thursday) e Frei (Friday). 1.4 The Vikings No século VIII, os vikings chegaram ao território britânico, inicialmente em busca de riquezas, somente interessados em pilhagem, mas, depois, iniciaram a ocupação. Introduziram o vocabulário nórdico, responsável por mais uma leva de verbos irregulares e palavras como cake, ugly, husband, awkward e egg. 1.5 The Normans Por volta do século XI, o território britânico tinha como rei Cnut, dinamarquês e viking. Com sua morte, Edward, saxão, subiu ao poder. Durante seu breve reinado, voltado para a Igreja, muitos normandos foram trazidos da França para fazer parte de sua corte. Essa aliança acabou levando William, Duque da Normandia, ao trono, após seu exército derrotar Harold, saxão escolhido para assumir o reinado. Com isso, um novo período foi instaurado e, com ele, uma nova influência na língua – trazendo outros verbos regulares, considerados mais formais, como fragrance, attraction, certain, definition. 2. Importância da língua inglesa Não se pode negar a importância e o poder da língua inglesa na atualidade, e vale a pena entender o porquê de seu papel como idioma internacional. Introduction to the English language INGLÊS UNIT 1 141IME-ITA – Vol. 1 2.1 The United Kingdom A primeira onda de propagação da língua inglesa aconteceu na expansão colonial britânica, com a migração para várias partes do mundo. Esse processo histórico acabou criando uma base para a língua, talvez o elemento principal para o estabelecimento do inglês como língua franca. 2.2 The United States No século XX, iniciou-se a segunda onda de expansão do inglês. Nesse momento, a relevância do Reino Unido foi superada pelos Estados Unidos, o que garantiu e aumentou a influência da língua inglesa, caminhando lado a lado com o desenvolvimento econômico e cultural mundial. 2.3 The World A consolidação da língua inglesa como meio preferido de comunicação trouxe diversas consequências – positivas e negativas. Ao mesmo tempo em que fornecia uma possibilidade de acesso universal a todos, excluía aqueles que possuíam menos recursos. Enquanto sua expansão global prometia uma melhora na comunicação pelo mundo, ficou limitada àqueles com acesso ao aprendizado do idioma. Entretanto, como a comunicação ainda se fazia necessária, uma mudança na língua aconteceu para que ela se torna a mundial: surgiram os Englishes. 3. World Englishes Hoje em dia, a língua inglesa é falada em mais de cem países. Em cada um, foi modificada gradualmente, moldada à cultura e às características locais. A cada uma dessas novas “línguas” dá-se o nome de World Englishes. Essa é mais uma fase da história da língua inglesa: o momento em que uma língua deixa de ser somente o idioma materno de uma nação e passa a ser a língua franca para muitos países. As mudanças que permitiram que essas múltiplas línguas se espalhassem são resultado não de imperfeições ou dificuldades no ensino e na aprendizagem do inglês, mas na natureza do processo de aquisição e mudança de um idioma. Apesar dessa troca entre o inglês e as línguas maternas dos outros países, a base da língua permanece a mesma. Isso se dá para que a comunicação continue existindo, mantendo a característica de língua franca assumida pelo inglês há alguns anos. 4. English to the core Como em português, o inglês segue a estrutura SUJEITO – VERBO – COMPLEMENTO (ou objeto). Para entender melhor uma frase, é necessário saber identificar o seu tópico (do que se fala) e o comentário (o que se fala sobre o tópico). Existem cinco padrões simples de orações. SUJEITO + VERBOMy head aches. She is driving. SUJEITO + VERBO + COMPLEMENTO Frank is clever. Julie is an architect. SUJEITO + VERBO + OBJETO DIRETO My sister enjoyed the play. Dennis has studied French. SUJEITO + VERBO + OBJETO INDIRETO + OBJETO DIRETO The firm gave Sam a watch. Marcel will send Cami some flowers. SUJEITO + VERBO + OBJETO + COMPLEMENTO They made Katie president. Loud music drives me crazy. Apesar de existirem esses padrões, ainda há a necessidade de entendermos outros aspectos da língua. Porém, ao reconhecermos os elementos principais das orações, poderemos focar no que realmente importa: a ideia por trás deles. WORKING ON YOUR WRITING 1. O que é um parágrafo? Leia os dois parágrafos a seguir e faça o que se pede: There are three reasons why I love movies. First of all, movies take us all over the world. We can see beautiful sights and learn about interesting cultures without ever leaving home. Second, movies show us how other people live and solve their problems. This helps us make decisions about our own problems. Finally, and maybe most important, movies are just plain fun. After a hard day at work, it feels good to sit down and be entertained by a good movie. My family has three television sets. Some channels are in languages other than English, so I can’t watch them. I like TV because there are so many different shows, but I don’t like to watch television with my brother because he changes the channels all the time. Some people like comedies because they help us forget a hard day at work. As for me, I like news and music shows the best. Some shows are very funny, and some teach us about foreign countries and cultures. INGLÊS Unit 1 142 IME-ITA – Vol. 1 1. Qual é o tema de cada um dos parágrafos? 2. O parágrafo precisa ter uma frase principal, chamada em inglês de topic sentence. Sublinhe a topic sentence em cada um dos parágrafos, caso haja. 3. Além da topic sentence, precisamos usar palavras de transição e conectivos para ligar as ideias dos parágrafos. Circule essas palavras nos parágrafos caso estejam presentes. 4. Levando tudo isso em consideração e não somente a sua percepção ao ler, qual dos dois parágrafos é de mais fácil entendimento? Por quê? SOLVED PROBLEM O texto não está escrito em inglês, mas, ainda assim, é possível retirar dele as informações importantes que respondem às perguntas a seguir. 1. De que produto trata o anúncio? 2. Quanto custa esse produto? 3. Onde é possível comprar esse produto? Solução: 01. Uma bolsa: sabemos isso ao analisarmos a imagem. Além disso, temos a palavra BAGAGE, que é cognato do português. 02. 1.295 Euros: como trata-se de um preço, busca-se um número ou algo relacionado a isso. 03. Yves Saint Laurent: essa é a questão mais difícil pois há a necessidade de conhecimento prévio com relação a marcas famosas. Text 1 Read the sentence and answer the following questions. The quirty charns knagged the forik fobes chirpily. Therefore, the fobes tored the charns. They also renked the birry boke. 01. Who knagged chirpily? 02. What did the quirty charns do? 03. How did they do it? 04. How did the forik fobes react? 05. Did the forik fobes do anything else? What? 06. Who renked the birry boke? 07. Why did the fobes tore the charns? 08. Você conseguiu entender o significado das palavras fobes, knagged e charns? Isso foi fundamental para a compreensão geral do texto? 09. Como você conseguiu entender e responder às perguntas? 10. Teria sido possível responder às perguntas sem conhecimento prévio das estruturas gramaticais e seus significados básicos? Text 2 (EPCAr) LEARN ENGLISH ONLINE: HOW THE INTERNET IS CHANGING LANGUAGE Online, English is now a common language for users from around the world. In the process, the language itself is changing. Noah Webster thought that a common language would bring people together and help create a new identity. Webster’s dictionary, now is in its 11th edition, adopted the Americanized orthography familiar today “–er” in place of “–re” in theatre, not using the “u” from colour, losing one “l” in traveller, and listed new words for example, skunk and squash. The internet is creating a similar language evolution, but at a much faster velocity. Some linguists anticipate that in 10 years English will dominate the internet, but in very different forms. That’s because people who speak English as a second language are more in number than native speakers. And they use it to communicate with other non-native speakers, particularly on the internet where people don’t pay so much attention to grammar and orthography and users don’t have to preoccupy about their way of speaking. Users of Facebook, for example, ____________ in a number of different “Englishes” including Indian English, or Hinglish, Spanglish (Spanish English) and Konglish (Korean English). For a long time, these variations existed in individual cultures, but now they are expanding and becoming popular online. “On the Internet all that is important is that people can communicate – nobody has a right to tell them what the language has to be,” says Baron. The intensification of the use of the internet in everyday life means that language online is not a zero-result game. On the contrary, it permits multiple languages to show up and they are mixing into English that is becoming the world’s lingua franca. Adapted from:<http://www.bbc.cokh/news/magazine-20332763>. Access on March 3rd, 2013. 11 Choose the option that completes the blank in the text. (A) is using (B) uses (C) are socializing (D) socializes 12 According to the text: (A) more and more people are communicating on the net in English. (B) the internet language is really difficult to understand. (C) linguists say that many languages will dominate the net. (D) people speak languages in a very fast way. INGLÊS Unit 1 Introduction to the English language 143IME-ITA – Vol. 1 13 The text says that: (A) grammar and spelling are important when talking on the net. (B) words like skunk, squash are very old in English language. (C) the Webster’s changed as much as the English language did. (D) the English language is creating more native speakers. 14 In the Webster’s dictionary, the words theatre, colour and traveller: (A) are now written the same way. (B) changed their orthography to one more common in Britain. (C) don’t exist anymore. (D) were adapted to American orthography. 15 Read the word in bold in the text. The expression “Englishes” is related to: (A) the second language that users of Facebook speak. (B) the kinds of English speakers around the world use. (C) the different languages people speak in many cultures. (D) the English speakers study to chat on the internet. Text 3 (EPCAr) WHAT IS OFFSHORE ENGLISH? Offshore English is a term used by many people for international English. It is the English spoken and written by non-native speakers in international communication. Many in business are starting to worry that native speakers are actually at a disadvantage in international communication. A good example of this situation was when a company tried to sell flight simulators to South Korea, where a French company won the contract because the buyers found it easier to understand the English that the French people spoke than the English spoken by the British company. Many native English speakers feel little necessity of learning foreignlanguages, so they often don’t understand the difficulties and problems learners have. They also don’t see the need to modify their language for a foreign audience, so they use idioms, synonyms, colloquialisms, phrasal verbs etc, and don’t think of the impact this has on a foreign business person. The English studied by non-native speakers tends to use a more simple vocabulary, and considering the similarities in courses in many parts of the world, emphasized by a small number of course books (Headway Series) and the domination of a few examinations, for example TOEFL etc. This means that non-native speakers from different countries and cultures sometimes understand each other more easily than they do the native speaker. Few native speakers outside the world of ESL (English as a Second language) teaching have much idea of what non-native learners assimilate, and think that as their English is native speaker level, they speak it better than their non-native counterparts. Because of this, companies are offering courses in Offshore English to native speakers to train them to speak the type of English that will make it easier for non-native speakers to understand. So they will gain more contracts. Adapted from: <http://www.usingenglish.com/articles/what-offshore-english.html>. Access on March 14th, 2013. 16 According to the text: (A) French people don’t know English language very well. (B) South Koreans understood perfectly the company’s language. (C) the British company did not speak an easy understanding English. (D) flight simulators are designed in many different languages. 17 We can say that Headway is a: (A) course book. (B) successful course. (C) dominant examination. (D) program. 18 After reading the text, we conclude that: (A) learners think that it is more difficult to learn English than French. (B) non-native speakers use less idioms, synonyms etc to talk to native ones. (C) English companies are not as famous as British ones. (D) it’s easier to understand the type of English the non-native speakers communicate. 19 The pronoun that best substitutes the underlined words in the sentence “the buyers found it easier” is: (A) you. (B) they. (C) he. (D) we. 20 “Native speakers are at a disadvantage in international communication”. The negative form of this sentence is “Native speakers ______ at a disadvantage in international communication”. (A) not are (B) do not are (C) isn’t (D) aren’t 01 Com os grupos de palavras a seguir, forme frases coerentes em inglês (uma frase para cada grupo): a. the professor / at the university / works b. on Sundays / Marcela / her family / visits c. frequently / to the library / goes / my friend d. the train / at the station / arrives / at 5.10 p.m. e. cereal bars / she / at lunch time / eats INGLÊS Unit 1 144 IME-ITA – Vol. 1 02 Traduza os grupos nominais a seguir para o português: a. American woman. b. Spanish king. c. Colourful TV. d. Prime minister. e. Culture clash. f. Three different book titles. Nas questões 3 a 10, assinale a alternativa que corresponde às versões corretas das frases do português para o inglês. 03 Escrevi-lhe uma carta no mês passado. (A) I was going to write him a letter last month. (B) Last month I wrote her a letter. (C) I would write a letter to her last month. (D) Last month I wanted to write a letter to him. (E) I had to write her a letter last month. 04 Ele é a única pessoa que acha isso. (A) He is the only person whose think so. (B) He is the only person whom thinks so. (C) He is the only think so. (D) He is the only person that thinks so. (E) He is the only person who thinks this. 05 Não se preocupe, não estou com pressa. (A) Don’t bother, I’m not hungry. (B) Don’t worry, I’m not angry. (C) Don’t get upset, I’m not rushing. (D) Never mind, I’m not running. (E) Don’t worry, I’m not in a hurry. 06 Nós sentimos a sua falta. (A) We missed you. (B) We felt that you missed. (C) We feel your lack. (D) We thought it was your fault. (E) The fault was yours. 07 Ela voltou para casa bem tarde. (A) She is always home in the well afternoon. (B) She never got home late. (C) She got home very late. (D) She was never late in the afternoon. (E) She hasn’t got home yet. 08 Um amigo meu emprestou-me um livro. (A) A friend of mine borrowed me a book. (B) A my friend lent a book to me. (C) A friend’s mine lent me a book. (D) A friend of mine lent me a book. (E) One of my friend borrowed a book to me. 09 Não deixe ninguém me perturbar. (A) Don’t let nobody disturb me. (B) Don’t let anybody disturb me. (C) Don’t let somebody disturb me. (D) Don’t let somebody disturb to me. (E) Don’t let no one disturb me. 10 Era uma tarde calma de sábado. (A) It was a quiet Sunday afternoon. (B) It was a quiet Saturday afternoon. (C) It was a quiet afternoon of Sunday. (D) It was a quiet Saturday evening. (E) It was a Saturday afternoon very quiet. Nas questões 11 a 20, assinale as alternativas que correspondem às traduções corretas das frases. 11 Sam is a good-looking man in his early forties. (A) Sam enxerga bem para os seus quarenta anos. (B) Sam é um quarentão de boa visão. (C) Sam é bonitão apesar de ter passado dos quarenta. (D) Sam é um homem de boa aparência, com quarenta e poucos anos. (E) Sam está ansioso para chegar logo aos quarenta anos. 12 He has the habit of forgetting things he doesn’t want to do. (A) Ele tem o hábito de esquecer-se de coisas que não quer fazer. (B) Ele se habituou a esquecer-se de coisas que não fazia. (C) Ele tem o hábito de ir se esquecendo de coisas que quer fazer. (D) O hábito dele é o esquecimento de coisas que não faz. (E) Ele tem o hábito de esquecer-se das coisas e não as fazer. 13 Are you worried about Betty? (A) Você brigou com a Betty? (B) Você está zangado com a Betty? (C) Você está preocupado com a Betty? (D) Você se enganou em relação à Betty? (E) Você está informado sobre a Betty? 14 In some areas, poverty is increasing every day. (A) Em todas as áreas, a pobreza está aumentando todo dia. (B) Em várias áreas, a pobreza está diminuindo todo dia. (C) Em algumas áreas, a pobreza está aumentando todo dia. (D) Em muitas áreas, a pobreza está aumentando todo dia. (E) Em alguma áreas, a pobreza está diminuindo todo dia. INGLÊS Unit 1 Introduction to the English language 145IME-ITA – Vol. 1 15 Actually, nobody knows what to do with them. (A) Na verdade, ninguém sabe o que fazer com eles. (B) Atualmente, ninguém sabe o que fazer deles. (C) Na atualidade, alguns nem sabem o que fazer deles. (D) De momento, ninguém saberia o que fazer com eles. (E) É verdade que ninguém soube o que fazer com eles. 16 Can you tell me how to get there? (A) Você pode me dizer como se consegue isso lá? (B) Quempode me anotar como é que se faz isso? (C) Você pode me ensinar o caminho? (D) Como se pode ir de lá para cá? (E) Você consegue atravessar para o outro lado? 17 The wind was blowing. (A) Estava trovejando. (B) Estava nevando. (C) Estava chovendo. (D) Estava ventando. (E) Estava um sol brilhante. 18 He’s a well-known writer. (A) Ele conhece autores famosos. (B) Ele tem escrito sobre bons autores. (C) Ele sabe escrever muito bem. (D) Ele é um escritor famoso. (E) Ele foi reconhecido pelo escritor. 19 What did you have for lunch today? (A) O que você fez para lanchar hoje? (B) O que você fez durante o almoço de hoje? (C) O que fez você almoçar hoje? (D) O que você fez para o almoço hoje? (E) O que você almoçou hoje? 20 How do you like your new job? (A) Ao que se assemelha seu novo trabalho? (B) De quem você gosta no seu novo serviço? (C) Você acha que vai gostar de sua nova tarefa? (D) Como você gosta de ir para seu novo emprego? (E) O que você está achando de seu novo emprego? (EFOMM - 2008) Australian Maritime College (Abstract) The ethnic and linguistic make-up of international seafarers has undergone some profound changes over the past half century or so. It is a fact that the learning of English as a second language comes easier to some than to others. There is clearly the factor of personal language learning aptitude, but other aspects play a role also. If the linguistic background of a person lies in the Teutonic language branch then he or she will generally have little difficulty in grasping English relatively fast. More challenging is the learning of the tongue for someone from one of the other five branches of the Indo-European languages such as Indian, Persic, Celtic, Graeco-Latin or Slavonic. Harder still is the acquisition of English for persons whose mother tongue belongs to the families of Altaic, Sino-Tibetan or Afro-Asiatic languages. Where the usage of a codified language – as in the “Standard Maritime Communication Phrases (SMCP)” – is concerned such fundamental differences may seem of little consequence as phrases are short and simple in terms of language structure. However, even here pronunciation remains a serious problem with some speakers from a NESB, non-English-speaking background. More importantly, miscommunication can occur due to the fact that language is not just a code. Communication is embedded within culture and therefore culturally orientated. This paper is trying to shed some light on the difficulties and problems some learners of English are confronted with and to what degree seafarers of different ranks should be competent in the four linguistic skills. (Text taken from the Internet) 01 The word therefore in “Communication is embedded within culture and therefore culturally orientated” can be replaced by: (A) unless. (B) hence. (C) even though. (D) however. (E) even if. 02 According to the text, we apprehend that the author: (A) has not considered time an important element in learning English. (B) believes that some aspects interfere the seafarers’ language learning process. (C) has defined language as just a code. (D) mentions that personal language learning aptitude is the only factor taken into account in learning English as a second language. (E) refers to SMCP as being a very complex system. 03 The word embedded in “Communication is embedded within culture and therefore culturally orientated” means: (A) dislodged. (B) remained. (C) refused. (D) disturbed. (E) rooted. (EFOMM) Pidgins and creoles Pidgin Languages A pidgin is a system of communication which has grown up among people who do not share a common language, but who want to talk to each other, for trading or other reasons. Pidgins have been variously called ‘makeshift’, ‘marginal’, or ‘mixed’ languages. They have a limited vocabulary, a reduced grammatical structure, and a much narrower range of functions, compared to the languages which gave rise to them. They are the native language of no one, but they are nonetheless a main means of communication for millions of people, and a major focus of interest to those who study the way languages change. It is essential to avoid the stereotype of a pidgin language, as perpetrated over the years in generations of children’s comics and films. The ‘Me Tarzan, you Jane’ image is far from the reality. A pidgin is not a language INGLÊS Unit 1 146 IME-ITA – Vol. 1 which has broken down; nor is it the result of baby talk, laziness, corruption, primitive thought processes, or mental deficiency. On the contrary: pidgins are demonstrably creative adaptations of natural languages, with a structure and rules of their own. Along with creoles, they are evidence of a fundamental process of linguistic change, as languages come into contact with each other, producing new varieties whose structures and uses contract and expand. They provide the clearest evidence of language being created and shaped by society for its own ends, as people adapt to new social circumstances. This emphasis on processes of change is reflected in the terms pidginization and creolization. Most pidgins are based on European languages – English, French, Spanish, Dutch, and Portuguese – reflecting the history of colonialism. However, this observation may be the result only of our ignorance of the languages used in parts of Africa, South America, or Southeast Asia, where situations of language contact are frequent. One of the best-known non- European pidgins is Chinook Jargon, once used for trading by American Indians in northwestern USA. Another is Sango, a pidginized variety of Ngbandi, spoken widely in West-Central Africa. Because of their limited function, pidgin languages usually do not last for very long – sometimes for only a few years, and rarely for more than a century. They die when the original reason for communication diminishes or disappears, as communities move apart, or one community learns the language of the other. (Alternatively, the pidgin may develop into a creole). The pidgin French which was used in Vietnam all but disappeared when the French left; similarly, the pidgin English which appeared during the American Vietnam campaign virtually disappeared as soon as the war was over. But there are exceptions. The pidgin known as Mediterranean Lingua Franca, or Sabir, began in the Middle Ages and lasted until the 20th century. Some pidgins have become so useful as a means of communication between languages that they have developed a more formal role, as regular auxiliary languages. They may even be given official status by a community as linguas francas. These cases are known as ‘expanded pidgins’, because of the way in which they have added extra forms to cope with the needs of their users, and have come to be used in a much wider range of situations than previously. In time, these languages may come to be used on the radio, in the press, and may even develop a literature of their own. Some of the most widely used expanded pidgins are Krio (in Sierra Leone), Nigerian Pidgin English, and Bislama (in Vanuatu). In Papua New Guinea, the local pidgin (Tok Pisin) is the most widely used language in the country. CRYSTAL, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, 3rd ed., 2010, p.344. 04 In “(...) they have added extra forms to cope with the needs of their users (...)” the phrasal verb in bold (cope with) is closest in meaning to: (A) foresee. (B) support. (C) respect. (D) realize. (E) handle. 05 Which option can not be inferred from the text? A pidgin language is: (A) a simplified means of linguistic communication. (B) the native language of a speech community. (C) employed in situations such as commerce. (D) a contact language. (E) constructed impromptu, or by convention, between individuals or groups of people. 06 According to the text, “Lingua Franca” is: (A) a language that people use to communicate when they have different first languages. (B) adistinctive lect, or variety of English spoken by African Americans. (C) an informal language consisting of words and expressions that are not considered appropriate for formal occasions. (D) a body of words and phrases that apply to a specific activity or profession, such as a particular art form or a medical or scientific subject. (E) the language that a person has spoken from earliest childhood. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ INGLÊS Unit 1 Introduction to the English language 147IME-ITA – Vol. 1 1. Definição Nouns (substantives) são palavras que nos dizem os nomes das pessoas, coisas e lugares para que possamos identifica-los. Eles podem aparecer sozinhos, com determinantes (como artigos) e combinados com outros nomes, formando o que chamamos de noun phrases (sintagmas nominais). Os nomes são palavras que respondem às perguntas who? (quem?) ou what? (o quê?). 2. Funções Os substantivos podem assumir muitas funções no discurso. 2.1 Sujeito da oração Our agent in Cairo sent a message this morning. 2.2 Objeto direto da oração Fred sent an urgent message from Cairo this morning. 2.3 Objeto indireto da oração Fred sent his boss a message. 2.4 Objeto de uma preposição I read about it in the paper. 2.5 Complemento do verbo be Tony is a ballet dancer. 2.6 Usado como aposto Tony Twister, a Bolshoi ballet dancer, is performing here next week. 2.7 Usado como vocativo Hey, boy, come here! 3. Identifying nouns 3.1 One-word nouns São substantivos que têm somente uma palavra em sua representação. Muitas vezes, encontramos substantivos que possuem a mesma forma que um verbo (work) ou um adjetivo (cold). Esse caso não é identificado somente pela terminação da palavra em si, mas pela análise de sua posição e função na oração. Em outros casos, mesmo que os substantivos tenham relação com verbos ou adjetivos, podemos reconhecê-los por suas terminações. Por exemplo, temos o sufixo -er que, quando adicionado a um verbo como play, forma o substantivo player. Já -ity, adicionado a um adjetivo como active, forma a substantivo activity. 3.2 Compound nouns Muitos substantivos em inglês são formados por duas par tes (classroom), ou, menos comuns, três ou quatro partes (sister-in-law; stick-in-the-mud). Os nomes compostos são formados de várias maneiras: 3.2.1 Adjetivo + Substantivo a greenhouse; a heavyweight; a redhead 3.2.2 Gerúndio + substantivo (a ideia de algo que é usado para uma finalidade) drinking water; a frying pan; a walking stick 3.2.3 Substantivo + gerúndio (a ideia da ação de algo) horse-riding; sight-seeing; sunbathing 3.2.4 Verbo + advérbio a breakdown; income; make-up 3.2.5 Substantivo + substantivo a car key; a wine glass; a kitchen sink; a bookcase; a plastic raincoat; an English teacher; a salesperson; a two-hour walk. 4. Types of Nouns 4.1 Proper nouns Os nomes próprios são usados para pessoas, coisas, lugares ou ideias específicas ou que sejam únicas. São normalmente escritos com letras maiúsculas e sem artigos na frente. Os nomes próprios incluem, por exemplo: Nouns: number and gender INGLÊS UNIT 2 148 IME-ITA – Vol. 1 4.1.1 Nomes pessoais (com ou sem título) Andrew, Andrew Smith, Mr. Smith, ... 4.1.2 Forma de se dirigir a pessoas Mom, Dad ,Uncle Fred, Granny, ... 4.1.3 Nome geográficos Asia, Wisconsin, Rio de Janeiro, ... 4.1.4 Nomes de lugares Madison Avenue, Regent Street, ... 4.1.5 Meses, dias da semana, feriados April, Monday, Carnival, ... 4.2 Common Names Qualquer nome que não seja de uma pessoa, lugar, coisa e ideia em específico será nome comum. Podemos usar artigos com nomes comuns. Todos caem em duas categorias: contáveis ou incontáveis. Nouns Common Proper Feminine Always contableMasculine Unisex contable uncontable Neuter 5. Countable and Uncountable É fundamental saber a distinção entre substantivos contáveis e incontáveis em inglês, pois somente conhecendo essa diferença entenderemos quando usar singular e plural, assim como os artigos e quantificadores apropriados. Infelizmente, não podemos confiar no senso comum para sabermos quando um substantivo é contável ou incontável. Por exemplo, a palavra information é incontável em inglês, mas contável em muitas outras línguas, como no português. Ainda há o caso de substantivos que são incontáveis, mas que, em certos contextos, podem ser usados como contáveis: They want someone with experience for this job. I had a strange experience the other day. Por causa disso, é melhor pensar em termos de uso contável ou incontável dos substantivos, e sempre buscar informações mais detalhadas em um bom dicionário. Tendo tudo o que já foi falado anteriormente, podemos começar a definir alguns aspectos importantes que acabam por classificar um substantivo comum neutro como incontável. 5.1 Uncountable Nouns Materiais, líquidos, gases cotton, milk, air Grãos e Farinhas barley, rice, dust, flour Atividades camping, drinking, eating Línguas Arabic, Italian, Japanese Massas bread, cake, pizza Sentimentos, emoções love, feeling, peace Esse é um dos aspectos que devemos levar em consideração quando analisamos se um substantivo é contável ou incontável. Também precisamos responder duas perguntas básicas: • Podemos identificar e delimitar a unidade do nome? E.g.: Qual é a unidade da água? O que significa dizer “uma água”? Normalmente precisamos de uma medida ou um recipiente, como “um litro de água”, “um copo de água”. • Mesmo podendo delimitar a unidade, é comum a contabilizarmos? Temos a unidade do feijão (João ganhou três feijões mágicos), mas normalmente não o contamos. INGLÊS Unit 2 Nouns: number and gender 149IME-ITA – Vol. 1 Mesmo com todos esses passos, ainda é possível confundir os aspectos de contável e incontável de algumas palavras, visto que muitas são incontáveis em inglês e contáveis em outras línguas, como no português. Abaixo segue uma lista das palavras mais comuns de serem confundidas pelos falantes da língua portuguesa. advice business damage economics education energy equipment evidence furniture help homework information knowledge litter/garbage luggage/baggage money music news paper patience pollution progress software time traffic usage wisdom work 5.2 Countable Nouns Muitos substantivos contáveis são concretos, ou seja, têm uma existência física individual (uma unidade): Pessoas, animais, plantas a girl, a horse, a geranium Objetos a bottle, a desk, a computer Grupos an army, a crowd, a herd Unidades de Medida a franc, a kilo, a litter, a meter Partes de uma massa, um todo a bit, a packet, a piece, a slice 5.3 Countable vs Uncountable Nouns Alguns substantivos, como vimos, podem ser contáveis e incontáveis, dependendo do contexto. 5.3.1 Substantivos que podem ser itens únicos ou substâncias E.g.: a chicken / chicken; an egg / egg; a ribbon / ribbon. Quando usamos esses substantivos com a ideia de itens únicos, eles são contáveis: He ate a whole chicken. I had a boiled egg for breakfast. I tied it up with a ribbon. Ao usá-los como substâncias, são incontáveis. Would you like some chicken? There’s egg on your face. I bought some ribbon. 5.3.2 Substantivos que são referências a objetos ou materiais E.g.: a glass / glass; an ice / ice; an iron / iron; a paper / paper. Quando usamos tais palavrascomo contáveis, fazemos referência a algo que é feito do material em si ou que acreditamos como sendo feito desse material. I broke a glass in the morning. Would you like an ice? I’ve got a new iron. What do the papers say? Quando nos referimos ao próprio material, os substantivos são incontáveis. Glass is made from sand. Ice floats. Steel is an alloy of iron. Paper is made from wood. 5.3.3 Substantivos incontáveis que frequentemente são usados como contáveis Muitos substantivos são normalmente incontáveis, mas podem ter a ideia de contáveis quando nos referimos a diferentes variedades. Quando isso ocorre, o substantivo é precedido de um artigo indefinido ou está na sua forma plural: This region produces an excellent wine. The North Sea produces a light oil which is highly prized in the oil industry. This region produces some awful wines as well as good ones. I go out in all weathers. Palavras categorizadas como bebidas, são incontáveis como substância, mas contáveis quando padronizadas em uma quantidade (a glass of; a cup of): Coffee is expensive these days. Two teas and four coffees, please. 5.3.4 Substantivos podem fazer referência a algo específico ou geral E.g.: an education / education; a light / light; a noise / noise Como contáveis, esses substantivos fazem referência a algo específico: He has had a good education. I need a light in my bed. Como incontáveis, eles dão a ideia de algo mais geral: Standards of education are falling. Light travels faster than sound. 6. Gender of Nouns Diferente de nossa língua materna, que possui somente dois gêneros (e as palavras que são unissex), a língua inglesa possui, além desses, o gênero neutro, que diz respeito a todas as coisas – como chair, bus, pencil, table. Nesse grupo, ainda se encaixam os substantivos referentes a animais, como cow, bull, ox. INGLÊS Unit 2 150 IME-ITA – Vol. 1 O gênero gramatical na língua inglesa não existe para uma classificação dos substantivos. Ele acaba sendo relacionado aos pronomes, com a necessidade de ser feita essa distinção. 6.1 Masculine and Feminine Nouns – são aqueles substituídos por pronomes masculinos (e.g.: he) e femininos (e.g.: she). MASCULINE MASCULINO FEMININE FEMININO bachelor solteirão spister solteirona boy girl brother sister father mother gentleman lady grandfather grandmother grandson granddaughter husband wife nephew niece son daughter uncle aunt sir madam monk nun prince princess waiter waitress groom bride widower widow 6.2 Unisex Nouns – aqueles que não se sabe o gênero do substantivo até que seja feita uma contextualização, ou seja, usada uma referência pronominal. accountant contador(a) doctor médico(a) dentist teacher student friend singer writer salesperson police officer 6.3 Animal Nouns – apesar de haver substantivos femininos e masculinos, eles são normalmente substituídos pelos pronomes neutros (e.g.: it). MASCULINE MASCULINO FEMININE FEMININO bull / ox touro / boi cow vaca cockerel / rooster hen gander goose pig sow ram ewe stallion mare lion lioness tiger tigress fox vixen 7. Numbers 7.1 Cardinal Numbers 1 one 9 nine 17 seventeen 40 forty 2 two 10 ten 18 eighteen 50 fifty 3 three 11 eleven 19 nineteen 60 sixty 4 four 12 twelve 20 twenty 70 seventy 5 five 13 thirteen 21 twenty-one 80 eighty 6 six 14 fourteen 22 twenty-two 90 ninety 7 seven 15 fifteen 23 twenty-three 100 a hundred 8 eight 16 sixteen 30 thirty one hundred 101 a hundred and one 999 nine hundred and ninety-nine 1,001 a thousand and one 2,251 two thousand, two hundred and fifty-one • Não usamos o ‘s’ do plural em hundred, thousand e million. There were twenty thousand people at the game. • Usamos o ‘s’ do plural com os mesmos mencionados acima juntamente com ‘of + noun’ quando queremos dar um número aproximado. There were thousands of people at the game. INGLÊS Unit 2 Nouns: number and gender 151IME-ITA – Vol. 1 7.2 Ordinal Numbers 1st first 13th thirteenth 30th thirtieth 2nd second 14th fourteenth 40th fortieth 3rd third 15th fifteenth 50th fiftieth 4th fourth 16th sixteenth 60th sixtieth 5th fifth 17th seventeenth 70th seventieth 6th sixth 18th eighteenth 80th eightieth 7th seventh 19th nineteenth 90th ninetieth 8th eighth 20th twentieth 100th a hundredth 9th ninth 21st twenty-first 10th tenth 22nd twenty-second 11th eleventh 23rd twenty-third 12th twelfth 24th twenty-fourth 7.3 Fractions and Decimals ½ a half 1 ½ one and a half 1.5 one point five ¼ a quarter 2 ¼ two and a quarter 2.25 two point two five ¾ three quarters 9 ¾ nine and three quarters 5.75 five point seven five Mind the gap Decide which answer (A, B, C or D) best fits each gap. Choosing a job One of the most difficult decisions is choosing what to do for a (1) __________. For example, do you want to follow a definite (2) ____________, and (3) _____________ a low (4) ___________ at the beginning, but have good (5) ____________ in a company that trains its (6) _____________? Or are you more interested in taking any kind of work, because you need a / an (7) ____________? You may have to (8) ___________ the fact that a good (9) __________ can be difficult to find. In that case, why not take a (10) _____________ one? You will gain some useful (11) ____________. Remember that even if you have the right (12) ___________, you may have to (13) ____________ lots of application forms before you are asked to (14) ____________ an interview. But don’t worry if you don’t know what you want to (15) ____________ exactly. You’ll enjoy finding out! 1. (A) salary (B) living (C) employee (D) work 2. (A) company (B) training (C) business (D) career 3. (A) earn (B) gain (C) win (D) take 4. (A) money (B) profit (C) cheque (D) salary 5. (A) hopes (B) prospects (C) futures (D) promotions 6. (A) employers (B) crew (C) staff (D) persons 7. (A) money (B) cash (C) account (D) income 8. (A) face up to (B) go over (C) come up with (D) call off 9. (A) work (B) labour (C) job (D) seat 10. (A) temporary (B) overtime (C) profitable (D) short 11. (A) experiences (B) experienced (C) experience (D) experiencing 12. (A) qualifications (B) exams (C) letters (D) degrees 13. (A) fall through (B) get on (C) turn down (D) fill in 14. (A) be (B) attend (C) make (D) advertise 15. (A) work (B) job (C) do (D) employ SOLVED PROBLEMS 01 Choose the correct alternative for the sentence: “Mr. Meyer, the Englishman, and his son are visiting the duke.” (A) Mrs. Meyer, the Englishwoman, and her daughter are visiting the dukess. (B) Mrs. Meyer, the Englishwoman, and her daughter are visiting the duchess. (C) Mr. Meyer, the Englishwoman, and her daughter are visiting the dukess. (D) Mrs. Meyer, the Englishwoman, and her son are visiting the dukess. Resposta: Letra B. A ideia é substituir todos os substantivos masculinos por substantivos femininos, por isso, letra B. 02 Choose the correct alternative for the sentence: “The waiter is serving the widower now.” (A) The waitess is serving the widow now. (B) The waitess is serving the widowess now. (C) The waiteress is serving the windoweress now. (D) The waitress is serving the widow now. Resposta: Letra D. Novamente devemos substituir os substantivos masculinos pelos femininos, e a alternativa que faz de forma correta é a D. 03 In 1975, ____________ a great flood in Recife. (A) there were (B) there was (C) there are (D) there is (E) there will be INGLÊS Unit 2 152 IME-ITA – Vol. 1 Resposta: Letra B. Primeiramente, devemos perceber que flood é um substantivo incontável, e por isso usamos o verbo no singular. Por se tratar do passado (1975), devemos usar was. 04 How many days ____________ in a week? (A) are there (B) there are (C) is there (D) there is (E) was there Resposta: Letra A. Por se tratar de uma pergunta, precisamos usar a inversão na ordem do verbo e do there, e, levando em consideração que a pergunta é sobre algo contável, usamos o plural. 05 Solvethe problems below: I. Two into ten goes __________ times. II. A quarter plus three-quarters makes __________. III. Twenty-eight from fifty leaves __________. (A) five – one – twenty-one. (B) four – four – twenty-one. (C) five – four – twenty-two. (D) five – one – twenty-two. (E) four – four – twenty-two. Resposta: Letra D. Two goes into tens – quantos 2 há em 10 = 5. A quarter plus three-quarters – 1 4 + 3 4 = 1. Twenty-eight from fifty – 28 de 50 = 22. 01 Complete each sentence. Use the words from the box. brother – children – daughter – husband – sister – son – twins – wife a. Ted and Alice were happy when Emily, their _____________ was born. b. Harry asked Ann to be his ___________, and they got married six months later. c. Jim and Mary’s ____________, David, was their second child. d. Richard and Stephen are ___________, but they don’t look exactly the same. e. Mark and his ____________ Sue went shopping with their mother. f. When the school bell rang, a crowd of ___________ ran out of the school. g. Jane met her ____________ Philip at a friend’s wedding. h. Liz and her _____________ Mike like listening to their grandmother’s stories. 02 Match the words on the left to translations on the right. (a) household waste ( ) controlar a inflação (b) renewable energy ( ) uma sequência de eventos (c) jump at a chance ( ) agarrar uma oportunidade (d) summon up the energy ( ) lixo doméstico (e) a chain of events ( ) destinar recursos (f) get glowing reviews ( ) energia renovável (g) provide relief ( ) reinvidicar benefícios (h) claim benefits ( ) juntar as forças (i) curb inflation ( ) dar assistência (j) allocate resources ( ) ser aclamado pela crítica 03 The verb __________ means to go around a place where you have never been to find out what is there. (A) search (B) explore (C) exploit (D) visit (E) conquer 04 A __________ is a strange object in the sky that could be from another part of the universe. (A) UFO (B) comet (C) star (D) planet (E) rocket 05 The verb __________ means both to shine light on something and to explain something clearly. (A) scrutinize (B) illuminate (C) enlighten (D) clarify (E) brighten 06 The adjective __________ means both a strong, light color or someone who is intelligent or happy. (A) lively (B) preposterous (C) bright (D) cheerful (E) sturdy 07 The verb __________ means to step awkwardly while walking or running and fall or begin to fall. (A) stumble (B) hinder (C) wander (D) stroll (E) meander INGLÊS Unit 2 Nouns: number and gender 153IME-ITA – Vol. 1 08 The word __________ describes a situation where there is no order at all and everyone is confused. (A) orderliness (B) outburst (C) neatness (D) chaos (E) tidiness 09 If you take a __________, you stop the activity you are doing to have a short rest. (A) burst (B) nap (C) gap (D) hole (E) breath 10 To __________ means to keep criticizing or giving advice to someone in an annoying way. (A) assuage (B) soothe (C) relieve (D) appease (E) nag 11 The word __________ describes someone who is determined to do what they want and refuses to do anything else. (A) stubborn (B) broad-minded (C) compliant (D) indulgent (E) yielding 12 Somebody __________ has special interest in or experience of something and so knowing what is happening in that subject at the present time. (A) poignant (B) keen (C) aware (D) thirsty (E) weary 13 The word __________ describes something with a sharp, sometimes unpleasant, taste or smell, like a lemon, and not sweet. (A) salty (B) spicy (C) tasty (D) bitter (E) sour 14 If a surface such as paper or skin is __________, it does not feel smooth when you touch it. (A) delicate (B) rough (C) sensitive (D) flat (E) uneven 15 __________ is the use of remarks which clearly mean the opposite of what they say, and which are made in order to hurt someone’s feelings or to criticize something in a humorous way. (A) Jibber jabber (B) Nonsense (C) Tomfoolery (D) Foolishness (E) Sarcasm 16 A(n) __________ is something confusing or a problem which is difficult to solve. (A) issue (B) matter (C) riddle (D) quiz (E) query 17 __________ is the speed at which something happens or changes, or the amount or number of times it happens or changes in a particular period. (A) Rate (B) Grade (C) Rank (D) Scale (E) Amount 18 The verb __________ means to improve the quality, amount or strength of something. (A) highlight (B) heighten (C) raise (D) enhance (E) thrive 19 The verb __________ means to have a heaviness of a stated amount, or to measure the heaviness of an object. (A) weigh (B) match (C) set (D) settle (E) thicken 01 What do you call… a. a shelf for books: ______________________________________________________ b. a train which carries goods: ______________________________________________________ c. a test to detect drugs: ______________________________________________________ INGLÊS Unit 2 154 IME-ITA – Vol. 1 d. a case for putting pencils in: ______________________________________________________ e. the pages of a book that lists the contents: ______________________________________________________ f. an expert in robotics: ______________________________________________________ g. a shop which sells toys: ______________________________________________________ h. an issue of human rights: ______________________________________________________ 02 How would you say these numbers in English? a. 234 ______________________________________________________ b. 91st ______________________________________________________ c. 13,000 ______________________________________________________ d. 5 4 ______________________________________________________ e. 10 1 3 ______________________________________________________ f. 543rd ______________________________________________________ g. 2,865 ______________________________________________________ h. 99th ______________________________________________________ 03 Substitua as definições a seguir por substantivos compostos feitos pela combinação dos substantivos abaixo. bargain friend ground hunters language mother package pedestrian pen precinct sign staff tongue tour a. The people who work in the airport building. ______________________________________________________ b. Area where there are shops, but no cars or buses are allowed to go. ______________________________________________________ c. People looking to buy things at low prices. ______________________________________________________ d. Someone you often exchange letters with, but never met. ______________________________________________________ e. A holiday arranged by a travel agency. ______________________________________________________ f. The first language you learned when a child. ______________________________________________________ g. Hand and body movements to show what you mean. ______________________________________________________ 04 Indique o ordinal referente a four: (A) Forty. (B) Fourteen. (C) Fourteenth. (D) Fourth. (E) Fortieth. 05 What’s the right answer for the numerical expressions below? 1 5 ; 2 3 5 ; 16 15 (A) One fives / two thirty-five / sixteen fifteen. (B) One five / two and third fifth / sixteen fifteens. (C) One fifth / two and three fifths / sixteen fifteenths. (D) First fifths / second thirty-five / sixteenth fifteenths. 06 Reescreva a frase colocando por extenso os numerais na sua forma ordinal: Her __________ (21) birthday will be on the __________ (11). (A) Her twenty-first birthday will be on the eleventieth. (B) Her twenty-one birthday will be on the eleven. (C) Her twenty-first birthday will be on the eleven. (D) Her twenty-one birthday will be on the eleventh. (E) Her twenty-first birthday will be on the eleventh. 07 Assinale a alternativa que corretamente preenche as lacunas I, II e III: I. Five from six leaves _______. II. Two into eight goes _______times. III. The third power oftwo is _______. (A) 30 – 8 – 10. (B) 11 – 10 – 10. (C) 30 – 12 – 8. (D) 1 – 4 – 8. (E) 1 – 8 – 1. 08 In “I’m enjoying a peasant life now. I’ve moved out of London”, the underlined word means: (A) easy. (B) rich. (C) fancy. (D) country. (E) weird. INGLÊS Unit 2 Nouns: number and gender 155IME-ITA – Vol. 1 09 Regarding the impact someone’s appearance causes, the word breathless means: (A) simple. (B) light. (C) unimportant. (D) remarkable. (E) awful. 10 In the sentences “The police, firefighters and other emergency personnel joined about 150 volunteers” and “Most of the injured passengers were able to walk out of the station, but about 20 were carried out on red stretchers”. the word about can not be replaced by: (A) some. (B) within. (C) approximately. (D) almost. (E) roughly. 11 “Psychologists say kids are being robbed of time they need for connecting with their parents and siblings.” The word siblings means: (A) colleagues. (B) partners. (C) relatives. (D) friends. (E) brother or sister. 12 “Communication is embedded within culture and therefore culturally orientated.” The word embedded means: (A) dislodged. (B) refused. (C) rooted. (D) remained. (E) disturbed. 13 Choose the appropriate synonymous sentence to: “She seldom goes to conferences now”. (A) She almost goes to conferences now. (B) She often goes to conferences now. (C) She hardly ever goes to conferences now. (D) She regularly goes to conferences now. (E) She frequently goes to conferences now. 14 “Correspondents consider Mr. Mousavi the main reformist challenger to President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, who is seeking another term.” In the fragment above, the word term means: (A) post. (B) job. (C) turn. (D) position. (E) task. 15 Read the following sentences: I. NATO warships and helicopters pursued Somali pirates for seven hours and the high-speed chase only ended when warning shots were fired at the pirates’ skiff. II. Seven pirates attempted to attack the Norwegian-flagged MV Front Ardenne late Saturday but fled after crew took evasive maneuvers and alerted warships in the area III. How the attack was thwarted is unclear, it appears to have been the actions of the tanker. IV. The pirates’ release underscores the difficulties navies have in fighting rampant piracy off the coast of lawless Somalia. Which option contains words that respectively replace with accuracy the one in bold in the text? (A) Vessel – elusive – avoided – increasing. (B) Small boat – dangerous – facilitated – violent. (C) Yacht – ambiguous – planned – violent. (D) Small boat – elusive – prevented – uncontrolled. (E) Vessel – dangerous – spoilt – increasing. 16 “The revolutionary war hero and outstanding silversmith made the Sons of Liberty silver bowl in the case.” The word outstanding can not be defined as: (A) impressive. (B) remarkable. (C) stunning. (D) feeble. (E) striking. 17 “Modern buildings incorporate exciting forms with glittering façades and compelling interior spaces. Surveying for these projects requires sophisticated computation, aggressive quality control and close interaction with construction teams.” Choose the alternative that corresponds to glittering, without changing the meaning of the sentence. (A) Glossing. (B) Gliding. (C) Gladding. (D) Gluing. (E) Gloating 18 Give the correct sequence of synonyms for the words in bold in the excerpt below: Egypt’s tough 82-year-old president, in charge for the past three decades, now says he will go – but only at the end of his term in September, with dignity and with a subtle threat that if he does not get his way, things could turn uglier still. (A) Sturdy – turn – slight – become. (B) Strong – shift – tenuous – change into. (C) Healthy – cycle – faint – shift. (D) Stiff – spell – fine – grow into. (E) Frail – span – quiet – develop. INGLÊS Unit 2 156 IME-ITA – Vol. 1 19 “The conditions for the agreement were very austere.” Which of the following options can not be used to replace the underlined word? (A) Severe. (B) Harsh. (C) Strict. (D) Feeble. (E) Relentless. 20 Assinale a opção que contém os significados mais adequados para as palavras sublinhadas nos trechos a seguir: I. The Illinois Smoke-free Restaurant Recognition Program recognizes those restaurants that have gone entirely smoke-free… II. Second-hand smoke is a combination of the smoke from a burning cigarette… III. More importantly, it represents a dangerous health hazard. IV. EPA estimates that approximately 3.000 American nonsmokers die… (A) I. constantly; II. provided by; III. complication; IV. likely. (B) I. completely; II. derived from; III. risk; IV. nearly. (C) I. generally; II. made by; III. infection; IV. almost. (D) I. slightly; II. exhaled by; III. loss; IV. around. (E) I. totally; II. produced by; III. problem; IV. exactly. Money Doesn’t Grow on Trees, But Gasoline Might Researchers make breakthrough in creating gasoline from plant matter, with almost no carbon footprint Researchers have made a breakthrough in the development of green gasoline, a liquid identical to the standard gasoline yet created from sustainable biomass sources like switchgrass and poplar trees. Reporting the cover article of the April 7, 2008 issue of Chemistry & Sustainability, Energy & Materials, chemical engineer and National Science Foundation (NSF) researcher George Huber of the University of Massachusetts-Amherst and his graduate students announced the first direct conversion of plant cellulose into gasoline components. Even though it may be 5 to 10 years before green gasoline arrives at the pump or finds its way into a jet airplane, these breakthroughs have bypassed significant difficulties to bringing green gasoline biofuels to market. “It is likely that the future consumer will not even know that they are putting biofuels into their car,” said Huber. “Biofuels in the future will most likely be similar in chemical composition to gasoline and diesel used today. The challenge for chemical engineers is to efficiently produce liquid fuels from biomass while fitting into the existing infrastructure today.” For their new approach, the UMass researchers rapidly heated cellulose in the presence of solid catalysts, materials that speed up reactions without sacrificing themselves in the process. They then rapidly cooled the products to create a liquid that contains many of the compounds found in gasoline. Entire process was completed in less than two minutes using reflexively moderate amounts of heat. “Green gasoline is an attractive alternative to bioethanol since it can be used in existing engines and does not incur the 30 percentage gas mileage penalty of ethanol-based flex fuel”, said John Regalbuto, who directs the Catalysis and Biocatalysis Program at NSF and supported this research. “In theory it requires much less energy to make than ethanol, giving it a smaller carbon footprint and making it cheaper to produce”, Regalbuto said. “Making it from cellulose sources such as switchgrass or poplar trees grown as energy crops, or forest or agricultural residues such as wood chips or corn stover, solves the lifecycle greenhouse gas problem that has recently surfaced with corn ethanol and soy biodiesel.” Beyond academic laboratories, both small businesses and petroleum refineries are pursuing green gasoline. Companies are designing ways to hybridize their existing refineries to enable petroleum products including fuels, textiles, and plastics to be made from either crude oil or biomass and the military community has shown strong interest in making jet fuel and diesel from the same sources. “Huber’s new process for the direct conversion of cellulose to gasoline aromatics is at the leading edge of the new ‘Green Gasoline’ alternate energy paradigm that NSF, along with other federal agencies, is helping to promote”, states Regalbuto. (Adapted from National Science Foundation. Available at <www.nsf.gov>.) 01 The mainpurpose of the text is to: (A) report on a new kind of fuel that might harm the environment. (B) advertise the recent findings of chemical engineers concerning gasoline components. (C) criticize the latest research on biofuels that could not find a relevant alternative oil. (D) justify why corn ethanol and soy biodiesel are the best alternatives to standard gasoline. (E) announce a significant advance in the development of an ecofriendly fuel that may affect the market. 02 According to the text, it is not correct to affirm that green gasoline: (A) is cheaper to produce than ethanol. (B) derives from vegetables and plants. (C) can already be used in jet airplanes. (D) requires much less energy to make than ethanol. (E) results in smaller amounts of carbon emissions than ethanol. 03 In the sentence ‘It is likely that the future consumer will not even know that they are putting biofuels into their car”, the underlined expression could be substituted by: (A) surely. (B) certainly. (C) probably. (D) obviously. (E) undoubtedly. 04 The pronoun themselves in “…without sacrificing themselves in the process” refers to: (A) researchers. (B) materials. (C) reactions. (D) compounds. (E) amounts. INGLÊS Unit 2 Nouns: number and gender 157IME-ITA – Vol. 1 ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ 05 Which alternative contains a correct correspondence of meaning? (A) “speed up” means accelerate. (B) “rapidly” is the opposite of quickly. (C) “entire” could not be replaced by whole. (D) “residues” and leftovers are antonyms. (E) “surfaced” and emerged are not synonyms. 06 Mark the sentence in which the idea introduced by the word in bold type is correctly described: (A) “Even though it may be 5 to 10 years before green gasoline arrives at the pump or finds its way into a jet airplane” – comparison. (B) “…while fitting into the existing infrastructure today” – consequence. (C) “…then rapidly cooled the products to create a liquid that contains many of the compounds found in gasoline” – contrast. (D) “Green gasoline is an attractive alternative to bioethanol since it can be used in existing engines…” – reason. (E) “Making it from cellulose sources such as switchgrass or poplar trees grown as energy crops” – addition. 07 The fourth paragraph informs that UMass researchers produce green gasoline by: (A) creating a hot liquid from standard gasoline adding catalysts. (B) using cellulose with liquids that catalyze gasoline in less than two minutes. (C) applying moderate heat to compounds found in gasoline to produce a solid catalyst. (D) slowly cooling the product of solid catalytic reactions which will produce cellulose. (E) heating cellulose with specific catalysts and then cooling the product so it is transformed into a liquid. 08 According to the text, it might be said that corn ethanol and soy biodiesel have: (A) contributed to the greenhouse gas problem. (B) increased consumption in cars by 30 percent. (C) produced residues such as wood chips or corn stover. (D) caused the extinction of sustainable biomass sources. (E) generated a smaller carbon footprint than green gasoline. 09 The text says that research on green gasoline has: (A) had no printed space in scientific journals. (B) not received support from scientific foundations. (C) found no interest among the military and the businessmen. (D) been neglected by academic laboratories and graduate research programs. (E) had to overcome problems to discover an efficient means of producing and marketing this fuel. 10 The title of the text, “Money doesn’t grow on trees, but gasoline might”, refers to the: (A) planting trees near oil wells that produce gasoline. (B) exciting possibility of developing an effective green fuel. (C) amazing solution of diluting gasoline with forest and agricultural residues. (D) incredible discovery of trees that produce more when irrigated with a mixture of gasoline. (E) sensational invention of new green fuel that will cost three million dollars in reforestation. INGLÊS Unit 2 158 IME-ITA – Vol. 1 Antes de definirmos o que são os artigos e números, devemos lembrar que eles fazem parte de um grupo de palavras denominado determinantes. Podem nos ajudar a classificar, identificar (artigos, pronomes e adjetivos) e quantificar (números e quantificadores) os substantivos. 1. Articles Na maioria das línguas europeias, há regras sobre o uso (ou não) dos artigos definidos e indefinidos. Essas regras dependem geralmente do gênero do substantivo ou se está no singular ou plural. Já em inglês, o gênero não afeta o uso do artigo, mas o número sim. Além disso, ainda temos o artigo zero na língua inglesa. Ele é chamado dessa maneira por ser extremamente importante. 1.1 The Indefinite Articles: A/AN Os ar tigos indefinidos são somente usados com substantivos contáveis no singular e quando o mesmo substantivo passa uma ideia de indefinido, ou seja, não seja conhecido pelo interlocutor. A diferença entre o a e o an é fonética: usamos a antes de substantivos que sejam iniciados com um som não vocálico, ou seja, consoantes e semivogais – a horse, a diary, a uniform, a ewe, a one-store building. Já o an é usado antes de substantivos que comecem com sons vocálicos, ou seja, vogais e H não pronunciado – an egg, an umbrela, an hour, an honest man. 1.1.1 Artigo indefinido para uma ideia geral Quando dizemos A rose is a flower, significa que a rose é um exemplo de classe de itens chamados flowers. Isso também se dá quando rotulamos algo: An architect is a person who designs buildings. Mike is an architect. 1.1.2 Artigo indefinido para a ideia de ”somente um” I’d like an apple. She has two sons and a daughter. 1.1.3 Artigo indefinido referindo a algo sendo mencionado pela primeira vez I was walking outside and I saw a dog. The dog was really dirty. 1.1.4 Artigo indefinido usado em números He paid her a thousand dollars. It’s a quarter to eight. Go to the market and by a dozen eggs. 1.1.5 Artigo indefinido com ideia de medida He drives too slowly, almost 20 km an/per hour. They go to the movies twice a/per month. 1.2 The Definite Article: THE O ar tigo definido normalmente tem a ideia de algo definido, ou seja, conhecido pelo interlocutor. Além disso, ele pode ser usado com substantivos contáveis no plural e no singular e também com substantivos incontáveis. 1.2.1 Artigo definido para a ideia de algo específico Já mencionado anteriormente I found a pencil. The pencil is black and white. Sendo especificado por uma oração The pencil I found is black and white. Já conhecido pelo interlocutor The children have gone to the market. Há somente um There’s someone at the door; The sun shines so brightly. 1.2.2 Artigo definido para expressões de tempo In the past, people had fewer expectations. We spent the day at home. In the evening, we went out. I’m afraidJenny cannot speak to you at the moment. 1.2.3 Artigo definido para expressar grupos (juntamente com adjetivos e nacionalidades) The young are always reckless. The British and the Americans have been allies for a long time. 1.2.4 Artigo definido para superlativo e comparativo especial Flash is the fastest man alive. The sooner we tell them the better. 1.2.5 Artigo definido para famílias The Simpsons are a nice family. The Kennedys suffered a lot. Articles and indefinites INGLÊS UNIT 3 159IME-ITA – Vol. 1 1.2.6 Artigo definido para uniões e associações The United Kingdom; The United States of America; The Netherlands 1.2.7 Artigo definido para oceanos, mares, rios, desertos. The Pacific (Ocean); The Mississipi; The Sahara 1.2.8 Artigo definido para grupos de ilhas e cadeias de montanhas The Bahamas; The Alpes 1.3 The Zero Article O uso de um substantivo sozinho na língua inglesa é tão fundamental que não podemos identificá-lo somente como a omissão do artigo. O artigo zero é usado antes de três tipos de substantivos: contáveis no plural, incontáveis e nomes próprios. 1.3.1 Artigo zero usado como algo geral Women are fighting for their rights. Cats do not like cold weather. English is a world language. Refined foods like sugar must be avoided. 1.3.2 Artigo zero usado com dias, meses, estações do ano e feriados Mondays are always difficult. April is my favourite month. Christmas is the time for family reunion. 1.3.3 Artigo zero para refeições Let’s have breakfast. Lunch will be at noon. 1.3.4 Artigo zero para quantidades não específicas I have presents for all the children. Is there food for me? 1.3.5 Artigo zero para ilhas e montanhas Everest; Christmas Island 1.3.6 Artigo zero para continentes, países, cidades Africa; Central Asia; Canada; Salvador 1.3.7 Artigo zero para os seguintes lugares quando se referindo ao seu propósito primário: bed, church, class, college, court, hospital, market, prison, school, sea, town, university, work. He is in prison. (ele está lá pelo propósito do lugar, ou seja, ele está preso) He is in the prison. She is going to hospital. (ela está indo pelo propósito do hospital) She is going to the hospital. 2. INDEFINITES Os indefinites, como a própria palavra demonstra, são pronomes que fazem referência a pessoas, lugares ou coisas que sejam indefinidas, ou seja, não específicas. Para maior compreensão do tópico, estudaremos os pronomes juntamente com os quantificadores. 2.1 Quantifiers Some e any são os quantificadores mais utilizados na língua inglesa. São usados quando não é importante afirmar exatamente a quantidade de algo. Eles normalmente funcionam como o plural de a/an: There is a letter for you. There are some letters for you. Também usamos some e any quando falamos sobre uma quantidade indefinida de um substantivo incontável: There is some water on the floor. I don’t have any money in my bag. Muitas vezes, podemos omitir some e any: There are letters for you. I don’t have money in my bag. Usamos também o no como um quantificador, mas ele só pode ser usado quando a oração estiver na afirmativa, uma vez que evitamos a dupla negativa na língua inglesa: I don’t have any money in my bag. I have no money in my bag. 2.1.1 Usage 2.1.1.1 Some Afirmativas There are some eggs in the fridge. There is some milk in the fridge. Em perguntas cujas respostas gostaríamos (ou esperamos) que fossem sim. Have you got some paper-clips in that box? INGLÊS Unit 3 160 IME-ITA – Vol. 1 Em ofertas, pedidos, convites e sugestões que esperamos que a resposta seja sim ou que há uma ideia implícita de concordância Would you like some coffee? May I have some coffee? Com ideia de NOT ALL Some people believe anything they read online. I didn’t understand some of the information. 2.1.1.2 Any Negativas We haven’t got any posters. There isn’t any milk in the fridge. Em perguntas que não sabemos a resposta ou que esperamos que a resposta seja não. Have you got any paper-clips in the box? Em frases que contenham uma palavra de ideia negativa como hardly, never, seldom ou without ou que sugiram uma dúvida como if ou whether. There is hardly any petrol in the tank. We got to Paris without any trouble. I don’t know if/whether there’s any news from Harry. 2.1.1.3 No Como dito anteriormente, no só poderá ser usado em orações cujo verbo esteja na afirmativa. He has no money and no friends. He is completely lost! 2.1.2 Special Uses 2.1.2.1 Some several I haven’t seen Sabrina for some years. approximately There are some 400 people outside. extraordinary That’s some radio you bought! unknown There must be some book which could help. an amount of We’ve given some thought to your idea and found it interesting. 2.1.2.2 Any Any pode ser usado para se referir a uma coisa ou pessoa não específicas quando a oração estiver na afirmativa. usual This isn’t just any cake. the minimum/the maximum He’ll need any help he can get. I don’t care which/who Give me a plate. Any plate will do. 2.2 Pronouns Os pronomes indefinidos são palavras compostas de SOME, ANY, NO e EVERY com as terminações ONE/BODY, THING e WHERE. There is someone at the door. I don’t want to go anywhere tonight. Let’s just stay home. Os pronomes indefinidos formados por SOME, ANY e NO seguem as mesmas regras dos quantificadores. AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE SOME He is someone important. Would you like something to drink? ANY I’m starving. I’d eat anything! There isn’t anybody here. Is there anything to eat? NO There is nobody here. 2.2.1 Important Notes Não há uma diferença específica entre ONE e BODY. Ambas fazem referência a homens e mulheres. I saw somebody stealing the bread. I saw someone stealing the bread. Todos esses compostos são escritos como uma palavra, excetuando-se no one. There is nobody outside. There is no one outside. Os compostos que fazem referência a pessoas possuem a forma no caso genitivo. Grammar isn’t everyone’s idea of fun. It is nobody’s fault! Quando fazemos referência aos pronomes indefinidos que relacionados a pessoas, usamos a terceira pessoa do plural. Everyone knows what they have to do, don’t they? 2.2.2 Indefinite Pronouns + Adjectives and/or The Infinitive positive adjectives This is something special. comparative adjectives I’d like something cheaper. the infinitive Haven’t you got anything to do? for (“me”) + infinitive Is there anything for me to sit on? Mind the gap Decide which answer (A, B, C or D) best fits each space. A Disastrous Holiday The day Gerald arrived at the Almara Beach Hotel, he fell (1) _________ the stairs. The manager called a / an (2) __________, but fortunately INGLÊS Unit 3 Articles and indefinites 161IME-ITA – Vol. 1 Gerald’s leg was only badly (3) _________, and not broken. The doctor (4) ____________ swimming as further (5) _____________ but gave Gerald a / an (6) ____________ for some tablets in case his leg became (7) ____________. The next day Gerald sunbathed by the pool, and then took a deep (8) ___________ and dived into the water. There was not very much water in the pool, and he (9) _________ one of his arms when he hit the bottom. This time he complained to the hotel manager, who sent a special meal to Gerald’s room. Later that night, Gerald was (10) __________ from a (11) ___________ back, the injuries in his arm and leg, and also had a terrible (12) ____________. He had high (13) __________ and felt terrible. Luckily he had the tablets the doctor had given him to (14) ____________ the pain. As he reached for them, he fell out of bed and broke his (15) ___________. He spent the rest of his holiday in bed. 1. (A) down (B) to (C) with (D) for 2. (A) stretcher (B) prescription (C) ambulance (D) emergency 3. (A) sick (B) bruised (C) hurt (D) infected 4. (A) went (B) prevented (C) said (D) recommended 5. (A) medicine (B) cure (C) drugs (D) treatment 6. (A) recipe (B) paper (C)
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