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Size, medium to large; shape, typically elongate, contractile; often pigmented; mature forms, sessile and sedentary, always residing in a lorica; body, especially in neck region in some species, with conspicuous pair of “peristomial wings” bearing the prominent oral ciliature ; at division, complex morphogenesis with vermiform migratory larval stage that “recapitulates” a typical heterotrich 17.3 The Ciliate Taxa to Genus 345 with reduced spiralling of the adoral zone ; macro- nucleus, variable, as single ellipsoid to multiple and moniliform; micronucleus, single to multiple; contrac- tile vacuole, present at least in freshwater forms; cyto- proct (?); feeding on bacteria, microalgae, and other protists; widely distributed in marine habitats, but a few species in freshwater, attached to algae, higher aquatic plants, or integument or shells of invertebrates (e.g., molluscs, various crustaceans, bryozoa, coelen- terates); 30 genera including some fossil forms. – Ampullofolliculina Hadzi, 1951 – Ascobius Henneguy, 1884 – Atriofolliculina Hadzi, 1951 [nomen nudum] – Aulofolliculina Hadzi, 1951 – Botticula Dioni, 1972 – Claustrofolliculina Hadzi, 1951 – Diafolliculina Hadzi, 1951 [nomen nudum] – Echinofolliculina Dons, 1934 – Epifolliculina Hadzi, 1951 – Eufolliculina Hadzi, 1951 – Folliculina Lamarck, 1816 – Folliculinopsis Fauré-Fremiet, 1936 [nomen nudum] – Halofolliculina Hadzi, 1951 [nomen nudum] – Lagotia Wright, 1857 – Latifolliculina Hadzi, 1951 – Magnifolliculina Uhlig, 1964 [nomen nudum] – Metafolliculina Dons, 1924 – Mirofolliculina Dons, 1928 – Pachyfolliculina Hadzi, 1951 – Parafolliculina Dons, 1914 – Pebrilla Giard, 1888 – Perifolliculina Hadzi, 1951 – Planifolliculina Hadzi, 1951 – Platyfolliculina Hadzi, 1938 – Priscofolliculina Deflandre & Deunff, 1957 (fossil) – Pseudofolliculina Dons, 1914 – Pseudoparafolliculina Andrews & Nelson, 1942 – Splitofolliculina Hadzi, 1951 [nomen nudum] – Stentofolliculina Hadzi, 1938 – Valletofolliculina Andrews, 1953 Family MARISTENTORIDAE Miao, Simpson, Fu, & Lobban, 2005 Size, large, majestic when fully extended; shape, trumpet-shaped with apical area expanded into a bilobed “cap” divided by a ventral indentation, very contractile ; free-swimming, but typically tem- porarily attached to substrate; pigmented, due both to blood-red pigmentocysts and to the presence of symbiotic zooxanthellae; somatic ciliation, holotri- chous; oral ciliature of over 300 oral polykinetids, spirals around flared-out anterior end, encircling an anterior peristomial field with scattered cili- ate dikinetids, not arranged in kineties ; paroral, very reduced; macronucleus, ellipsoid; micronuclei, multiple; contractile vacuole, absent; cytoproct, not reported; feeding on bacteria, microalgae, and other protists; in marine habitats, at least associated with coral reefs; one genus. – Maristentor Lobban, Schefter, Simpson, Pochon, Pawlowski, & Foissner, 2002 * Family PERITROMIDAE Stein, 1867 Size, medium; shape, ellipsoidal, dorsoventrally flattened, contractile; free-swimming; somatic cili- ation primarily on ventral (= right?) surface; single somatic kinety on slightly convex dorsal (= left?) surface; spine-like cilia of dorsal kinetids emerg- ing from wart-like papillae ; extrusomes, not reported; oral region expansive with left serial oral polykinetids extending anteriorly from equatorial oral cavity along anterior border of cell and paroral extending parallel to serial oral polykinetids ; macronucleus, typically in two lobes; micronucleus, present; contractile vacuole, present; cytoproct, present; feeding on bacteria, microalgae, and other protists; generally in marine habitats, including salt marshes; one genus. – Peritromus Stein, 1863 Family SPIROSTOMIDAE Stein, 1867 (syn. Spirostomatidae ) Size, medium to large; shape, often elongate, cylin- drical and very contractile; some pigmented forms; free-swimming; somatic ciliation, holotrichous; extru- somes, not reported; oral region in anterior half; peristomial field, long, narrow, not ciliated; oral ciliature sometimes relatively inconspicuous, but still with many serial oral polykinetids, extend- ing 1/3–1/2 body length ; paroral may extend almost entire length of oral region, paralleling the adoral zone; macronucleus, moniliform; micronucleus, present; contractile vacuole posterior, frequently large, and may have lengthy collecting canal; cytoproct, present; 346 17. The Ciliate Taxa Including Families and Genera feeding on bacteria, microalgae, and other protists; predominantly in freshwater habitats; two genera and two genera incertae sedis . – Gruberia Kahl, 1932 – Spirostomum Ehrenberg, 1834 Incertae sedis in Family Spirostomidae – Diplogmus Mansfeld, 1923 – Propygocirrus Mansfeld, 1923 Family STENTORIDAE Carus, 1863 Size, medium to large, becoming majestic in size and movement; shape, trumpet-shaped with apical area not bilobed, very contractile ; often pigmented due to pigmentocysts with the pig- ment stentorin and/or with symbiotic zoochlo- rellae; free-swimming, but typically temporarily attached to the substrate, with a few species residing in mucilaginous loricae; somatic ciliation, holotri- chous, with posterior end having thigmotactic cilia permitting temporary attachment to substrate; oral ciliature spirals nearly 360° around flared-out anterior end, encircling an anterior peristomial field that is covered by ciliated kinetids arranged in ordered kineties; paroral accompanying entire length of adoral zone of polykinetids ; macro- nucleus, ellipsoid to ribbon-like and moniliform; micronucleus, one to many; contractile vacuole, may be multiple; cytoproct, present; feeding on bac- teria, microalgae, and other protists, including other ciliates; typically in freshwater habitats only; one genus and three genera incertae sedis . – Stentor Oken, 1815 Incertae sedis in Family Stentoridae – Heterostentor Song & Wilbert, 2002 * – Parastentor Vuxanovici, 1961 – Stentoropsis Dogiel & Bychowsky, 1934 Subphylum INTRAMACRONUCLEATA Lynn, 1996 ( Ciliostomatophora p.p ., Homoiotricha p.p ., Homo- tricha p.p ., Kinetodesmatophora p.p ., Postcilio- nematophora p.p ., Tubulicorticata + Filicorticata + Epiplasmata + Membranellophora p.p ., Trans- versonematophora p.p .) Size, small to large; shape, variable, from globular to ellipsoid to elongate; free-swimming or sessile; cortical alveolar system typically well-developed; somatic ciliation, holotrichous, but forms with girdles and strips, and even non-ciliated taxa are known; parasomal sacs, present; extrusomes as somatic mucocysts and trichocysts and oral and somatic toxicysts; oral structures, variable, minimally with oral dikinetids, either encircling the cytostome or on the right side as a paroral, but some forms also with several to many oral polykinetids in an adoral zone and other forms astomatous or with oralized somatic kinetids; stomatogenesis, variable from telokinetal to buccokinetal; fission, typically isotomic, rarely anisotomic and multiple; macronuclear genome typically differentiated by fragmentation of micro- nuclear chromosomes during anlage development; polyploid macronucleus dividing by intramacro- nuclear microtubules ; micronucleus, present; con- jugation, typically temporary and isogamontic, but some forms showing complete conjugation with ani- sogamonty; feeding habits, diverse, including several major classes and subclasses as obligate symbionts, sometimes parasitic; widely distributed in marine, freshwater, and terrestrial habitats; nine classes. NOTE : Lynn (1996a) suggested that the rapid radiation within this subphylum arose from a fundamentally different property of ciliate cellular organization, perhaps