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RECOMMENDED PRACTICE DNVGLRPC208 Edition September 2019 Amended January 2020 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods The electronic PDF version of this document, available at the DNV GL website dnvgl.com, is the official, binding version. DNV GL AS FOREWORD DNV GL recommended practices contain sound engineering practice and guidance. © DNV GL AS September 2019 Any comments may be sent by email to rules@dnvgl.com This service document has been prepared based on available knowledge, technology and/or information at the time of issuance of this document. The use of this document by others than DNV GL is at the user's sole risk. DNV GL does not accept any liability or responsibility for loss or damages resulting from any use of this document. CHANGES – CURRENT This document supersedes the June 2013 edition of DNVRPC208. Changes in this document are highlighted in red colour. However, if the changes involve a whole chapter, section or subsection, normally only the title will be in red colour. Amendments January 2020 Topic Reference Description Buckling [5.4.2.1] Formula (17) for critical buckling stress ( ) corrected. Examples [8.1.1] Formula for bending moment ( ) corrected. Changes September 2019 This document is a republished version of the September 2016 edition. No changes have been made to the content of this document. Main changes September 2016 On 12 September 2013, DNV and GL merged to form DNV GL Group. On 25 November 2013 Det Norske Veritas AS became the 100% shareholder of Germanischer Lloyd SE, the parent company of the GL Group, and on 27 November 2013 Det Norske Veritas AS, company registration number 945 748 931, changed its name to DNV GL AS. For further information, see www.dnvgl.com. Any reference in this document to “Det Norske Veritas AS”, “Det Norske Veritas”, “DNV”, “GL”, “Germanischer Lloyd SE”, “GL Group” or any other legal entity name or trading name presently owned by the DNV GL Group shall therefore also be considered a reference to “DNV GL AS”. • Sec.4 Requirements to finite element analysis — In [4.3.4] new section has been added. Previous text rearranged and moved to [4.5]. — In [4.5] title has been changed and text rearranged. Comment on drilling stiffness added. — In [4.6] new material curves have been added, modified text regarding strain rate. — In [4.9] new text on contact modelling has been added. • Sec.5 Representation of different failure modes — In [5.1] criteria have been revised. — In [5.2] thickness effect has been included. • Sec.7 Commentary (previously Appendix A) — In [7.3] new material curves have been added. — In [7.6] new comment has been added. — In [7.7] new comment has been added. — In [7.8] text revised and mean curves have been added. — In [7.11] new comment has been added. C ha ng es c ur re nt Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 3 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS • Sec.8 Examples — In [8.1] example has been updated. — In [8.6] new example has been added. — In [8.7] new example has been added. — In [8.8] new example has been added. — In [8.9] numbers have been updated. • App.A Structural models for ship collision analysis — App.A Structural models for ship collision analysis has been added. Editorial corrections In addition to the above stated changes, editorial corrections may have been made. C ha ng es c ur re nt Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 4 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS Acknowledgements This recommended practice is prepared based on results from two joint industry projects. The first joint industry project was sponsored by the following companies and institutions (in alphabetic order): ConocoPhillips Skandinavia AS Det Norske Veritas AS Mærsk Olie og Gas AS Petroleum Safety Authority Norway Statoil ASA Total E&P Norge AS A followup project was sponsored by the following companies and institutions (in alphabetic order): ConocoPhillips Norge DNV GL AS DYNAmore Nordic AB EDRMedeso AS Force Technology Norway AS Lundin Norway AS Maersk Olie og Gas A/S Petroleum Safety Authority Norway Rambøll Statoil ASA Total E&P Norge In addition to their financial support, the above companies are also acknowledged for their technical contributions through their participation in the project. C ha ng es c ur re nt Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 5 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS CONTENTS Changes – current.................................................................................................. 3 Acknowledgements.................................................................................5 Section 1 Introduction............................................................................................ 9 1.1 General............................................................................................. 9 1.2 Objective...........................................................................................9 1.3 Scope................................................................................................ 9 1.4 Validity..............................................................................................9 1.5 Definitions.......................................................................................10 Section 2 Basic considerations..............................................................................13 2.1 Limit state safety format................................................................ 13 2.2 Characteristic resistance.................................................................14 2.3 Types of failure modes................................................................... 14 2.4 Use of linear and nonlinear analysis methods............................... 14 2.5 Empirical basis for the resistance...................................................15 2.6 Ductility.......................................................................................... 15 2.7 Serviceability limit states............................................................... 15 2.8 Permanent deformations................................................................ 15 Section 3 General requirements............................................................................16 3.1 Definition of failure.........................................................................16 3.2 Modelling strategy.......................................................................... 16 3.3 Modelling accuracy......................................................................... 16 3.4 Determination of characteristic resistance taking into account statistical variation...............................................................................16 3.5 Requirement to the software..........................................................17 3.6 Requirements to the user............................................................... 17 Section 4 Requirements to finite elementanalysis............................................... 18 4.1 General........................................................................................... 18 4.2 Selection of software for finite element analysis............................ 18 4.3 Selection of analysis method.......................................................... 18 4.4 Geometry modelling........................................................................20 4.5 Mesh............................................................................................... 21 4.6 Material modelling.......................................................................... 22 4.7 Boundary conditions.......................................................................28 4.8 Load application..............................................................................29 C on te nt s Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 6 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS 4.9 Contact modelling...........................................................................29 4.10 Application of safety factors......................................................... 30 4.11 Execution of nonlinear finite element analyses, quality control... 31 4.12 Requirements to documentation of the finite element analysis..... 31 Section 5 Representation of different failure modes.............................................32 5.1 Design against tensile failure......................................................... 32 5.2 Failure due to repeated yielding (low cycle fatigue)....................... 37 5.3 Accumulated strain (ratcheting).....................................................42 5.4 Buckling.......................................................................................... 43 5.5 Repeated buckling.......................................................................... 49 Section 6 Bibliography.......................................................................................... 51 6.1 Bibliography....................................................................................51 Section 7 Commentary.......................................................................................... 53 7.1 Comments to [4.1] General............................................................. 53 7.2 Comments to [4.5.2] Selection of element...................................... 53 7.3 Comments to [4.6.6] Recommendations for steel material qualities (low fractile)..........................................................................53 7.4 Comment to [4.6.8] Strain rate effects............................................54 7.5 Comments to [5.1.1] General.......................................................... 55 7.6 Comments to [5.1.3] Tensile failure in base material simplified approach for plane plates.....................................................................55 7.7 Comments to [5.1.5] Failure of welds............................................. 56 7.8 Comment to [5.1.6] Simplified tensile failure criteria in case low capacity is unfavourable.......................................................................56 7.9 Comment to [5.2.3] Determination of cyclic loads........................... 58 7.10 Comment to [5.2.4] Cyclic stress strain curves..............................58 7.11 Comment to [5.2.6] Low cycle fatigue of base material................. 58 7.12 Comment to [5.2.5.1] Accumulated damage criterion.................... 58 7.13 Comments to [5.2.7] Shake down check........................................59 7.14 Comments to [5.4.1] General........................................................ 59 7.15 Comments to [5.4.5] Strain limits to avoid accurate check of local stability for plates and tubular sections yielding in compression..........................................................................................60 Section 8 Examples............................................................................................... 61 8.1 Example: Strain limits for tensile failure due to gross yielding of plane plates (uniaxial stress state)...................................................... 61 8.2 Example: Convergence test of linearized buckling of frame corner................................................................................................... 67 C on te nt s Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 7 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS 8.3 Example: Determination of buckling resistance by use of linearized buckling values.................................................................... 71 8.4 Example: Determination of buckling resistance from nonlinear analysis using standard defined equivalent tolerances.........................75 8.5 Example: Determination of buckling resistance from nonlinear analysis that are calibrated against standard formulations or tests...... 78 8.6 Example: Buckling check of jacket frame structure during deck installation............................................................................................85 8.7 Example: Joint of rectangular hollow section (RHS) and circular hollow section (CHS) under tension loading.........................................99 8.8 Example: Check of stiffened plate exposed to blast loads............. 119 8.9 Example: Low cycle fatigue analysis of tubular joint subjected to out of plane loading........................................................................... 140 8.10 Example: Low cycle fatigue analysis of plate with circular hole...145 Appendix A Structural models for ship collision analyses................................... 148 A.1 Element library of offshore supply vessels................................... 148 Changes – historic.............................................................................................. 149 C on te nt s Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 8 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 General This document is intended to give guidance on how to establish structural resistance by use of nonlinear finite element (FE) methods. It deals with determining the characteristic resistance of a structure or part of a structure in a way that fulfils the requirements to ultimate strength in DNV GL standards. Nonlinear effects that may be included in the analyses are material and geometrical nonlinearity, contact problems, etc. The characteristic resistance should represent a value that meets the requirement that there is less than 5% probability that the resistance is less than this value. This definition of characteristic resistance is similar to what is required by many other structural standards that use the limit state safety format. Recommendations in this document are expected to be valid for determination of capacities to be used with such standards. 1.2 Objective The objective of this recommended practice is that analyses carried out according to the recommendations given in this document will lead to a structure that meets the requirements to the minimum safety margin in the governing structural standard. This document is not intended to replace formulas for resistance in design standards for the cases where they are applicable and accurate, but to present methods that allow for using nonlinear FEmethods to determine resistance for cases that is not covered by traditional standards. 1.3 Scope This recommended practice is meant to supplement structural design standards for offshore steel structures and gives recommendation on how to determine the structural capacity by the use of nonlinear finite element analysis. 1.4 Validity The document is valid for marine structures made from structural steels meeting requirements to offshore structures with yield strength of up to 500 MPa. The recommendations presented herein are adapted to typical offshore steels that fulfil the requirements specified in DNVGLOSC101 /9/ or an equivalent offshore design standard. The specified requirements are made under the assumption that the considered structure is operating under environmental conditions that are within the specifications of the applied offshore standard. If the offshore unit is operating outside these specifications, the failure criterion presented in this recommended practice can only be utilized if it can be documented that both the weld and parent material have sufficient toughness in the actual environmental conditions. This recommended practice is concernedonly with failure associated with extreme loads. Failure due to repeated loading from moderate loads (fatigue) needs to be checked separately. See DNVGLRPC203 /11/. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 9 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS 1.5 Definitions 1.5.1 Definition of terms This recommended practice use terms as defined in DNVGLOSC101 /9/. The following additional terms are defined below: Table 11 Definition of terms Term Definition characteristic resistance the resistance that for a particular failure mode is meeting the requirement of having a prescribed probability that the resistance falls below a specified value, usually the 5% fractile conservative load load that maintains its orientation when the structure deforms, e.g. gravity loads dimensioning event the extreme load or sequence of loads that are the most unfavourable with respect to thestructural capacity ductility the ability to deform beyond the proportionality limit without significant reduction in the capacity due to fracture or local buckling Note: originally, ductility refers to the behaviour of the material, but is here also used for the behaviour of structures and structural details engineering shear strain equivalent strain expected resistance the resistance having 50% probability of being exceeded follower load load that changes direction with the structure, e.g. hydrostatic pressure gross yielding yielding across larger parts of a structural detail. lowcycle fatigue the progressive and localised damage caused by repeated plastic strain in the material Note: lowcycle fatigue assessments are carried out by considering the cyclic strain level. net area area of a cross section or part of a cross section where the area of holes and openings aresubtracted net section ratio the ratio between the net area and the gross area of the tension part of a cross section redundant structure a structure in which loss of capacity in one of its structural elements will lead to little or noreduction in the overall loadcarrying capacity due to load redistribution shake down a state in which a structure after being loaded into the elastoplastic range will behaveessentially linear for all subsequent cycles 1.5.2 Symbols b span of plate Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 10 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used c flange outstand, speed of sound C damping matrix CFEM resistance knock down factor D outer diameter of tubular sections E modulus of elasticity Ep1 stressstrain curve parameter Ep2 stressstrain curve parameter Fext external forces Fint internal forces fy yield stress/yield strength K RambergOsgood parameter kg eigenvalue for governing buckling mode Ls characteristic element size of smallest element lyz length of yielding zone M mass matrix N number of cycles to failure Rd design resistance Rk characteristic resistance Sd design action effect Sd characteristic action effect t time, thickness u displacement vector ε strain εcr critical strain εeng engineering (nominal) strain εeq equivalent strain εcrg gross yielding strain limit fatigue ductility coefficient εp_ult stressstrain curve parameter εp_y1 stressstrain curve parameter εtrue true (logarithmic) strain Δεhs fully reversible maximum principal hot spot strain range Δεl fully reversible local maximum principal strain range Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 11 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Δt time step γM material factor γf partial factor for actions reduced slenderness ν Poisson’s ratio = 0.5 for plastic strain ρ density σ1,σ2 principal stresses σRep representative stress σeng engineering (nominal) stress fatigue strength coefficient σki critical buckling stress σkig linearized buckling stress disregarding local buckling modes σkil linearized local buckling stress σprop stressstrain curve parameter σtrue true (Cauchy) stress σult stressstrain curve parameter σyield stressstrain curve parameter σyield2 stressstrain curve parameter 1.5.3 Verbal forms Table 12 Definition of verbal forms Term Definition shall verbal form used to indicate requirements strictly to be followed in order to conform to the document should verbal form used to indicate that among several possibilities one is recommended as particularly suitable,without mentioning or excluding others may verbal form used to indicate a course of action permissible within the limits of the document Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 12 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used SECTION 2 BASIC CONSIDERATIONS 2.1 Limit state safety format A limit state can be defined as: A state beyond which the structure no longer satisfies the design performance requirements. See e.g. /1/. Limit states can be divided into the following groups: — Ultimate limit states (ULS) corresponding to the ultimate resistance for carrying loads. — Fatigue limit states (FLS) related to the possibility of failure due to the effect of cyclic loading. — Accidental limit states (ALS) corresponding to failure due to an accidental event or operational failure. — Serviceability limit states (SLS) corresponding to the criteria applicable to normal use or durability. This recommended practice deals with limit states that can be grouped to ULS and ALS. It also addresses failure modes from cyclic loading for cases that cannot adequately be checked according to the methods used in standards for check of FLS. This is relevant for situations where the structure is loaded by a cyclic load at a high load level, but only for a limited number of cycles (lowcycle fatigue). The safety format that is used in limit state standards is schematically illustrated in Figure 21. Figure 21 Illustration of the limit state safety format The requirement can be written as: Sd ≤ Rd (1) Sd = design action effect Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 13 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Rd = design resistance Sk = characteristic action effect = partial factor for actions Rk = characteristic resistance = material factor It can be seen from Figure 21 that it is important that the uncertainty in the resistance is adequately addressed when the characteristic resistance is determined. 2.2 Characteristic resistance The characteristic resistance should represent a value which will imply that there is less than 5% probability that the resistance is less than this value. Often, lack of experimental data will prevent an adequate statistical evaluation so the 5% probability level shall be seen as a goal for the engineering judgments to be made in such cases. The characteristic resistance given in design standards is determined also on the basis of considerationof other aspects than the maximum load carrying resistance. Aspects like postpeak behaviour, sensitivity to construction methods, statistical variation of governing parameters etc. are also taken into account. In certain cases these considerations are also reflected in the choice of material factor that will be used to obtain the design resistance. It is necessary that all such factors are considered when the resistance is determined by nonlinear FE methods. 2.3 Types of failure modes When steel structures are loaded to their extreme limits they will either fail by some sort of instability (e.g., buckling) that prevents further loading or by tension failure or a combination of the two. For practical cases it is often necessary to define characteristic resistance at a lower limit in order to be able to conclude on structural integrity without excessive analysis. Examples of this can be to limit the plastic strain to avoid cyclic failure for dynamically loaded structures, or to set a deformation limit for structural details that fail by plastic strain in compression. See [3.1]. The following types of failure modes are dealt with in this recommended practice: — tensile failure — failure due to repeated yielding (low cycle fatigue) — accumulated plastic strain — buckling — repeated buckling. 2.4 Use of linear and nonlinear analysis methods Traditionally, the ultimate strength of offshore structures are analysed by linear methods to determine the internal distribution of forces and moments, and the resistances of the cross sections are checked according to design resistances found in design standards. These design resistance formulas often require deformations well into the inelastic range in order to mobilise the standard defined resistances. However, no further checks are normally considered necessary as long as the internal forces and moments are determined by linear methods. When nonlinear analysis methods are used, additional checks of accumulated plastic deflections and repeated yielding will generally be needed. These checks are important in case of variable or cyclic loading, e.g. wave loads. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 14 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used 2.5 Empirical basis for the resistance All engineering methods, regardless of level of sophistication, need to be calibrated against an empirical basis in the form of laboratory tests or full scale experience. This is the case for all design formulas in standards. In reality the form of the empirical basis vary for the various failure cases that are covered by the standards from determined as a statistical evaluation from a large number of full scale representative tests to cases where the design formulas are validated based on extrapolations from known cases by means of analysis and engineering judgements. It is of paramount importance that capacities determined by nonlinear FE methods build on knowledge that is empirically based. That can be achieved by calibration of the analysis methods to experimental data, to established practice as found in design standards or in full scale experience. 2.6 Ductility The integrity of a structure is also influenced by other factors than the value of the characteristic resistance. The ability of a structural detail to maintain its resistance in case of overload is highly influencing the resulting reliability of the structure. It is therefore necessary to consider not only the value of the resistance when determining the characteristic resistance, but also to judge how the load deflection relationship is for a particular failure mode. The check for ductility requires that all sections subjected to deformation into the inelastic range should deform without loss of the assumed loadbearing resistance. Such loss of resistance can be due to tensile failure, instability of crosssectional parts or member buckling. The design standards give little explicit guidance on this issue, with exception for stability of crosssectional parts in yield hinges, which normally are covered by requirement to crosssectional class 1. See e.g. DNVGLOSC101 /9/. Steel structures generally behave ductile when loaded to their limits. The established design practice is based on this behaviour, which is beneficial both with respect to simplifying the design process and improving the performance of the structure. For a ductile structure, significant deflections may occur before failure and thus give a collapse warning. Ductile structures also have larger energy absorption capabilities against impact loads. The possibility for the structure to redistribute stresses lessens the need for an accurate stress calculation during design as the structure may redistribute forces and moments to be in accordance with the assumed static model. This is the basis why linear analyses can be used for ULS checks even for structures which behave significantly nonlinear when approaching their ultimate limit states. 2.7 Serviceability limit states Use of nonlinear analysis methods may result in more structural elements being governed by the requirements to the serviceability limit state and additional SLS requirements may be needed compared with design using linear methods. When plate elements are used beyond their critical load, for example, outof plane deflections may need to be considered from a practical or aesthetic point of view. 2.8 Permanent deformations All steel structures behave more or less nonlinear when loaded to their ultimate limit. The formulas for design resistance in DNVGLOSC101 /9/ or similar standards are therefore developed on the basis that permanent deformation may take place before the characteristic resistance is reached. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 15 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used SECTION 3 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS 3.1 Definition of failure In all analyses a precise definition of failure should be formulated. The failure definition needs to correspond with the functional requirement to the structures. In certain cases like buckling failure it may be defined by the maximum load, while in other cases it need to be selected by limiting a suitable control parameter e.g., plastic strain. For ultimate limit states (ULS) and accidental limit states (ALS) the definition of failure needs to reflect the functional requirement that the structure should not lose its loadcarrying resistance during the dimensioning event. That may e.g., imply that in an ULS check the failure is defined as the load level where the remaining cycles in the storm that includes the ULS load case, will not lead to a progressive or cyclic failure. Alternatively a specific check for these failure modes can be carried out. See also [5.2]. Another example is in case of an ALS check for blast pressure, where one may consider the failure criterion to be the limiting deflection for the passive fire protection. Care should be made to ascertain that all relevant failure modes are addressed either directly by the analysis or by additional checks. Examples are local buckling, out of plane buckling, weld failure etc. 3.2 Modelling strategy It should be checked that the analysis tool and the modelling adopted represent the nonlinear behaviour of all structural elements that may contribute to the failure mechanism with sufficient accuracy. The model should be suitable to represent all failure modes that are intended tobe checked by the analysis. It should be made clear which failure modes the model will adequately represent and which failure modes are excluded from the analysis and are assumed to be checked by other methods. 3.3 Modelling accuracy All FEanalyses provide results that are based on simplified models of the actual structural behaviour. It is the responsibility of the analyst to control the accuracy of the analysis. This may be achieved by means of sensitivity studies, calibration and other methods. 3.4 Determination of characteristic resistance taking into account statistical variation When FE methods are used to determine the structural resistance it is necessary to take due account of the statistical variation of the various parameters such that the results will be equal to or represent an estimate to the safe side compared with what would be obtained if physical testing could be carried out. The model should aim to represent the resistance as the characteristic values according to the governing standard. In general that means 5% fractile in case a low resistance is unfavourable and 95% fractile in case a high resistance is unfavourable. In cases where data of the statistical variation of the resistance is uncertain one needs to establish a selection of the governing parameters by engineering judgement. The parameters should be selected such that it can be justified that the characteristic resistance established meets the requirement that there is less than 5% probability that the capacity is below this value. All parameters that influence the variability of the resistance need to be considered when establishing the characteristic resistance. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 16 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used It is therefore necessary to validate the analysis procedure according to one of the following methods: a) Selection of all governing parameters to be characteristic or conservative values. In this method all parameters that influence the result (key parameters) are selected to give results to the safe side, e.g., element type, mesh size, material curve, imperfections, residual stresses etc. For structures or structural details where the resistance is dominated by the value of the yield stress, using the specified minimum yield stress according to offshore steel material standards will represent the requirements to the characteristic resistance. Other parameters with statistical variation that will influence the resistance e.g., plate thickness should be selected as a safe estimate of the expected value in order to meet the required statistical requirement for the resulting resistance. In cases of doubt a sensitivity assessment may be necessary. In some cases values are given in the standards for analysis of specific problems see e.g., [5.4.3]. b) Validation against design standard values In this method a selected standard case is used for calibration (denoted standard calibration case). The case should represent the same failure mode that is to be investigated. The key parameters e.g., element type, mesh size, material curve, degree of triaxial stress state, imperfections, residual stresses etc. should be selected so the analysis provide the resistance predicted by the standard for the standard calibration case. The same parameters are then used when the resistance of the actual problem is determined. If the analysis is calibrated against ordinary standard values that meet the requirements to characteristic resistance then the resistance of the analysed structure also will meet the requirement. c) Validation against tests In this method one or more physical tests that are judged to fail in a similar way as the problem to be analysed are selected for calibration (denoted test calibration case). First the key parameters e.g., element type, mesh size, material curve, imperfections, residual stresses etc. are varied so the analysis simulates the test calibration case satisfactorily. (Giving the same or less resistance.) Then the actual problem is analysed using the same key parameters. It should be ascertained that the statistical variation of the problem is duly covered such that the requirements for determination of resistance by use of FE methods correspond to the requirements for determination of resistance from testing as given in Annex D of Eurocode 1990 /2/ or in ISO 19902 /6/. 3.5 Requirement to the software The software used shall be documented and tested for the purpose. 3.6 Requirements to the user The user should be familiar with FE methods in general and nonlinear methods in particular. The analyst needs to understand the structural behaviour of the problem in question. The user shall know the theory behind the methods applied as well as the features of the selected software. When documenting structures to meet a standard described reliability level with use of nonlinear methods for determination of the resistance, it is necessary that the engineer understand the inherent safety requirements of the governing standard. The use of this standard presupposes and does not replace the application of industry knowledge, experience and knowhow. It should solely be used by competent and experienced organizations, and does not release the organizations involved from exercising sound professional judgment. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 17 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used SECTION 4 REQUIREMENTS TO FINITE ELEMENTANALYSIS 4.1 General The term nonlinear FE analysis covers a large number of analysis types for different purposes and objects. The content of this section is written with analyses of steel structures in mind. The objective is to document structural capacity of the structure in a way that fulfils the requirements for determining characteristic resistance in accordance with DNV GL standards and other similar standards, such as the Norsok Nseries and the ISO 19900 suite of standards. 4.2 Selection of software for finite element analysis The software shall be tested and documented, and be suited for analysing the actual type of nonlinear behaviour. This includes: — nonlinear material behaviour (yielding, plasticity) — nonlinear geometry (stress stiffening, 2nd order load effects). Other types of nonlinearity that may need to be included are: — contact problems — temperature effects (e.g. material degradation, thermal expansion) — nonlinear load effects (e.g. follower loads). 4.3 Selection of analysis method 4.3.1 Implicit versus explicit solver Both implicit and explicit equation solvers may be used to solve the general equation system: (2) where M is the mass matrix, C is the damping matrix u is the displacement vector, Fint is the internal forces and Fext is the external forces In dynamic analyses, explicit solvers are attractive for large equation systems, as the solution scheme does not require matrix inversion or iterations, and thus, are much more computational effective for solving one time step than solvers based on the implicit scheme. However, unlike the implicit solution scheme, which is unconditionally stable for large time steps, the explicit scheme is stable only if the time step size is sufficiently small. An estimate of the time step required to ensure stability for beam elements is: (3) where Ls is the characteristic element size of the smallest element and c is the speed of sound waves in the material. Similarexpressions exist for shells and solids. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 18 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used This makes the explicit scheme well suited for shorter time transients as seen in for instance impact or explosion response analyses. For longer time transients the number of time steps will, however, be much larger than needed for an implicit solution scheme. For moderately nonlinear problems, implicit Newton Raphson methods are well suited, gradually incrementing the time and iterate to convergence for each time step. 4.3.2 Solution control for dynamic implicit analysis A large number of time integration procedures exists (e.g. The Newmark family of methods and the α Method). For nonlinear analyses they should be used in combination with Newton iterations. As a rule of thumb the time step should not be larger than 1/10 of the lowest natural period of interest. The most commonly used integration procedures can be tuned by selection of the controlling parameters. The parameters should in most cases be selected to give an unconditionally stable solution. For the αmethod (HHT method)/16/ the parameters α, β and γ can be selected by the user. The method is unconditionally stable if: (4) Selecting α less than zero gives some numerical damping. In order to avoid “noise” from high frequency modes, parameters that give some numerical damping can be useful. Table 41 presents some combinations of parameters that give unconditional stability. Table 41 Combinations of α, β and γ for unconditional stability α β γ Comment 0 0.25 0.5 Trapezoidal rule, no numerical damping 0.05 0.2756 0.55 Numerical damping 0.1 0.3025 0.6 Numerical damping 4.3.3 Solution control for static implicit analysis In case the dynamic effects are not important, the equation system to solve may be reduced to (5) In such cases the implicit equation solvers are in general better suited, as the dynamic terms cannot be excluded in an explicit analysis. Instead of time, applied load or displacement boundary conditions are normally incremented in a static solution. The selection of a load control algorithm for the analysis should be based on the expected response and need for post peakload results. — A pure load control algorithm will not be able to pass limit points or bifurcation points when the inertia effects are not included. — Using a displacement control algorithm, limit points and bifurcation points can be passed, but the analysis will stop at turning points. — For snapback problems (passing turning point), or limit/bifurcation point problems that cannot be analysed using displacement control, an “arc length” method is needed. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 19 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 41 Limit, bifurcation and turning points 4.3.4 Solution control for explicit analysis Most explicit FE codes calculate the governing size of the time step based on equations similar to Equation (3). For problems of longer duration, one often wants to save analysis time by reducing the number of time steps. This can be done by accelerating the event or mass scaling. Accelerating the event reduces the simulation time and thus computational time, the mass scaling increases the time step reducing the computational time, see Equation (3). The time saving methods only give accurate results if the inertia forces are small. Thus, it must be demonstrated that the kinetic energy is small compared to the deformation energy (typically less than 1%) when explicit analyses are used to find quasistatic response. Since the analyses still will be dynamic, bifurcations points will not be identified. At static capacity, the kinetic energy will increase rapidly if the load is increased further. Due to the typically large number of time steps in explicit analyses, the numerical representation of decimal numbers is important for the stability of the solution. The software options to use high precision (“double precision”) float are generally preferred. 4.4 Geometry modelling Geometry models for FE analyses often need to be simplified compared to drawings of the real structure. Typically small details need to be omitted because they interfere with the goal of having a good, regular element mesh. The effect these simplifications may have on the final result should be evaluated. Typical simplifications include: — cutouts or local reinforcements are not included — eccentricities are not included for beam elements or in thickness transitions in shell models — weld material is not included — welded parts are modelled as two parts and joined using contact surfaces. For buckling analyses, it is necessary to introduce equivalent geometric imperfections in order to predict the buckling capacity correctly, see [5.4]. A common way of including such imperfections is to use one or more of the structure’s eigenmodes and scale these such that the buckling capacity is predicted correctly for the calibration model. For problems where the geometry of the model deviates from the real structure, the analysis needs to reflect that possible geometrical tolerances may have impacts on the result. An example is fabrication tolerances of surfaces transferring loads by contact pressure. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 20 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used 4.5 Mesh 4.5.1 General In general, structural parts welded together should be meshed using a continuous mesh. Connections and constraints such as bonded contact or kinematic coupling etc. should not be used for welded details in areas of interest unless the accuracy on stress and strain results is documented and accounted for when evaluating the results. 4.5.2 Selection of element type Selection of element type and formulation is strongly problem dependent. Items to consider are: — shell elements or solid elements — elements based on constant, linear or higherorder shape functions — full vs reduced, v. hybrid integration formulations — number of through thickness integration points(shell) — volumetric locking, membrane locking and transverse shear locking — hourglass control/artificial strain energy (for reduced integration elements) — drilling rotation stiffness /artificial strain energy (for shell elements). — warping stiffness (shell elements). In general higherorder elements are preferred for accurate stress estimates; elements with simple shape functions (constant or linear) will require more elements to give the same stress accuracy as higherorder elements. Constant stress elements are not recommended used in areas of interest. For largedisplacement and largerotation analyses, simple element formulations give a more robust numerical model and analysis than higherorder elements. Some types of elements are intended as transition elements in order to make the generation of the element mesh easier and are known to perform poorly. Typically 3noded plates/shells and 4noded tetrahedrons are often used as transition elements. These types of elements should if possible be avoided in areas of interest. Proper continuity should be ensured betweenadjacent elements if elements of different orders are used in the same model. Care should be taken when selecting formulations and integration rules. Formulations with (selective) reduced integration rules are less prone to locking effects than fully integrated simple elements. The reduced integration elements may, however, produce zero energy modes and will require hourglass control. When hourglass control is used, the hourglass energy should be monitored and shown to be small compared to the internal energy of the system, typically less than 5%. Rotational stiffness normal to the shell element surface is normally not part of the shell element formulation. Thus, an additional stiffness (drilling rotation constraint) to the local degree of freedom must be added to certain shell element nodes when using implicit equation solvers to avoid singularity. The drilling rotation constraint can produce a significant amount of artificial energy when used in largedeformation analyses and the deformation resistance will increase. Similar to the hourglass energy, this artificial energy should be monitored and controlled. In explicit analyses, the drilling stiffness is not needed for numerical stability, and one solution can be to scale down or remove the drilling stiffness if present in the default settings. 4.5.3 Mesh density The element mesh should be sufficiently detailed to capture the relevant failure modes: — For ductility evaluations, preferably several elements should be present in the yield zone in order to have good strain estimates. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 21 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used — For stability evaluations, sufficient number of elements and degrees of freedom to capture relevant buckling modes, typically minimum 3 to 6 elements dependent upon element type per expected half wave should be used. The element aspect ratio should be according to requirements for the selected element formulation in the areas of interest. Typically, an aspect ratio close to unity is required in and nearby areas with large deformations. Care is required in transitioning of mesh density. Abrupt transitioning introduces errors of a numerical nature. Load distribution and load type also have an influence on the mesh density. Nodes at which loads are applied need to be correctly located, and in this situation can drive the mesh design, at least locally. 4.5.4 Mesh refinement study Often it will be necessary to run mesh sensitivity studies in order to verify that the results from the analyses are sufficiently accurate. The analyst should make sure that the element mesh is adequate for representing all relevant failure modes. In the general case mesh refinement studies may be done by checking that convergence of the results are obtained e.g. by showing that the results are reasonably stable by rerunning the analysis with half the element size. See example in [8.2]. Note that geometric sharp corners represent singularities where convergence will never be obtained. 4.6 Material modelling 4.6.1 General The selected material model should at least be able to represent the nonlinear behaviour of the material both for increasing and decreasing loads (unloading). In some cases the material model also needs to be able to account for reversed loading, see [5.2]. The material model selected needs to be calibrated against empirical data (see [3.4]). The basic principle is that the material model needs to represent the structural behaviour sufficiently for the analysis to be adequately calibrated against the empirical basis. 4.6.2 Material models for metallic materials For metallic materials time independent elastoplastic models are often used. The main components in such models are: — A yield surface, defining when plastic strains are generated. von Mises plasticity is commonly used for steel materials. The model assumes that the yield surface is unaffected by the level of hydrostatic stress. — A hardening model defining how the yield surface changes for plastic strains. Commonly used are isotropic hardening (expanding yield surface) and kinematic hardening (translating yield surface) or a combination of both. — A flow rule (flow potential) defining the relation between the plastic strain increment and the stress increment. The yield surface function is often used as a flow potential (associated flow). The von Mises yield function is considered suitable for most capacity analyses of steel structures. The hardening rule is important for analyses with reversed loading due to the Bauschinger effect. A material model with kinematic (or combined kinematic/isotropic) hardening rule should be used in such analyses. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 22 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 42 The von Mises yield surface shown in the σ1σ2 plane with isotropic (left) and kinematic (right) hardening models Figure 43 Isotropic vs Kinematic hardening 4.6.3 Stressstrain measures Stress and strain can be measured in several ways: — From material testing the results are often given as “Engineering” stressstrain curves (calculated based on the initial cross section of the test specimen). — FE software input is often given as “True” stressstrain (calculated based on updated geometry) — Other definitions of strains are also used in FE formulations, e.g., the GreenLagrange strain, and the EulerAlmansi strain. For small deformations/strains, all strain measures give similar results. For larger deformations/strains the strain measure is important, e.g. the GreenLagrange measure is limited to “small strains” only. Figure 44 shows a comparison of some strain measures. Limitations in the formulations on the use of the selected element type should always be noted and evaluated for the intended analysis. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 23 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 44 Comparison of some strain measures The relationship between engineering (nominal) stress and true (Cauchy) stress (up to the point of necking) is: (6) The relationship between engineering (nominal) strain and true (logarithmic) strain is: (7) The stressstrain curve should always be given using the same measure as expected by the software/ element formulation. 4.6.4 Evaluation of strain results As element strain in FE analyses is an averaged value dependent on the element type and element size, the reported strain will always depend on the computer model. It is often necessary to remesh and adjust the analysis model after the initial analyses are done in order to have a good model for strain estimates. Strain extracted from element integration points are the calculated strain based on element deformations. Most FE software presents nodal averaged strains graphically. At geometry intersections the nodal average value may be significantly lower than the element (nodal or integration point) strain if the intersecting parts are differently loaded. When evaluating strain results against deformation limits, the integration point strains or extrapolated strains from integration pointsshould be used. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 24 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used 4.6.5 Stressstrain curves for ultimate capacity analyses When defining the material curve for the analysis, the following points should be considered: — Characteristic material data should normally be used, see [3.4]. — The predicted buckling capacity will depend on the curve shape selected, thus equivalent imperfection calibration analyses and final analyses should be performed using the same material curves. — The extension of the yield zones and predicted stress and strain levels depend on the curve shape selected. Acceptance criteria should thus be related to the selected material curve, the curve need not represent the actual material accurately as long as the produced results are to the safe side. — The stiffness of most steels reduces slightly before the nominal yield stress is reached; in fact yield stress is often given as the stress corresponding to 0.2% plastic strain. — Some steels have a clear yield plateau; this is more common for mild steels than for high strength steels. — One should avoid using constant stress (or strain) sections in the material curves, due to possible numerical instability issues. Idealized material curves for steel according to European Standards EN10025 /26/ and EN10225 /27/ are proposed in [4.6.6] and [4.6.7] for analyses to represent low fractile and mean characteristic values respectively. These properties are assumed to be used with the acceptance for criteria for tensile failure given in this recommended practice. Idealized material curves for steel materials delivered according to other standards e.g. DNV GL standards can be established by comparison with these curves. The curves are given as true stressstrain values. Alternative bilinear curves may be used for buckling problems, e.g. as shown in Figure 57. The curves should also be adjusted for temperature effects as appropriate. (See e.g. /33/). 4.6.6 Recommendations for steel material qualities (low fractile) The material should be modelled as a combination of a stepwise linear and a power law with a yield plateau as shown in Figure 45, given in true stress and strain parameters. Graphs of the material curves shown as engineering stress and strain are given in the commentary, see [7.3]. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 25 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 45 Definition of stressstrain curve For Part 4 as shown in Figure 45, the relation between stress and strain is given as shown in Equation (8). (8) Values for the material parameters for selected steel grades are given in Table 42 to Table 46. Table 42 Proposed properties for S235 steels (true stress strain) S235 Thickness [mm] t≤ 16 16< t ≤ 40 40< t ≤ 63 63< t ≤ 100 E [MPa] 210000 210000 210000 210000 σprop [MPa] 211.7 202.7 193.7 193.7 σyield [MPa] 236.2 226.1 216.1 216.1 σyield2 [MPa] 243.4 233.2 223.8 223.8 εp_y1 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 εp_y2 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 K[MPa] 520 520 520 520 n 0.166 0.166 0.166 0.166 Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 26 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Table 43 Proposed properties for S275 steels (true stress strain) S275 Thickness [mm] t≤ 16 16< t ≤ 40 40< t ≤ 63 E [MPa] 210000 210000 210000 σprop [MPa] 248.0 238.0 228.0 σyield [MPa] 276.5 266.4 256.3 σyield2 [MPa] 283.9 273.6 263.4 εp_y1 0.004 0.004 0.004 εp_y2 0.017 0.017 0.017 K[MPa] 620 620 620 n 0.166 0.166 0.166 Table 44 Proposed properties for S355 steels (true stress strain) S355 Thickness [mm] t≤ 16 16< t ≤ 40 40< t ≤ 63 63< t ≤ 100 E [MPa] 210000 210000 210000 210000 σprop [MPa] 320.0 311.0 301.9 284 σyield [MPa] 357.0 346.9 336.9 316.7 σyield2 [MPa] 366.1 355.9 345.7 323.8 εp_y1 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 εp_y2 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 K[MPa] 740 740 725 725 n 0.166 0.166 0.166 0.166 Table 45 Proposed properties for S420 steels (true stress strain) S420 Thickness [mm] t≤ 16 16< t ≤ 40 40< t ≤ 63 E [MPa] 210000 210000 210000 σprop [MPa] 378.7 360.6 351.6 σyield [MPa] 422.5 402.4 392.3 σyield2 [MPa] 426.3 406 395.9 εp_y1 0.004 0.004 0.004 Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 27 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used S420 Thickness [mm] t≤ 16 16< t ≤ 40 40< t ≤ 63 εp_y2 0.012 0.012 0.012 K[MPa] 738 703 686 n 0.14 0.14 0.14 Table 46 Proposed properties for S460 steels (true stress strain) S460 Thickness [mm] t≤ 16 16< t ≤ 40 40< t ≤ 63 E [MPa] 210000 210000 210000 σprop [MPa] 414.8 396.7 374.2 σyield [MPa] 462.8 442.7 417.5 σyield2 [MPa] 466.9 446.6 421.2 εp_y1 0.004 0.004 0.004 εp_y2 0.01 0.01 0.01 K[MPa] 772 745 703 n 0.12 0.12 0.12 4.6.7 Recommendations for parameters for steel material qualities to obtain mean capacity The recommended material curve to be used for analyses when the expected resistance of a structure should be calculated is given in the commentary; see Table 71 to Table 75. These material parameters are only intended to be used when a low capacity can be unfavourable. The typical application is to determine the forces imposed to a structure from a ship colliding with the structure. 4.6.8 Strain rate effects For strain rates above 0.1 s1 increased strength and reduced ductility will be experienced. In most cases it will be safe to exclude the effect. Strain rate hardening is sensitive to the strain magnitude, and this must be accounted for when selecting the models and model parameters to simulate strain rate effects. Generally the relative increase in flow stress is less for large strains than for small strains, i.e. at the yield point. See [7.10]. If strainrate hardening effects are included in a simulation, it should be documented that the selected strain rate hardening model and corresponding parameters result in the expected response. 4.7 Boundary conditions The selected model boundary condition needs to represent the real condition in a way that will lead to results that are accurate or to the safe side. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 28 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Often it is difficult to decide what the most “correct” or a conservative boundary condition is. In such cases sensitivity studies should be performed. 4.8 Load application Unlike linear elastic analyses, where results from basic load cases can be scaled and added together, the sequence of load application is important in nonlinear analyses. Changing the sequence of load application may change the end response. The loads shouldbe applied in the same sequence as they are expected to occur in the condition/event to be simulated. For an offshore structure subjected to both permanent loads (such as gravity and buoyancy) and environmental loads (such as wind, waves and current), for example, the permanent loads should be incrementally applied first to the desired load level, then the environmental load should be incremented to the target level or collapse. In some cases the initial load cases (e.g. permanent loads) may contribute positively to the load carrying capacity for the final load case, in such cases a sensitivity study on the effect of reduced initial load should be performed. The analyst needs to evaluate if the loads are conservative (independent of structure deformation) or non conservative (follow structure deformation) and model the loads correspondingly. The number of time/load increments used to reach the target load level may also influence the end predicted response. Increment sensitivity studies should be performed to ensure that all failure modes are captured. 4.9 Contact modelling 4.9.1 Contact pair definitions Several options for contact pair definition are available in most programs for nonlinear FE analysis. Typical options are: — surface to surface — single surface (selfcontact) — edge (line) to surface — edge to edge — node to surface. Both meshed regions and analytical surfaces may be used in the contact pair definitions. General contact or automatic contact is available in some programs. These options automatically assign contact pairs and ease the modelling work. The analyst should verify that all possible contact pairs that may get into contact are included in the contact definitions. 4.9.2 Symmetric and asymmetric contact The contact pair can be symmetric or asymmetric. For asymmetric contact, one of the contact surfaces is defined as the slave and the other surface is defined as the master. The slave surface nodes or integration points are not allowed to penetrate the master surface elements. For symmetric contact each surface is both slave and master. For asymmetric contacts, it is normally recommended that the surface with the fine mesh is defined as the slave. It is also beneficial if the slave is the softer part as this may improve the convergence. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 29 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used 4.9.3 Contact constraint enforcement methods Several different approaches are used to enforce the contact constraint: — penaltybased methods — augmented Lagrange methods — pure Lagrange methods (direct methods). Penaltybased methods and Augmented Lagrange methods introduce linear or nonlinear contact stiffness and will thus always allow for some contact penetration. Augmented Lagrange methods add a term not dependent on the penetration, and can thus to some extent control the penetration. Pure Lagrange methods introduce extra degrees of freedoms to solve (contact pressure) instead of contact stiffness and can thus give solutions with zero penetrations. Pure Lagrange methods give the highest accuracy and are often used for smallsliding problems. However, due to computational expense as well as possible convergence issues, penaltybased methods are often used for finitesliding problems. 4.9.4 Controlling the accuracy of contact analyses The typical problems that need to be monitored and dealt with in contact analyses are: — convergence problems — excessive penetrations — sticking (when sliding is expected) — startup problems for analyses with parts kept in place only by contact. The default contact stiffness assigned to the contact surfaces may be adjusted in order to improve convergence (reduce stiffness) or to reduce the penetration (increase stiffness). Nondefault values should however be used with caution as the solution accuracy will be influenced. Sticking problems may arise from inaccurate models, e.g. faceted surface representing a cylinder, or small radii that are omitted. Refining the mesh or adding geometrical smoothing and initial overclosure adjustments may improve the solution. Startup problems due to parts initially with no constraint may be solved by adding stabilization algorithms, or by manually adding springs or boundary conditions. It is recommended to remove the stabilization measures as soon as contact is established, before the full load is applied. 4.10 Application of safety factors Applying load and resistance safety factors in a nonlinear analysis can be challenging as application of safety factors on the capacity model side for one failure mode may influence the capacity of another failure model. One example of this is yielding vs. column buckling capacity. In general it is more practical to prepare one capacity model representing the desired characteristic capacity for all failure modes to be analysed for, and then apply all the safety on the load side, defining a target load level that accounts for both load and resistance safety. Using this approach, the same model may be used for both ULS and ALS type of analysis without recalibration of the model: (9) where Rk is the characteristic resistance found from the analysis, and Sk is the characteristic load effect. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 30 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used 4.11 Execution of nonlinear finite element analyses, quality control The following items should be considered in a quality control of nonlinear FE analyses: — boundary conditions — calibration against known values — inertia effects in dynamic analyses — element formulation/ integration rule suited for the purpose — material model suited for the purpose — mesh quality suited for the purpose, mesh convergence studies performed for stress strain results — equivalent imperfections calibrated for stability analyses — time/load increments sufficient small, convergence studies performed — numerical stability — reaction corresponds to input — convergence obtained for equilibrium iterations — hourglass control for reduced integration, hourglass energy remains small — sensitivity analysis both from idealisation and numerical points of views could be provided in particular around singularities, for boundary conditions, etc. — reference recommendations in standards or rules that are applicable directly to the studied system, or to a similar system with different dimensions — reference similar analyses for systems or subsystems that are validated from analytical or experimental sources. — evaluation of analysis accuracy based on performed sensitivity studies. 4.12 Requirements to documentation of the finite element analysis The analysis should be documented sufficiently detailed to allow for independent verification by a third party, either based on review of the documentation, or using independent analyses. The documentation should include description of: — purpose of the analysis — failure criteria — geometry model and reference to drawings used to create the model — boundary conditions — element types — element mesh — material models and properties — loads and load sequence — analysis approach — application of safety factors — results — discussion of results — conclusions. Sensitivity studies and other quality control activities performed in connection with the analyses should also be documented Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January2020 Page 31 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used SECTION 5 REPRESENTATION OF DIFFERENT FAILURE MODES 5.1 Design against tensile failure 5.1.1 General An accurate analysis of tensile failure is demanding as numerous factors affect the problem and the results from the analysis is highly influenced on how the analysis is carried out. In ordinary engineering situations tensile failure is seldom decisive as it is associated with large permanent deformations and other failure modes will in such cases govern. Tensile failure is mostly relevant for checking of structures against accidental loads like explosions or collisions. The recommendations given in this document are not valid for failure that is related to unstable fracture due to either insufficient material toughness, defects outside fabrication specifications or cracks. In such cases fracture mechanics methods need to be used. In general accurate prediction of tensile failure needs to be made by analyses that are calibrated against tests or a known solution where the conditions for tensile failure are similar as in the structural detail being investigated. This method is described in [5.1.2] below. Simplified tensile failure criteria for the base material are presented in [5.1.3]. Welds are assumed to be made with overmatching material that ensures that plastic straining and eventual failure takes place in the base material. Welds should therefore be checked according to ordinary standard methods based on the forces carried by the welds. See [5.1.5]. Tensile failure in structures modelled by beam elements is best checked on the basis of the total deflection e.g. as given in DNVGLRPC204 /12/. 5.1.2 Tensile failure resistance calibrated against a known solution The most accurate method to check a structure against tensile failure is by calibrating the nonlinear FE analysis against a known solution. In this method the following steps should be followed. i) Select a test or a problem with known capacity (e.g. from a design standard) as the reference object. The reference object should have the similar conditions for tensile failure as the actual problem such as the type of stress (axial, bending or shear) and the degree of triaxial stress state. ii) Model and analyse the reference object following recommended modelling and analysis technique. iii) Determine the selected strain parameter that is judged to best describe the problem (e.g. maximum principal strain) at failure for the reference object. iv) Model the actual object using the same analysis technique as for the reference object i.e. mesh density, element type, material properties, etc. v) Determine the capacity against tensile failure for the structure as the load corresponding to the load level when the failure strain as determined in iii) is reached. 5.1.3 Tensile failure in base material simplified approach for plane plates 5.1.3.1 General Tensile failure can be assessed by the following simplified procedure for selected situations if a calibrated solution is not attainable. The simplified check is intended for shell models of plated structures with element sizes from t × t to 5t × 5t. The requirements to the element size are only relevant for the areas subjected to plastic straining in tension. Other parts of the structure may be modelled by larger elements if found suitable, but results from analyses using element larger than 5t should not be relied upon if the maximum principal strain is larger than 2%. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 32 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used The criteria are determined under the assumption that the resulting structural capacity should represent a 5% low fractile. In case when a high capacity is unfavourable, the recommendations in [5.1.6] should be followed. The safety factors that should be used for tensile fracture according to this procedure should include an additional safety factor = 1.2 when determining the maximum failure load compared with standard material factor of the standard in question. The resulting material factor should be the product of the ordinary material factor and the making a resulting . These tensile failure criteria are valid for monotonic loading. In case of cyclic loads, see [5.2]. This method is valid for structures made with typical offshore steel that will meet requirements to ductility and toughness. The structural details need to meet fabrication requirements for offshore steel structures. The analyses should be carried out using the defined material curves given in [4.6.5]. Other materials will need to be calibrated according to the general procedure given in [5.1.2]. The analyses should be made using von Mises yield function. The structure should be checked for a general requirement for all areas subjected to plastic strains called gross yielding given in [5.1.3.2]. For concentrated yield zones larger strain can be allowed as given in [5.1.3.3]. 5.1.3.2 Gross yielding check The strain limit for gross yielding reflects that real structures will include elements of inhomogeneity that will not be accurately modelled in the analyses. This will mean that the strain measured over a long length of a real structure will in average not reach the values that can be found in standardized tensile tests. With gross yielding is meant that plastic deformations with strain above 2% are taking place over a zone lyz > 20t in the direction of the maximum plastic strain. The maximum gross yielding strain in any integration point, in any element within the yield zone, should be limited to the gross yielding critical strain εcrg. The gross yielding critical strain should be found by making a calibration analysis with the actual element type and with an element size relative to the thickness t between t × t and 5t × 5t by use of calibration case CC01 as shown in Figure 51. The gross yielding strain limit εcrg should be determined from the deformation limits given in Figure 51. Figure 51 Calibration case CC01, steel plate under uniaxial load plane strain conditions The critical strain should be determined by the maximum strain found by analysing the calibration case CC01 using the element type and size for the considered area. The analyst may select a preferred failure parameter for the calibration, but it is recommended to establish a critical maximum principal strain value that should not be exceeded in the analysis. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 33 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used The strain values obtained by analysing the calibration case CC01 will be valid for structures made with not more than one weld or stiffener transverse to the maximum principal strain within the yield zone. In case the structure within the yield zone is less homogeneous the critical strains need to be reduced. The effect of holes that are not modelled and located within the yield zone, will need to be accounted for by reducing the critical strain if the diameter of the hole is larger than 5% of the plate width measured perpendicular to the direction of the maximum principal strain. Table 51 Deformation limits for gross yielding check δx (mm)S235 S275 S355 S420 S460 CC01 25 24 21 18 18 5.1.3.3 Local yielding check General When yielding takes place in a limited area it will be due either to strain gradients or out ofplane bending or a combination of these two effects. No strain concentration caused by attachment holes etc., that is not modelled, should be within the yield zone for this check. Care should be exercised when representing welds or other elements that will impact the plastic deformations of the structure. Normally tensile failure will take place outside the welds and check of failure in the welds itself should be made by checking the forces imposed on the weld see [5.1.5]. However the modelling of the welds may influence the strain in the base material. It is recommended to increase the strength and/or thickness of the elements representing the welds so plastic deformations take place outside the elements representing the weld. However, the weld strength should not be increased more than avoiding plasticity to take place in the weld in order not to impose artificial strength into the detail. In case the structure is made with use of coldforming (e.g. rolling of plates to tubular sections) then one either need to work with a reduced critical local strain value or include the formingprocess in the analysis. When establishing a reduced local criterion, the maximum tensile plastic strain from the forming process at the actual position should be used to modify the local critical strain. When evaluating the reduction effects from the forming process one can account for the direction and through thickness variation of the plastic tensile strain imposed from the forming. Strain gradients For problems dominated by membrane strains, but where the extent of the plastic zone as defined in [5.1.3.2] is less than 20 × t then the maximum principal strain in any integration point in any element should be less than obtain from the analysis of CC01 modified as follows: The maximum principal strain should be less than (10) where l is element length in the direction of the maximum principal strain. The analyst may select a preferred failure parameter for the calibration, but it is recommended to establish a critical maximum principal strain value that should not be exceeded in the analysis. Outofplane bending For problems dominated by outofplane bending, the local strain at the surface should be limited to what is obtained as the maximum surface strain found from analysing calibration case CC02 as defined in Figure 52. The elements in the calibration analysis should have the same relative size relative to the thickness as for the elements in the area of interest. The midpoint strain should be limited to εcrl as defined from CC01 and / (10). Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 34 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used The analyst may select a preferred failure parameter for the calibration, but it is recommended to establish a critical maximum principal strain value that should not be exceeded in the analysis. This procedure is valid, when the plane plate part of structural details from support or from load to point of counterflexure, should be longer than 0.5 t and when out of plane dynamic effects can be neglected. Problems not meeting this requirement need to be checked for shear failure (locking failure or punching shear failure) by calibrating to a known case. Figure 52 Calibration case CC02, steel plate under outofplane bending and membrane tension. Plane strain conditions The deflections due to outofplane bending and membrane tension should be simultaneously and proportionally introduced in the model. Table 52 Deformation limits for CC02 δx (mm) δz (mm) S235 S275 S355 S420 S460 S235 S275 S355 S420 S460 CC02 55 53 50 45 40 75 73 70 65 60 5.1.4 Representation of tensile failure applying element erosion In analyses of accidental loads such as dropped object, explosion, and ship impact, it can be useful to represent the tensile fracture using an element erosion approach. For shell elements, the troughthickness layers may be deactivated individually. It is proposed to initially use the local criteria derived from section [5.1.3.3] as the strain limits where element layers are deactivated. The calibration cases CC01 and CC02 should be rerun to confirm that element deletion occurs at or before the defined deformation limits in case a lowfractile characteristic capacity is sought. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 35 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used The gross yielding check still applies, and the applied erosion criteria may have to be adjusted if large zones of plastic deformation are present. 5.1.5 Failure of welds The welds may or may not be represented with separate elements. For cases where the welds are not modelled the check of the strength of welds should be based on stress resultants determined by integration of stresses from the closest elements and checked against ordinary standard requirements e.g. EN 199318 /4/ or the relevant standard for the problem at hand. If welds are modelled the linearized stress components (axial, bending, shear) should be determined from integration of the stresses in the elements representing the welds and checked against ordinary standard requirements e.g. EN 199318 /4/ or the relevant standard for the problem at hand. Normally it is required that in welded connections the welds are stronger than the base material (overmatch). See also [2.6]. In the representation of the welds in a shell model it is recommended that the welds are given a certain overstrength to represent weld overmatch (e.g. by increasing stress level by 25% in the stressstrain curves for the material representing the weld material compared with the base material and or by increased thickness). The failure will normally be located close to the welds so a node should be located at the weld toe. It should be checked that the weld is not experiencing significant plastic strain before critical strain is reached in the base material. At the same time it is necessary that the weld strength is not given too high strength leading to an artificial too high capacity. Generally, it will be necessary to check the sensitivity of the assumptions. 5.1.6 Simplified tensile failure criteria in case low capacity is unfavourable 5.1.6.1 General There are cases when it is unsafe to assume a too low capacity. When performing a collision analysis assuming energy dissipation on both objects, for example, it will be unfavourable to assume low fractile failure criteria for the striking object when the task is to evaluate the structural integrity of the struck object. For such cases, the procedure given below is recommended for simulation of behaviour and tensile failure of the striking object. 5.1.6.2 Tensile failure for estimation of mean capacity In order to analyse a structure without underestimating how tensile failure will impact the structural capacity the following recommendations are proposed. Tensile failure may be assumed to take place if the critical strain values exceed the strain found from the calibration cases CC01 as shown in Figure 51, using the deformation limits given in Table 53 Furthermore mean material curves should be used as given in the commentary, see Table 71 to Table 75. If the elements used will be unstable due to thinning, the strain levels at start of instability canbe taken as the critical strain. The principal strain implying failure may be assumed when the maximum principal strain exceeds: (11) The global strain εcrg can be calculated from CC01 as described in [5.1.3.3]. When the mean capacity is sought, the gross yielding limits as given in [5.1.3.2] should not be considered. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 36 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Table 53 Deformation limits for cases when a large capacity is unfavourable (mean values) δx (mm) δz (mm) S235 S275 S355 S420 S460 S235 S275 S355 S420 S460 CC01 80 78 75 70 70 0 0 0 0 0 5.2 Failure due to repeated yielding (low cycle fatigue) 5.2.1 General Nonlinear FEanalyses may imply that the structure is assumed to be loaded beyond proportionality limits. This means that the structure may be weakened against subsequent load cycles by repeated yielding leading to a possible cyclic failure. This is called low cycle fatigue and need to be treated differently from how high cycle fatigue checks are carried out. The fatigue damage due to loads that leads to repeated yielding, i.e. cyclic plastic strains, will be under estimated if conventional linear elastic methods, such as those presented in DNVGLRPC203 /11/, are applied. The methodology presented in the following must therefore be applied if repeated yielding occurs. The low cycle fatigue strength will be reduced for details that may include damage from high cycle fatigue. For such cases the damage from high cycle fatigue should be added to the damage from lowcycle fatigue. See [5.2.2] Welded joints ([5.2.5]) and base material ([5.2.6]) are covered. Note that the procedure for assessing the strain amplitude is somewhat different in these two cases. Reference is made to [5.2.5.2] and [5.2.5.3] for welded joints and [5.2.6.2] for base material. 5.2.2 Fatigue damage accumulation The fatigue life may be calculated under the assumption of linear cumulative damage, i.e. (12) where D is the accumulated fatigue damage. ni is the number of cycles in block i and Ni the number of cycles to failure at constant strain range Δε. In cases where the fatigue damage from high cycle fatigue (HCF) is considerable the total damage is obtained by summation, i.e. D(tot) = D(LCF) + D(HCF) 5.2.3 Determination of cyclic loads Failure due to repeated yielding is associated with ultimate limit states (ULS) or accidental limit states (ALS). The cyclic loads should meet the same requirements as for a single extreme load when it comes to partial safety factors and selection of return periods. Depending on the nature of the actual loads it may be necessary to carry out a check against failure due to repeated plastic straining. This check is necessary as nonlinear analysis allows parts of the structure to undergo significant plastic straining and the ability to sustain the defined loads may be reduced by the repeated loading. For offshore structures this is evident for environmental loads like waves and wind and seismic action. When cyclic loads are present it is necessary to define a load history that will imply a probability of failure that is similar or less than intended for static loads. See also [3.1]. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 37 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used The loadhistory for the remaining waves in a 10 000 year dimensioning storm investigated for southern North Sea conditions have been found to have a maximum value equal to 0.93 of the dimensioning wave, a duration of 6 h and a Weibull shape parameter of 2.0. This applies for check of failure modes where the entire storm will be relevant, such as crack growth. When checking failure modes where only the remaining waves after the dimensioning wave (e.g. buckling) need to be accounted for, a value of 0.9 of the dimensioning wave may be used /15/. All the remaining cycles in the storm of the maximum wave action may be assumed to come from the same direction as the dimensioning wave. 5.2.4 Cyclic stress strain curves It is required that the cyclic stressstrain curve of the material is applied. The use of monotonic stress strain curve must be avoided since it may provide nonconservative fatigue life estimates, especially for high strength steels. It is required that the welds are produced with overmatching material. Consequently the cyclic stressstrain properties of the base material should be used when assessing welded joints. Unless the actual cyclic behaviour of the material is known from tests according to a recognized testing standard, the true cyclic stress strain curves presented in Figure 53 can be applied. Kinematic hardening, as illustrated in Figure 43 should be assumed. The curves are described according to the RambergOsgood relation: (13) The value of the coefficient K is given in Figure 54. Table 54 RambergOsgood parameters for base material Grade K (MPa) S235 410 S355 600 S420 690 S460 750 Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 38 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 53 The true cyclic stressstrain curve for common offshore steel grades 5.2.5 Low cycle fatigue of welded joints 5.2.5.1 Accumulated damage criterion The number of cycles to failure, N, for welded joints due to repeated yielding is estimated by solving the following equation (14) Where: Δεhs is the fully reversible maximum principal hot spot strain range E is the modulus of elasticity (material constant) σf' is the fatigue strength coefficient (material constant) εf' is the fatigue ductility coefficient (material constant) The parameters in Equation (14) are given in Table 55 for air and seawater with cathodic protection. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 39 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Table 55 Data for low cycle fatigue analysis of welded joints Environment σf' (MPa) εf' Air 175 0.095 Seawater with cathodic protection 160 0.060 Figure 54 εN curves for welded tubular joints in seawater with cathodic protection and in air 5.2.5.2 Derivation of hot spot strain for plated structures It is recommended to derive the hot spot strain by applying the principles of the procedure given in DNVGL RPC203 Sec.4 /11/. The procedure in /11/ is originally developed for assessing the hot spot stress of a linear elastic material in relation to high cycle fatigue assessments. However, by substituting maximum principal stresses with maximum principal strains it may also be applied for determining hot spot strains. It is recommended to mesh with elements of size t × t in the hot spot region. The strain gradient towards the hot spot may be steep because the cyclic plastic strains often will be localised in a limited area near the hot spot. In order to reflect steep strain gradient in a good manner it is recommended to use finite elements with mid sidenodes, such as 8noded shell elements or 20noded brick elements. For modelling with shell elements without any weld included in the model a linear extrapolation of the strains to the intersection line from the read out points at 0.5t and 1.5t from the intersection line can be performed to derive hot spot strain. For modelling with threedimensional elements with the weld included in the model a linear extrapolation of the strains to the weld toe from the read out points at 0.5t and 1.5t from the weld toe can be performed to derive hot spot strain. 5.2.5.3 Derivation of hot spot strain for tubular joints Reference is made to section on stress concentration factors in DNVGLRPC203 /11/. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 40 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used 5.2.5.4 Thickness effect The low cycle fatigue strength is to some extent dependent on plate thickness /29/. The thickness effect is accounted for by multiplying the strain amplitude obtained from the FE analysis by the following factor (15) The thickness model is identical to that of DNVGLRPC203 /11/ and values for k and tref are determined according to [2.4] in this document. 5.2.6 Low cycle fatigue of base material 5.2.6.1 Accumulated damage criterion Despite the fact that the fatigue capacity of structures very often is governed by welded joints there are situations where the origin of a fatigue crack is in the base material. This is often due to geometrical details, such as notches, that cause rise in the cyclic stressstrain level. A low cycle fatigue check of the base material may therefore be necessary. As opposed to assessments of welded joints where the fatigue damage is determined by means of the cyclic hot spot strain, low cycle fatigue analysis of base material is based on the maximum principal strain range. The strain range is obtained from the local maxima of the considered detail. The number of cycles to failure, N, for base material due to repeated yielding is estimated by solving the following equation (16) where Δεl is the fully reversible local maximum principal strain range E is the modulus of elasticity (material constant) σf' is the fatigue strength coefficient (material constant) εf' is the fatigue ductility coefficient (material constant) Values of the parameters in Equation (16) are given in Table 56 for air and seawater with cathodic protection. Table 56 Data for low cycle fatigue analysis of base material Environment σf' (MPa) εf' Air 175 0.091 Seawater with cathodic protection 160 0.057 Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 41 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 55 εN curve for low cycle fatigue of base material in seawater with cathodic protection and in air 5.2.6.2 Derivation of local maximum principal strain The maximum principal strain is obtained from the local maxima of the considered detail. The local strain state will be underestimated if the finite element mesh is too coarse. A mesh sensitivity study should therefore be carried out to ensure that the applied strain is not underestimated. Reference is made to [4.5.4] regarding mesh refinement. Modelling of sharp corners must be avoided as the assessed stain amplitude will approach infinity with decreasing mesh size. 5.2.7 Shake down check Structures loaded beyond the elastic range may alter their response behaviour for later cycles. However, if a structure is behaving essentially linear for all cyclic loads after the first few cycles following the dimensioning load, it will achieve a stable state called shake down, and further checks of failure due to repeated yielding or buckling is not necessary. In the general case it is necessary to define a characteristic cyclic load and to use this load with appropriate partial safety factors. It should be checked that yielding only takes place in the first few loading cycles and that later load repetitions only cause responses in the linear range. This may then serve as an alternative to a low cycle fatigue check as described in [5.2.5]. It is necessary to show that the structure behaves essentially linear for all possible load situations and load cycles. The checks may be carried out using a linear stressstrain relationship up to the yield stress specified for the material. 5.3 Accumulated strain (ratcheting) For cases where the structure is subjected to cyclic loads in a way that incremental plasticity may accumulate and in the end lead to tensile failure or excessive deformations the maximum accumulated strain needs to be checked against the strain values in [5.1]. The criteria for excessive deformations may alternatively be determined on a case by case basis due to requirements to the structural use or performance. Cases where accumulated strain may need to be checked can be structures that are repeatedly loaded by impacts in the same direction or functional loads that change Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 42 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used position or direction. Examples of the first are protection structures that are hit by swinging loads and the latter may be wheel loads on stiffened plate decks. 5.4 Buckling 5.4.1 General The buckling resistance of a structure or structural part is a function of the structural geometry, the material properties, the imperfections and the residual stresses present. When the buckling resistance is determined by use of nonlinear methods it is important that all these factors are accounted for in a way so that the resulting resistance meets the requirement to the characteristic resistance or is based on assumptions to the safe side. Three different methods for carrying out the analysis are proposed in the following: a) linearized approach: apply the FE method for assessing the buckling eigenvalues (linear bifurcation analysis) and determine the ultimate capacity using empirical formulas b) full nonlinear analysis using standard defined equivalent tolerances and/or residual stresses and c) nonlinear analysis that is calibrated against standard formulations or tests. Either of these methods can be used to determine the resistance of a structure or part of a structure and recommendations for their use are given in the following sections. The proposed methods are valid for ordinary buckling problems that are realistically described by the FE analysis. Care should be exercised when analysing complex buckling cases or cases that involve phenomena like snap through, nonconservative loads, interaction of local and global stability problems etc. 5.4.2 Determination of buckling resistance by use of linearized buckling values 5.4.2.1 General In order to establish the buckling resistance of a structure or part of the structure using linearized buckling values (eigenvalues) the buckling resistance can be determined by following the steps: i) Build the model. The element model selected for analysis need to represent the structure so that any simplifications are leading to results to the safe side. If certain buckling failure modes are not seen as appropriate to be represented by the model their influence on the resultingresistance can be established according to [5.4.2.2] below. ii) Perform a linear analysis for the selected representative load case SRep showing maximum compressive and vonMises stresses. iii) Determine the buckling eigenvalues and the eigenmodes (buckling modes) by the FE analysis. iv) Select the governing buckling mode (usually the lowest buckling mode) and the point for determining the buckling representative stress. The point for reading the representative stress is the point in the model that will first reach yield stress when the structure is loaded to its buckling resistance. v) Determine the vonMises stress at the point for the representative stress σRep from step ii). vi) Determine the critical buckling stress as the eigenvalue (kg) for the governing buckling mode times the representative stress: (17) Determine the reduced slenderness as: Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 43 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used (18) vii) Select empirically based buckling curve to be used based on the sensitivity of the problem with respect to imperfections, residual stresses and post buckling behaviour. Relevant buckling curves can be selected from standards, but if not available the following may be used: Table 57 Buckling curves Type of buckling κ Column and stiffened plate and plate without redistribution possibilities Plate with redistribution possibilities Shell buckling Curves to be selected from specific shell buckling standards such asDNVGLRPC202 /10/ or Eurocode EN199316 /3/1) 1) Please note that DNVGLRPC202 defines the reduced slenderness differently (19) α = 0.15 for strict tolerances and low residual stresses 0.3 for strict tolerances and moderate residual stresses 0.5 for moderate tolerances and moderate residual stresses 0.75 for large tolerances and severe residual stresses viii) Determine the buckling resistance Rd as: (20) Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 44 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 56 Examples of buckling curves showing sensitivity for imperfections etc. for different buckling forms Empirical buckling curves are needed to account for the buckling resistance reduction effects from imperfections, residual stresses and material nonlinearity. The effect is illustrated in Figure 56. For all buckling forms the usable buckling resistance is less than the critical stress for reduced slenderness less than 1.2. Above this value, plates with possibility of redistributing stresses to longitudinal edges may reach buckling capacities above the critical value, column buckling problems will be less than the critical value, but approach the critical value for large slenderness. Shell buckling is more sensitive to imperfections and the difference between the buckling capacities that may be exploited in real shell structures are considerably less than the critical value also for large slenderness. Members will buckle as columns for cross section classes 1,2 and 3 with exception of tubular sections exposed to external hydrostatic pressure. For definition of crosssectional classes see DNVGLOSC101 App.A /9/. 5.4.2.2 Correction for local buckling effects There may be cases where a reliable FE representation of local buckling phenomena is not feasible. This may for instance be torsional buckling of stiffener or local stability of stiffener flange and web. For such cases the eigenvalue analysis should be carried out without the local buckling modes represented and the interaction of local and global buckling may be accounted for in a conservative manner by linear interaction as shown in Equation (21). (21) σkig is the linearized buckling stress when local buckling modes are disregarded and σkil is the linearized local buckling stress. 5.4.3 Buckling resistance from nonlinear analysis using standard defined equivalent tolerances The buckling resistance of a structure or part of a structure can be determined by performing nonlinear analyses where the effects of imperfections, residual stresses and material nonlinearity is accounted for Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 45 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used by use of a defined material stressstrain relationship and the use of empirically determined equivalent imperfections. The defined equivalent imperfections will include effects from real life imperfections, but will in general be different in shape and size. This method is only valid for buckling problem similar to the cases where the equivalent imperfections are given in Table 58. For other cases see [5.4.4]. The material model to be used with the equivalent imperfections is shown in Figure 57 or with the models proposed in [4.6.5]. Figure 57 Material model for analysis with prescribed equivalent imperfections Table 58 Equivalent imperfections Component Shape Magnitude Member bow L/300 for strict tolerances and low residual stresses L/250 for strict tolerances and moderate residual stresses L/200 for moderate tolerances and moderate residual stresses L/150 for large tolerances and severe residual stresses Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 46 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Component Shape Magnitude Longitudinal stiffener girder webs bow L/400 Plane plate between stiffeners buckling eigenmode s/200 Longitudinal stiffener or flange outstand bow twist 0.02 rad It is required that an eigenvalue analysis is carried out to determine the relevant buckling modes. Usually the pattern from the buckling can be used as the selected pattern for the imperfections, but in certain cases e.g. when the shape of the buckling load differ from the deflected shape from the actual loads it may be necessary to investigate also other imperfection patterns. It may be useful to divide the imperfections into local and global imperfections as shown in Figure 58. The values in Table 58 apply to the total imperfection from local and global imperfection patterns. Sensitivity analyses may be required for cases that are particularly imperfection sensitive. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 47 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 58 Example of local (left) and global (right) imperfections for stiffened panel For member systems the equivalent imperfections can be taken from EN199311. Care should be taken in order to assure that possible sway modes are adequately covered. 5.4.4 Buckling resistance from nonlinear analysis that are calibrated against standard formulations or tests Bucklingresistance can be found by nonlinear methods where the effect of imperfections, residual stresses and material nonlinearity is accounted for by use of equivalent imperfections and/or residual stresses by calibrating the magnitude of the imperfections (and, or the residual stresses) to the resistance of a known case that with regard to the stability resistance resembles the buckling problem at hand. The following procedure assumes that an equivalent imperfection is accounting for all effects necessary to obtain realistic capacities: Prepare a model that is intended to be used for the analysis. Perform an eigenvalue analysis to determine relevant buckling modes. Select the object for calibration and prepare a model using the same element type and mesh density as intended for the model to be analysed. Perform eigenvalue analysis of the calibration object and determine the appropriate buckling mode for the calibration object Determine the magnitude of the equivalent imperfection that will give the correct resistance for the calibration object Define an equivalent imperfection for the most relevant failure mode for the problem under investigation based on the results from the calibration case The definition of the equivalent imperfection may in certain cases not be obvious and it will then be required to check alternative patterns for the equivalent imperfections. Usually an imperfection pattern according to the most likely buckling eigenmode will be suitable for use. Exceptions may be cases where the pattern of the deflected shape due to the loads differs from the shape of the buckling eigenmodes. In cases of doubt several patterns may be needed. Example of the use of this procedure is included in the [8.3]. 5.4.5 Strain limits to avoid accurate check of local stability for plates and tubular sections yielding in compression. For cases where compressed parts of the cross section (as a flange) are experiencing plastic strain in compression, but one wants to avoid an accurate stability analysis of the local buckling effects the stability can be assumed to be satisfactory if the plastic strain are limited to the values given below. The requirements Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 48 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used are valid for plates that are loaded in the longitudinal direction and supported on one or both of their longitudinal edges, and for tubular sections. Plates supported on both longitudinal edges: (22) Where b is distance between longitudinal supports and t is plate thickness Plates supported on one edge (flange outstand) (23) Where c is the plate outstand and t is plate thickness Tubular sections without hydrostatic pressure: (24) The strain shall be calculated as plastic strain and may be taken as the average value through a cross section of the compressed plated for element length no less than 2 times the plate thickness. Material properties should be according to [4.6]. For structural parts meeting requirements to sectional class 3 or 4 no plastic strain due to compressive stresses can be allowed without an accurate buckling analysis. For definition of sectional classes, see DNVGLOSC101 /9/. 5.4.6 Buckling strength in case low capacity is unfavourable There are cases when it is unsafe to assume a too low capacity. When analysing a collision assuming energy dissipation on both objects, for example, it will be unfavourable to assume low fractile failure criteria for the striking object when the task is to evaluate the structural integrity of the struck object. For such cases using the procedure to establish buckling strength in [5.4.1], [5.4.5] should not be used. Instead it is recommended to neglect imperfections when it is unsafe to calculate too low capacity and to use mean material properties as given in [7.3]. 5.5 Repeated buckling For cases where buckling of parts of the structure may occur before the total capacity of the entire structure is reached, it is necessary to investigate if the buckling may cause reduced capacity against cyclic loads. When significant cyclic loads are present one should limit the capacity to the load level that corresponds to the first incident of buckling or a cyclic check needs to be carried out. See [5.2.3] for determination of cyclic loads. For cyclic loads following an extreme wave or wind load, it is considered acceptable to disregard failure due to repeated buckling of the following cases: — Buckling of the individual plates in a stiffened plate structure if the plate span to thickness ratio is less than 120. — Member buckling if all parts of the cross section meet requirements to crosssectional class 1 and the reduced member slenderness as a column is above 0.5. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 49 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Failure due to low cycle fatigue according to [5.2] needs to be checked also for these cases. It should be noted that structural parts that are yielding in tension may buckle when unloaded. If cyclic loads lead to yielding in tension one must check against buckling through the entire dimensioning load cycle. In certain cases sufficient capacity may be proved by disregarding the structural part that suffers buckling in the cyclic capacity checks. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 50 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used SECTION 6 BIBLIOGRAPHY 6.1 Bibliography The latest valid edition of each of the DNV GL reference documents applies. For other standards and recommended practices, the edition valid at the time of publishing this document applies, unless dated references are given. /1/ ISO2394, General principles on reliability for structures /2/ EN 1990, Eurocode Basis of structural design /3/ EN 199316, Eurocode 3 Design of steel structures Part 16: Strength and Stability of Shell Structures /4/ EN 199318, Eurocode 3 Design of steel structures Part 18: Design of Joints, 2005/AC:2009 /5/ AISC 36005, Specification for Structural Steel Buildings /6/ ISO 19902 Petroleum and natural gas industries – Fixed steel offshore structures /7/ Norsok Standard N004, Design of steel structures /8/ DNVGLOSB101 Metallic materials /9/ DNVGLOSC101 Design of offshore steel structures, general LRFD method /10/ DNVGLRPC202 Buckling strength of shells /11/ DNVGLRPC203 Fatigue design of offshore steel structures /12/ DNVGLRPC204 Design against accidental loads /13/ ECCS publication No. 125, Buckling of Steel Shells. European Design Recommendations, 5th Edition 2008, J.M. Rotter and H. Smith Editors /14/ Skallerud, Amdahl: Nonlinear analyses of offshore structures, Research studies press ltd., 2002 (ISBN 086380258—3) /15/ Hagen, Ø, Solland, G. Mathisen, J. Extreme storm wave histories for cyclic check of offshore structures OMAE 201020941 /16/ H. M. Hilber, T. J. R. Hughes and R. L. Taylor: Improved numerical dissipation for time integration algorithms in structural dynamics, Earthquake engineering and structural dynamics, 5 (1977), page 283292 /17/ Skallerud, Eide, Amdahl, Johansen: On the capacity of tubular Tjoints subjected to severe cyclic loading.Proceedings of the International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering OMAE, v 1, n Part B, p 133142, 1995 /18/ Weignad, Berman: Behaviour of buttwelds and treatments using lowcarbon steel under cyclic inelastic strains, Journal of Constructional Steel Research, v 75, p 4554, August 2012 /19/ Boge, Helland, Berge: Proceedings of the International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering OMAE, v 4, p 107115, 2007, Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering 2007, OMAE2007 /20/ Scavuzzo, Srivatsan, Lam: Fatigue of butt welded steel pipes. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Pressure Vessels and Piping Division (Publication) PVP, v 374, p 113143, 1998, Fatigue, Environmental Factors, and New Materials /21/ Belytschko, Liu, Moran, Nonlinear Finite Elements and Continua and Structures, John Wiley&Sons, Ltd., November 2009 Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 51 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used /22/ Kuhlmann: Definition of Flange Slenderness Limits on the Basis of Rotation Capacity Values, Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 14 (1989) 2140 /23/ Gardner, Wang, Liew: Influence of strain hardening on the behavior and design of steel structures, International Journal of Structural Stability and Dynamics Vol. 11. No. 5 (2011) 855875 /24/ DNVGLSTF101 Submarine pipeline systems /25/ Heo, Kang, Kim, Yoo, Kim, Urm: A Study on the Design Guidance for Low Cycle Fatigue in Ship Structures. 9th Symposium on Practical Design of Ships and Other Floating Structures. Germany. 2004. /26/ EN10025 Hot rolled products of structural steels. Part 2,3 4, and 6 /27/ EN10225 Weldable structural steels for fixed offshore structures Technical delivery conditions /28/ DNV GL AS. Followup of Project on NonLinear FE analysis, Tensile Failure Criteria, Background Report. Høvik; Norway: DNV GL; 20160111. Report No. 20150955, Rev. 1. /29/ Tateishi, Hanibuchi. Effect of plate thickness on extremely low cycle fatigue strength of welded joints. International Institute of Welding Commission XIII. Doc XIII233510. /30/ Simulia 2012, ABAQUS/CAE 6.12 User’s Manual /31/ Ansys. Mechanical APDL v. 16.0 /32/ EN 10902:2008 Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures, Part 2 Technical requirements for steel structures /33/ EN 199312 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures, Part 12: General rules Structural fire design. /34/ Martin Storheim & Jørgen Amdahl (2015): On the sensitivity to work hardening and strainrate effects in nonlinear FEM analysis of ship collisions, Ships and Offshore Structures, DOI: 10.1080/17445302.2015.1115181 Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 52 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used SECTION 7 COMMENTARY 7.1 Comments to [4.1] General The element model selected for analysis needs to represent the structure so that any simplifications are leading to results to the safe side. This is especially important for the selection of boundary conditions and the representation of the load. The analyst needs to assess the possibility that simplification may lead to an overrepresentation of the resistance. An example may be the representation of neighbouring elements that also are subjected to buckling. In the case that the stiffness of the adjoining structure is uncertain it is recommended to use boundary condition corresponding to simple support. If there are uncertainties with respect to simplification in load it is recommended to vary the load pattern and perform alternative analyses to check the effect. The requirements to characteristic resistance in other standards for offshore structures like ISO 19902 /6/ are similar and the analysis carried out according to the recommendations in this RP is expected to fulfil the requirements also in this standard. 7.2 Comments to [4.5.2] Selection of element Guidance on selection of suitable elements for nonlinear analysis can be found in text books e.g. /21/. 7.3 Comments to [4.6.6] Recommendations for steel material qualities (low fractile) The proposed stressstrain curves are based on steel according to /26/ and /27/. The curve is also applicable to materials according to /8/. The curves apply the nominal yield stress for the respective steel grade and thickness. The tensile strength is determined based on the expected yield to tensile strength ratio. The stress strain relationship is aimed to be suited for determination of characteristic resistance and should be regarded as a nominal stress strain relationship and may deviate from the actual stress strain relationship. The material curves in engineering stress and strain is given in Figure 71. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 53 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 71 Proposed material curves in engineering stress and strain terms 7.4 Comment to [4.6.8] Strain rate effects Often the constitutive models available in the NLFE software do not include this dependency. The model should then be calibrated for the expected maximum stress (strain); otherwise the strain rate hardening will be overestimated for large strains. Examples of much used strain rate hardening models are JohnsonCook (JC) and the CowperSymonds (CS). JohnsonCook (JC): (25) CowperSymonds (CS): (26) As seen, for both these models the relative effect will be the same for all static stress (strain) levels. The constants D, C and p should be based on experiments corresponding to the material quality used and the maximum strain level expected. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 54 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used The published model parameters for various steel types are often calibrated to give accurate result at small plastic strain levels, care should be taken to not overestimate the effect for large deformation analyses. Strain rate effects for ship collision analyses are discussed in /34/, some guidance in selecting safe model parameters can be found there. 7.5 Comments to [5.1.1] General In most ordinary design situations, variable or cyclic loads will limit the plastic strain before tensile failure will occur. Other limit states as accumulated plastic strain, low cycle fatigue, deformations or other failure modes will govern. However, tensile failure is important for limiting the energy that can be resisted by structures exposed to accidental loads, especially impact loading. This recommended practice presents two methods for predicting tensile failure. One is based on calibration to a known case while the other is a simplified method. It should be acknowledged that the tensile failure phenomenon is complex and that both methods should be used with caution. The following aspects should be considered when tensile failure is checked: — stress triaxiality — loadhistory — loading rate — cold deformation — material properties — Material inhomogeneity — different material properties of materials being joined. (Even material with the same strength specification may differ due to statistical variance if not from same batch) — presence of defects. The calculated strain values will be a function of: — element type — element density — material properties — flow rules — sequence of load modelling. The acceptable strain values can therefore not be given with large accuracy without consideration of the conditions of the actual problem. There are several failure models describing the local phenomenon of tensile failure. Such models may be used if they are calibrated against known cases where the above aspects are considered. 7.6 Comments to [5.1.3] Tensile failure in base material simplified approach for plane plates The simplified criteria are based on studies reported in /28/. Traditionally, design standards have based the capacity against tensile failure on the value of the nominal yield stress. In the proposed procedure, a realistic stressstrain curve is assumed with considerable hardening. This will mean that the resulting capacity for simple tensile failure modes will be considerably increased. In order to maintain the same safety margins for tensile failure compared with other failure modes, as used in most structural design standards, an additional material factor is introduced. Eurocode 3 /4/ and AISC /5/, for example, use increased material factor when the capacity is using the tensile strength and not the yield strength as the material parameter in the capacity formulations. Recommended values for the material factor in Eurocode 3 are 1.25 and 1.0 for tensile strength and yield strength as the reference strength, respectively. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 55 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used 7.7 Comments to [5.1.5] Failure of welds Base material has in general better toughness properties than weld material. It is therefore regarded as good design practice to ensure that large plastic deformation occurs in the parent material and not in the weld. This is normally the case for full penetration welds where the overmatching material ensures limited plastic deformation in the weld. Weld material may, however, contain defects of considerable size. In such cases, a fracture mechanics assessment is necessary in order to determine if fracture in the weld may be the governing failure mode. 7.8 Comment to [5.1.6] Simplified tensile failure criteria in case low capacity is unfavourable For cases where it will be unfavourable to calculate too low capacity like when the problem is to determine the forces imposed on a structure when struck by a ship. Then the ship should not be analysed using characteristic material properties intended to result in 5% low fractile resistances. For this reason values aiming to represent mean values of common offshore steels are given in Table 71 to Table 75. Table 71 Proposed mean properties for S235 steels (true stress strain) S235 Thickness [mm] t≤ 16 16< t ≤ 40 40< t ≤ 63 63< t ≤ 100 E [MPa] 210000 210000 210000 210000 σprop [MPa] 285.8 273.6 251.8 242.1 σyield [MPa] 318.9 305.2 280.9 270.1 σyield2 [MPa] 328.6 314.8 289.9 278.8 εp_y1 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 εp_y2 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 K[MPa] 700 700 675 650 n 0.166 0.166 0.166 0.166 Table 72 Proposed mean properties for S355 steels (true stress strain) S275 Thickness [mm] t≤ 16 16< t ≤ 40 40< t ≤ 63 E [MPa] 210000 210000 210000 σprop [MPa] 297.6 273.7 250.8 σyield [MPa] 331.8 306.4 282.0 σyield2 [MPa] 340.6 314.7 289.7 εp_y1 0.004 0.004 0.004 εp_y2 0.017 0.017 0.017 K[MPa] 740 700 685 n 0.166 0.166 0.166 Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 56 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Table 73 Proposed mean properties for S355 steels (true stress strain) S355 Thickness [mm] t≤ 16 16< t ≤ 40 40< t ≤ 63 63< t ≤ 100 E [MPa] 210000 210000 210000 210000 σprop [MPa] 384.0 357.7 332.1 312.4 σyield [MPa] 428.4 398.9 370.6 348.4 σyield2 [MPa] 439.3 409.3 380.3 350.6 εp_y1 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 εp_y2 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 K[MPa] 900 850 800 800 n 0.166 0.166 0.166 0.166 Table 74 Proposed mean properties for S420 steels (true stress strain) S420 Thickness [mm] t≤ 16 16< t ≤ 40 40< t ≤ 63 E [MPa] 210000 210000 210000 σprop [MPa] 435.5 432.7 421.9 σyield [MPa] 485.9 482.9 470.8 σyield2 [MPa] 490.2 487.2 475.1 εp_y1 0.004 0.004 0.004 εp_y2 0.011928571 0.011928571 0.011928571 K[MPa] 738 703 686 n 0.14 0.14 0.14 Table 75 Proposed mean properties for S460 steels (true stress strain) S460 Thickness [mm] t≤ 16 16< t ≤ 40 40< t ≤ 63 E [MPa] 210000 210000 210000 σprop [MPa] 485.3 484.0 460.3 σyield [MPa] 541.5 540.1 513.5 σyield2 [MPa] 546.3 544.9 518.1 εp_y1 0.004 0.004 0.004 εp_y2 0.01 0.01 0.01 K[MPa] 772 745 703 Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 57 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used S460 Thickness [mm] t≤ 16 16< t ≤ 40 40< t ≤ 63 n 0.12 0.12 0.12 7.9 Comment to [5.2.3] Determination of cyclic loads The check against cyclic failure should be carried out with the use of a dimensioning load history that has the prescribed probability of occurrence as required for a single extreme load. For environmental loads like wave and wind it should be established a dimensioning storm that the structure is required to survive. It would be in line with check for other failure modes to check the structure for one single storm from each of the critical directions, but without adding the calculated damage from different directions. The load history for the remaining waves in a 10 000 year dimensioning storm investigated for southern North Sea conditions have been found to have a maximum value equal to 0.93 of the dimensioning wave, a duration of 6 h and a Weibull shape parameter of 2.0. This applies for check of failure modes where the entire storm will be relevant, such as crack growth. When checking failure modes where only the remaining waves after the dimensioning wave (e.g. buckling) need to be accounted for, a value of 0.9 of the dimensioning wave may be used ref /15/. The load history for the remaining waves in a 100 year dimensioning storm investigated for southern North Sea conditions have been found to have a maximum value equal to 0.95 of the dimensioning wave, a duration of 6 h and a Weibull shape parameter of 2.0. The largest remaining waves after the dimensioning wave (e.g. for cases like buckling) the largest wave is found as 0.92 of the dimensioning wave. 7.10 Comment to [5.2.4] Cyclic stress strain curves The cyclic stressstrain curves are only intended for low cycle fatigue analysis. The use of monotonic stress strain curve in low cycle fatigue analysis may provide nonconservative results and must therefore be avoided. The cyclic stress strain curves presented in Table 54 are based on cyclic behaviour of similar steels reported in reference /25/. In order to account for uncertainties in material behaviour the curves are based on conservative assumptions. A steel grade similar to S235 was notreported in /25/. Here, the same exponent of 10 in the RambergOsgood relation was assumed. K was assessed by assuming a strain value of approximately 0.005 when the stress has approached the monotonic stress level of 235MPa. 7.11 Comment to [5.2.6] Low cycle fatigue of base material The εN curve is based on laboratory test results reported in the literature. As for welded joints the design curve is established by subtracting three standard deviations from the mean curve. A standard deviation of 0.2 in log N scale is assumed. The influence of cold forming during production does not need to be included in the assessment as this effect is considered to be implicitly accounted for in the design curve. 7.12 Comment to [5.2.5.1] Accumulated damage criterion Laboratory test results presented in references /17//20/ make up the basis for the established eN curve for welded joints. The proposed mean and design curve for air along with the laboratory test data is presented in Figure 72. Note that some of the results presented in the figure are not obtained directly from the referred articles. In some cases further analysis and interpretation was needed to obtain the data on a proper format. The mean curve is established based on judgement. The results reported by Weigans and Berman /18/ are obtained from testing of dogbone specimens cut out from a butt welded plate. These results have therefore been weighted less than results from /17/ and /19/ which is based on full scale testing of tubular joints. The fatigue test results presented in /20/ are from pipes with wall thicknesses of less than 10 mm. The Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 58 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used fatigue strength of welded joints is to some extent dependent on the wall thickness and since the thickness of structural elements normally is significantly larger than this the results have been weighted less. Because the fatigue test data come from several different sources it was not found reasonable to establish the standard deviation from a regression analysis. Instead, a standard deviation of 0.2 in log N scale is assumed for constructing the design curve in air. A standard deviation of 0.2 is identical to what is used in high cycle fatigue (DNVGLRPC203 /11/). It is a general opinion within the body of fatigue expertise that the statistical deviation in fatigue test results, decreases with decreasing fatigue life. Hence, assuming a standard deviation value of 0.2 should be conservative. The high cycle fatigue design curve in DNVGLRPC203 is defined as the mean curve minus two standard deviations. In order to account for limited test data, the design curve has been established by subtracting three standard deviations. Three standard deviations on log N corresponds to a factor of 103·0.2 ≈ 4, i.e the design curve is below the mean curve by a factor of approximately four on fatigue life. The design curve for seawater with cathodic protection is constructed by reducing the fatigue life by a factor of 2.5. This is identical to the reduction used in DNVGLRPC203 for fatigue lives less than 106. Figure 72 Mean and design curve for welded joints along with laboratory test results 7.13 Comments to [5.2.7] Shake down check When a structure is loaded beyond linear limits the response for subsequent cycles will be changed. It is therefore necessary to investigate the behaviour through the full cycles also for the next cycles. See e.g. /14/ for more guidance. 7.14 Comments to [5.4.1] General The modelling of geometrical imperfections, outofstraightness etc. is crucial for achieving a credible and safe estimate of the buckling and ultimate strength limits. The less redundant the structure is the more important it will be to model the geometrical deviations from perfect shape in a consistent way using the eigenmode, postbuckling shapes, combinations thereof or similar. In such cases triggering the governing modes rather than accounting for actual tolerance size will be most important in the analyses. However, in all but the simplest of cases, if a structure is believed to be insensitive to geometric imperfections (or Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 59 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used imperfection size) it may be prudent to confirm this by undertaking sensitivity analyses on the imperfection size. It should be noted that it is not always easy to identify in advance which form of imperfection may be the most critical. Guidance on analysis of stability problems may be found in e.g. /13/. 7.15 Comments to [5.4.5] Strain limits to avoid accurate check of local stability for plates and tubular sections yielding in compression. The strain limits for plates are established from analysis of flanges meeting rotational capacities according to cross section class 1 and 2 and by comparison with tests. See /22/ and /23/. Strain limits are also compared with recommendations given in /24/. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 60 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used SECTION 8 EXAMPLES 8.1 Example: Strain limits for tensile failure due to gross yielding of plane plates (uniaxial stress state) 8.1.1 Tsection cantilever beam Gross yielding check of a Tsection cantilever beam, subjected to axial and shear force and moment loading, is presented in this example. The finite element software ABAQUS /30/ is used to perform the analyses. The geometry and boundary conditions of the beam are shown in Figure 81. Loading is applied to a reference point coinciding with the neutral axis of the beam cross section, using kinematic coupling between the cross section and the reference point. The beam is modelled using 4noded shell elements with reduced integration (S4R). Material grade is S355, modelled according to Table 44. The magnitude of the applied forces and moments are given by the axial force Nx, the shear force Py = −0.15Nx and the bending moment Mz =−0.45Nx · a, a = 1 m. Check against tensile failure is made according to [5.1.3]. Figure 81 Geometry and boundary conditions for cantilever beam, dimensions in mm First, the critical gross yielding strain is determined by running calibration case CC01, see [5.1.3]. As seen from Figure 82, the critical gross yielding strain εcrg is found to be 0.044. The element length selected in the model is 2t which means 30 mm for the 15 mm thick CC01. The load limit when the gross yielding strain is reached at a load of 421 kN is shown in Figure 83. As the extent of the yielding zone with principal plastic strain above 0.02 is less than 20t it can be documented a larger capacity by increasing the load until either the length of the yield zone reaches 20t or the maximum principal plastic strain reaches the critical local strain: The element length l = 2t = 16 mm. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 61 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o furtherdistribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 82 Principal plastic strain obtained with S4R elements for calibration case CC01 Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 62 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 83 Principal plastic strain at load level corresponding to critical gross yielding strain, N = 421 kN In Figure 84 the direction of the maximum principal strain is plotted. The length of 20t in this direction is indicated with the red line in Figure 85. Figure 84 Plot showing direction of maximum plastic strain Figure 85 shows the principal plastic strain when the extent of the yielding zone with principal plastic strain above 0.02 reach 20t which corresponds to a load level of N = 459 kN. It should be noted that from the strain plot it can be seen an even larger plastic zone away from the support, but as the plastic strain values within this zone are all below the critical gross yielding value, the length restriction of 20t does not apply. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 63 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 85 Principal plastic strain at load level corresponding to the length of the yielding zone reaching 20t, N = 459 kN From Figure 85 it can also be seen that the principal plastic strain is below the critical local strain so this criterion is fulfilled. Consequently the calculated capacity of the beam can be set to: Where γtf is the additional tensile failure material factor of 1.2 as given in [5.1.3], and γm is the ordinary material factor according to the actual design standard. 8.1.2 Tsection cantilever beam with notch Check for tensile failure of a Tsection cantilever beam with a notch in the free edge of the web is presented in this example. The geometry and boundary conditions are shown in Figure 86. The model, loading and analysis setup and procedure are the same as in [8.1.1], except the size of the mesh which in this case is 25% of the notch height, i.e. 25 mm × 25 mm. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 64 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 86 Geometry and boundary conditions for cantilever beam with notch Plot of principal plastic strain at a load level corresponding to gross yielding strain of 0.044 is shown in Figure 87. The load is 287 kN. From the figure it can also be seen that the extent of the yield zone with plastic strain above 0.02 is less than 20t meaning that a larger load can be documented. Figure 87 Principal plastic strain at load level corresponding to critical gross yielding strain, N = 287 kN Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 65 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 88 Direction of maximum principal plastic strain at the load level corresponding to a zone with principal plastic strain above 0.02, N = 306 kN The direction of the maximum plastic strain is shown in Figure 88 and a red line with length of 20t is shown in Figure 89. In Figure 89 the plastic strain at the load level where the yield zone is extending 20t is plotted. The load is 306 kN. It can also be seen that the principal plastic strain in all areas is below the critical local strain: Consequently, the calculated capacity of the beam can be set to kN where γtf is the additional tensile failure material factor of 1.2 as given in [5.1.3] and γm is the ordinary material factor according to the actual design standard. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 66 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 89 Principal plastic strain at the load level corresponding to a zone with principal plastic strain above 0.02 8.2 Example: Convergence test of linearized buckling of frame corner A symmetric frame of beams with Isection is analysed. The frame with boundary conditions is shown in Figure 810 and Figure 811. The loading is applied as a displacement of the web at one end of the frame, m. Three different mesh densities and two element types are included in a convergence study, to ensure a sufficiently refined mesh. See Figure 812. The element types used are 4 node rectangular shell elements and 8 node rectangular shell elements. The analyses are performed using the finite element software ABAQUS /30/. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 67 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 810 Geometry of test example Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 68 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 811 Displacement/boundary conditions Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 69 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 812 Top: coarse mesh. Middle: fine mesh. Bottom: very fine mesh For the eigenvalue analyses and the linear analyses elastic material properties were used and for the buckling capacity analyses nonlinear material properties were used. Details are shown in Table 81. Table 81 Material properties Density, ρ 7850 kg/m3 Young’s modulus, E 210 GPa Poisson’s ratio, ν 0.3 The loading is applied as displacement on the web at one end of the frame, as shown in Figure 811. Hence, the eigenvalue defines the displacement corresponding to linearized buckling. A convergence study is performed by analysing 6 cases and the resulting buckling displacements are listed in Table 82. From these results all combinations of mesh size and element type except the coarse 4 node Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 70 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended foruse by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used combination, seems to be sufficiently refined. However, the stress results wanted are also highly dependent on the mesh refinement, and a fine mesh in the area where high stress values are reached is preferable. An analysis using the very fine mesh is time consuming, hence the mesh size and element type combination chosen is the 4 node elements with fine meshing. Table 82 Convergence study of frame Case number Mesh size Element type Linearized buckling displacement [m] 1 Coarse 4node 0.0653 2 Fine 4node 0.0624 3 Very fine 4node 0.0618 4 Coarse 8node 0.0616 5 Fine 8node 0.0615 6 Very fine 8node 0.0615 In summary the convergence test has shown that case number 2 and case 4 will produce sufficiently accurate results of the linearized buckling value. Case 2 is preferred as the analysis is more efficient compared to case 4. The increased mesh refinement of case 3, 5 and 6 will not significantly improve the accuracy for the actual problem solution. 8.3 Example: Determination of buckling resistance by use of linearized buckling values 8.3.1 Step i) Build model The same problem as shown in Figure 810 will be used in this example and the boundary conditions are as in Figure 811. The material properties are shown in Table 83. Table 83 Material properties Density, ρ 7850 kg/m3 Young’s modulus, E 210 GPa Poisson’s ratio, ν 0.3 Yield strength, σY 355 MPa The analysis follows the steps as given in [5.4.2]. Step 1 is completed as the model from the example in [8.2]. 8.3.2 Step ii) Linear analysis of the frame The results from a linear analysis are shown in Figure 813 and Figure 814 for the vonMises and membrane compression stresses respectively. The linear analysis is performed with the same applied displacement as in the eigenvalue analysis m, equivalent to an applied load i ydirection . Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 71 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 813 Distribution of vonMises stress from linear analysis Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 72 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 814 Distribution of compressive stress from linear analysis (minimum inplane principal stress) 8.3.3 Step iii) Determine the buckling eigenvalues Eigenvalue analysis is performed to find the buckling modes and eigenvalues of the frame. The first eigenvalue is and the corresponding buckling mode shape is shown in Figure 815. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 73 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 815 First buckling mode 8.3.4 Step iv) Select the governing buckling mode and the point for reading the representative stress The lowest buckling mode is judged to be a realistic buckling shape for this case and is selected. The reference stress is taken as the maximum vonMises stress in the structural part subjected to buckling. 8.3.5 Step v) Determine the vonMises stress at the point for the representative stress σRep from step ii). Stress from linear analysis: Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 74 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used 8.3.6 Step vi) Determine the critical buckling stress The critical buckling stress for the governing buckling mode is determined as: The reduced slenderness is determined as: 8.3.7 Step vii) Select empirically based buckling curve The buckling curve used here is taken from Table 57. The curve selected is the one for column and stiffened plate and plate without redistribution possibilities as it is judged that the corner plate cannot redistribute stresses in a way so the plate curve could be used. α is set to 0.3 for the following calculations. 8.3.8 Step viii) Determine the buckling resistance Rd With then the buckling factor is Assuming a material factor , the buckling resistance is 8.4 Example: Determination of buckling resistance from nonlinear analysis using standard defined equivalent tolerances 8.4.1 Description of model The same problem as shown in Figure 810 will be used in this example and the boundary conditions are as in Figure 811. The material properties are shown in Table 83 and the material model is shown in Figure 816. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 75 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 816 Material model for analysis with material nonlinearity A nonlinear analysis (using the arclength method) is performed, where the effects of imperfections, residual stresses and material nonlinearity is accounted for by use of a defined material stressstrain relationship and the use of empirically determined equivalent imperfections. The shape of the governing buckling mode is taken as the lowest buckling mode as shown in Figure 815, and is used as the pattern for the equivalent imperfection. The magnitude of the equivalent imperfection δ is calculated using the tolerances given in Table 58. The analysed frame can be considered equivalent to a component of longitudinal stiffener or flange outstand, hence the magnitude is given as δ = 0.02 rad =0.02c where c is half the width of the flange. Two values of c are analysed, the largest c; ca = a, where a = 0.975 m is the distance between where the webs cross in the corner of the frame and the midpoint of the flange curvature, and an average c; , where b = 0.5 m is the width of the flange outside the curved area. See Figure 810. 8.4.2 Results The stress distribution for the nonlinear analysis with initial imperfection is shown in Figure 817. Figure 818 displays the forcedisplacement curves for the displaced end of the frame for the linear analysis and the forcedisplacement corresponding to the critical buckling stress where imperfections are taken into consideration as calculated in [8.3], and from the nonlinear analyses. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 76 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 817 Stress distribution for nonlinear analysis with initial imperfection δ# at maximum applied force Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 77 Determinationof structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS Figure 818 Forcedisplacement from nonlinear analyses, linear analysis and the calculated critical value 8.5 Example: Determination of buckling resistance from nonlinear analysis that are calibrated against standard formulations or tests 8.5.1 Step i: Prepare model A conical transition subjected to external hydrostatic pressure and axial tension is chosen for this analysis. The geometry of the conical transition and the calibration object is shown in Figure 819. The applied loading is defined as a hydrostatic pressure p =1.01MPa and an axial tension Ny = 58.4MN. The boundary conditions are modelled using constraints with kinematic coupling between a reference point in the cross section centre and the nodes on the circumference of the conical transition ends. At the bottom all translations and rotations of the reference point are constrained and the top reference point is constrained in the horizontal plane (x and zdirection). Load and boundary conditions and element mesh are shown in Figure 820. The conical transition is modelled using 4noded shell elements (S4R). Material properties are listed in Table 84. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 78 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 819 Geometry of conical transition (on top) and calibration object (bottom), dimensions in mm Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 79 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 820 Left: Load and boundary conditions. Right: Element mesh Table 84 Material properties Density, ρ 7850 kg/m3 Young’s modulus, E 210 GPa Poisson’s ratio, ν 0.3 Yield strength, σY 420 MPa Density water, ρw 1030kg/m 3 8.5.2 Step ii: Determine relevant buckling modes Eigenvalue analysis is performed to find the buckling modes for the conical transition. The first relevant buckling mode (with positive eigenvalue) is mode 3, shown in Figure 821. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 80 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 821 Buckling mode shape for conical transition 8.5.3 Step iii: Select object for calibration and prepare model The calibration object is selected as a cylinder. The diameter and wall thickness are equal to the lower cylindrical part of the conical transition, while the length is chosen as 2/3 of the conical transition length (lower part, conical part and a part of the top part). The load and boundary conditions, element type and mesh density used is the same as for the model of the conical transition, see Figure 822. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 81 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 822 Left: Load and boundary conditions. Right: Element mesh 8.5.4 Step iv: Determine the appropriate buckling mode for the calibration object Eigenvalue analysis is performed to find the buckling modes for the calibration object. These buckling modes are compared to the buckling modes found for the conical transition and a mode with similar pattern is selected. Figure 823 shows the first cylinder buckling mode. This shows a similar pattern to the buckling mode of the conical transition Figure 821, hence this is determined to be an appropriate buckling mode. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 82 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 823 Buckling mode shape for cylinder 8.5.5 Step v: Determine magnitude of the equivalent imperfection To determine the magnitude of the equivalent imperfection a nonlinear analysis of the cylinder with imperfections is performed. The imperfection shape from the chosen buckling mode was transferred to the nonlinear analysis, and the same load and boundary conditions as for the eigenvalue analysis were applied. The material model shown in Figure 57 is used for the nonlinear analysis. The imperfection is scaled so the buckling capacity of the cylinder is equal to the buckling capacity for cylinders given in N004 /7/. To obtain this capacity the magnitude of the imperfection was found to be 40 mm. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 83 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used 8.5.6 Step vi: Perform nonlinear analysis of the model with imperfections A nonlinear analysis of the conical transition with imperfections is performed. The load and boundary conditions remain the same, and the material model and magnitude of the calibrated imperfection from Step v is used. The load proportionality factor for this case is shown in Figure 824. The maximum load proportionality factor is LPFmax = 0.936. Thus the buckling capacity of the conical transition subjected to the given load combination is; hydrostatic pressure p = 0.95MPa and an axial tension Ny =54.7MN. Figure 825 shows the von Mises stress at maximum load on the deformed conical transition. Figure 824 Load proportionality factor for conical transition with initial imperfection Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 84 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 825 Deflected shape showing von Mises stress at maximum load deformations scaled with a factor of 10 8.6 Example: Buckling check of jacket frame structure during deck installation 8.6.1 Floatover concept A floatover installation of a jacket topsides structure is characterised by the topside being floated in between the jacket leg, by use of a barge or installation vessel, as exemplified in Figure 826. The topside is supported in an elevated position on the vessel deck so that it can be lowered into place on top of the jacket legs. However, the concept requires two jacket sides/rows to be unbraced to make room for the vessel. The jacket is thus weak in the direction parallel to the unbraced faces. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 85 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AST his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 826 Floatover installation. The topside structure, jacked up on the Black Marlin, is moved in between the jacket legs and lowered into place. Source: Boskalis 8.6.2 Model description The example geometry is a fourlegged jacket with straight, vertical legs in a 20 m × 20 m square and diagonal bracing in 3 bays in the elevations shown in Figure 827. The upper (fourth) bay, from elevation 10.0 m to 0.0 m, is only braced on two faces, in order to make room for a topside installation barge. A typical, unbraced MSF structure reaches from elevation 0.0 m to +18.0 m where a stiff topside frame connecting the four MSF legs acts as a simplified model of a topside module. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 86 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 827 Overview of simplified model for jacket designed for floatover topside installation. Legs are numbered from 1 to 4. Only three tubular member sizes are defined, plus the stiff, tubular bracing of the topside frame. Table 85 Tubular member dimensions Tubular Dimensions Legs – upper Ø1200 mm × 25mm Legs lower Ø1400 mm × 60mm Bracing Ø600 mm × 20mm 8.6.3 FE program and element types The general finite element program ANSYS /31/ is used for the FE analyses. The jacket model is defined using the threenode, secondorder plastic BEAM189 element with six degrees of freedom at each node. The topside mass is implemented as a single mass element in the centre of gravity (COG) of the topsides structure. See also [8.6.5] for load application. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 87 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used 8.6.4 Materials The nonlinear material model used for the jacket legs and braces is an isotropic hardening, bilinear curve as shown in Figure 57. The von Mises yield criterion is applied. Table 86 Material Data Yield Stress 345 MPa Young’s Modulus 210.000 MPa Poisson´s ratio 0.3 Density 7850 kg/m3 Figure 828 Nonlinear material model 8.6.5 Boundary conditions and loads The bottom ends of the four legs at mudline are fully fixed. The primary load scenario is topside stabbing/mating, and the topside mass is applied at a single node near the centre of the jacket, 5 m above the top of the legs at elevation +23.0 m. The load is distributed stiffly to the jacket legs using rigid links. In the present base analyses, the topside COG is offset by 1.0 m in Xdirection, i.e. in the weak direction. The topsides load setup is shown in Figure 829. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 88 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 829 Application of topside load: Singlenode mass with stiff offset from centre of jacket Basic gravity is included in the model as vertical acceleration of 9.806 m/s2. Load and material safety factors have been purposefully omitted in the example. 8.6.6 Analyses The buckling example covering a basic floatover installation load case follows the basic workflow shown below: — linear (eigenvalue) buckling analysis — build model — run linear static analysis — run eigenvalue buckling analysis — calculate buckling capacity — nonlinear analysis — extract imperfections from eigenvalue buckling analysis, mode shape 1 — apply imperfections to nonlinear model — run nonlinear analysis, ramping topside load until failure (forcecontrol) — test: rerun nonlinear analysis, ramping topside load until failure (displacementcontrol). — postprocess nonlinear result: Pd curves etc. Where possible, calculation and postprocessing of FE results are done for all four jacket legs, although legs 1 and 4 nearest to the topside COG, see Figure 827, are sustaining the largest axial forces. In addition to the base analyses, a number of sensitivity analyses has been performed, covering mesh density and size of imperfections. 8.6.7 Linear (eigenvalue) buckling analysis 8.6.7.1 Initial linearelastic analysis As input to the eigenvalue buckling analysis a simple linearelastic analysis is set up. The only loads are gravity acting on the jacket steel and the single mass element representing the topside mass of 4000 t. The stress state from the linear analysis is used as a prestressed starting point for the eigenvalue buckling analyses. Most FEanalysis packages have quite streamlined approaches for this setup. Other output needed from the linear analysis is the maximum representative stress σrep in each of the four legs and the corresponding representative total force Srep corresponding to the total topside load of 4.000 t ~39.23 MN. Stresses from linear analyses are shown in Figure 830 and axial forces are shown in Figure 831. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 89 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 830 Stresses (MPa) from linear analysis Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 90 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 831 Axial forces (N) from linear analysis, legs from 10.0 m to +18.0 m only As this is a linearelastic analysis the stress magnitude relative to the material yield stress is not critical or relevant. 8.6.7.2 Eigenvalue buckling analysis Starting with the stressstate from the linearelastic analysis, the eigenbuckling analysis yields the requested number of eigenvalues corresponding to the loaded model. Typically, the first eigenmode, and lowest buckling eigenvalue, is governing. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 91 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 832 First buckling mode shape and corresponding eigenvalue, 0.861 It is seen from Figure 832 that the first eigenmode is a sway mode of the unbraced parts of the jacket legs, between elevations 10.0 m and +18.0 m. The critical buckling stress σki is calculated as the chosen buckling eigenvalue kg times the representative stress: σki = kg σrep = 0.861 ∙ 123.4 MPa = 106.3 MPa The reduced slenderness is determined as: The buckling curve is taken from Table 57. The selected curve is for column and stiffened plate and plate without redistribution possibilities:where Alpha α is taken as 0.30 for strict tolerances and moderate residual stresses. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 92 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used The above yields a buckling factor κ = 0.256, and finally the buckling resistance can be calculated as: where Srep is the total topside load and σrep is the maximum stress found in the four legs. Table 87 shows axial forces and stresses for all four legs. Table 87 Linearized buckling results for all four jacket legs Leg 1 Leg 2 Leg 3 Leg 4 Total load(Srep) Axial force (MN) 10.76 8.86 8.79 10.82 39.23 Max. stress σrep (MPa) 123.44 106.37 105.91 123.18 For the purpose of this example, the material factor γM is taken as 1.0, which yields the following system buckling resistance: The system buckling capacity, expressed here in total topside mass, is calculated using the maximum stress in any of the legs together with the total topside load. This can then be compared to the system capacity found in the nonlinear analyses, described in the following. 8.6.8 Nonlinear buckling analysis with standarddefined equivalent tolerances 8.6.8.1 General The nonlinear analysis is carried out using the same model as for the linear analyses, but with imperfections and material and geometric nonlinearities included. 8.6.8.2 Imperfections, misalignments and residual stresses The effects of imperfections, misalignments and residual stresses must be taken into account for the non linear analysis. This is done by imposing initial, stressfree displacements on all nodes or elements in the shape of the first eigenmode from the eigenbuckling analysis. These equivalent imperfections are scaled in accordance with Table 58 for a member component with the magnitude taken as for strict tolerances and moderate residual stresses. The same classification was chosen for the linear buckling analysis alpha parameter (α = 0.3). This means that the imperfections are scaled so that the points of maximum deflection in the eigenmode shape at the top of the jacket legs are displaced by L/250, where L is taken as the Euler buckling length for a single leg based on the maximum axial load for the linearized buckling load: which leads to the max. equivalent imperfection of 59.5/250 = 0.238 m Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 93 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS The imposed imperfections are sketched in Figure 833. Various methods can be employed to impose the scaled mode shape deflections to the model. All major FEA packages are able to do this, either by use of builtin, automated procedures or through the use of custom scripting. Some iteration may be needed to achieve the chosen maximum deflection. Figure 833 Imperfections based on first eigenbuckling mode shape (exaggerated) 8.6.8.3 Material and geometric nonlinearities Material nonlinearities are taken into account (see material curve in [8.6.4]) Geometric nonlinearities (also often called large deformation effects) must be activated in the FE program. This setting causes the solver to recalculate/update the stiffness matrix for every load substep, based on the deflected geometry. 8.6.8.4 Load in nonlinear analysis – ‘force control’ For the nonlinear analysis, the applied load must be higher than what is needed to reach failure. As the linear analysis showed a buckling capacity of ~2900 t, it is chosen to apply a total equivalent force of up to 4000 t. The nonlinear buckling capacity is then defined by the maximum force applied when the analysis fails to converge. For the previously mentioned nonlinearities to have any effect, the load must be applied gradually, ramped over several steps. In the present analyses the load (topside mass under standard gravity) is applied at a starting rate of 1/100 increments of the total load, but the solver is allowed to apply the load in down to 1/1000 increments if necessary for convergence. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 94 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used 8.6.8.5 Load in nonlinear analysis – displacement control In the present case, the problem is simple enough that the topside load can be applied as a displacement in the load direction (standard gravity in the vertical direction). Therefore, as a test, the same problem is analysed with the topside load applied as a Zdisplacement. The magnitude of the displacement is taken as twice the resulting Zdisplacement seen in the previous, force controlled analysis, in order to drive the analysis well past the load limit. 8.6.8.6 Nonlinear analysis – results The stress distribution at maximum load for the nonlinear analysis is shown in Figure 834. Figure 834 Stress distribution at maximum load, nonlinear analysis w. initial imperfections The forcedisplacement curves in Figure 835 show the axial forces in the four legs plotted against displacement in Xdirection of the topside node. It is seen that the legs are almost equally loaded in leg pairs 1 and 4, and 2 and 3, where pair 1 and 4 is loaded higher, because the topside COG is offset towards these legs. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 95 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS Figure 835 Nonlinear forcedisplacement curves (forcecontrolled) Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 96 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 836 Nonlinear forcedisplacement curves (displacementcontrolled) Figure 836 show the force displacement curves for the axial force in the four legs when the analysis is displacement controlled. In Figure 837 the force/displacement curves for forcecontrolled and displacement controlled analyses are compared. As expected, the curves are practically coincident, although the displacementcontrolled analysis is able to drive the analysis beyond the maximum capacity. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 97 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 837 Test: comparison between forcecontrolled and displacementcontrolled analysis Again, the system buckling resistance in the present case is defined as the total topside load at the time of the limit load. For comparison, the result from the linear buckling analysis is included by a horizontal line. Table 88 Nonlinear buckling results for all four jacket legs. Axial forces are compressive. Leg 1 Leg 2 Leg 3 Leg 4 Max. Axial Force (MN) 7.52 6.11 6.15 7.48 System Buckling Resistance 27.26MN ~ 2780 t (topside mass) 8.6.9 Comparison – linear vs nonlinear results A comparison of the capacities from the linear buckling analysis and the nonlinear analysis shows reasonably good agreementbetween the two methods, with the nonlinear capacities being slightly lower. In general, it would be expected that the nonlinear analysis yields the highest capacity, but the difference depends on the actual model. Table 89 Result comparison – linear buckling vs nonlinear analysis Force (MN) Topside mass (t) Linear buckling resistance 28.18 2873 Nonlinear capacity 27.26 2780 Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 98 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Force (MN) Topside mass (t) Difference (%) 3.2 8.7 Example: Joint of rectangular hollow section (RHS) and circular hollow section (CHS) under tension loading 8.7.1 Introduction The RHSCHS bolted joint shown in Figure 838 is to be designed according to EN199318 /4/. The joint is subjected to an axial tension force. When the joint is subjected to tension, prying forces will influence the bolt tensile force and flange stress field. In order to properly account for these effects, a nonlinear FE model is developed and analyses carried out in accordance with method b) of [3.4]. The following design checks will be performed: — tension resistance of the individual bolt — punching shear resistance at the individual bolt — failure by plastic collapse of the flange. The following design procedure is proposed: For an appropriate calibration object, the allowable load is found from the standard. A nonlinear FE model is developed for the calibration object. The maximum first principal plastic strain value when the characteristic load is applied in the calibration object is noted. This is used as failure parameter. A nonlinear FE model is developed for the RHSCHS joint using a similar setup as for the calibration case. The resistance is found as the maximum tensile force that can be applied without exceeding the first principal strain value found from the calibration. Bolt tension resistance and punching shear is checked using the bolt (reaction) force found from the FEA. Using the outlined procedure, the safety level inherent in the proposed standard is ensured for the RHSCHS joint. Figure 838 RHSCHS joint Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 99 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used 8.7.2 Calibration case 8.7.2.1 Definition of calibration case For the RHSCHS joint depicted in Figure 838, prying forces will influence the bolt tension force and flange stress field when the joint is subjected to tension. The proposed calibration object is a simple Tstub in tension, depicted in Figure 839. When subjected to tension, the same failure mode is expected in the Tstub as in the RHSCHS joint. The Tstub is considered a section cut out from a long, continuous joint. The flange dimensions from the RHSCHS joint are used in the Tstub section as well as the same bolts, M24 8.8. Figure 839 Tstub geometry 8.7.2.2 Tstub design The Tstub design is performed according to EC3,18,Table 6.2 /4/. Calibration is performed for characteristic resistance, implying that all partial factors are set to γM = 1.0. End row effects are not considered, implying that the effective length Σleff = 100 mm. Also, it is checked that the punching shear resistance exceeds the tension resistance of one fastener. Details of the design are given in Table 810. The failure mode giving the resistance is Mode 1, implying that complete yielding of the flange is the failure mode. The resulting characteristic tension resistance is FT,Rc = 214.6 kN It is also noted that The calculated bolt preload is Fp,Cc = 197.7 kN The tension resistance of one bolt is Ft,Rc = 254.2 kN The punching shear resistance at one bolt is Bp,Rc = 498.8 kN Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 100 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Table 810 Tstub design parameters and result according to EN199318 /4/ General input Partial safety factors γM0 1.0 γM2 1.0 γM7 1.0 Bolt data fub Ultimate tensile strength 800 MPa Tab. 3.1 Tension diameter 21.2 mm Bolt head height 15 mm dw Diameter of washer/nut/bolt head 36 mm Joint geometry and material data tf Flange thickness 15 mm Number of bolts 2 fy Yield strength 355 MPa fu Ultimate strength 490 MPa Tension resistance k2 factor 0.63 for countersunk bolt; 0.9 0.9 Tab. 3.4 As Tension area 353 mm 2 Ft,Rd Tension resistance, one bolt k2 fub As / γM2 254152 N Tab. 3.4 Punching shear resistance dm Mean of across points/flats dimensions of the bolt head/nut, whichever smaller dw 36 mm tp Thickness of plate under bolt/nut tf 15 mm Bp,Rd Punching shear resistance 0.6 π dm tp fu / γM2 498759 N Tab. 3.4 Preload Fp,Cd Design preload 0.7 fub As / γM7 197674 N 3.6.1 (2) Resistance of equivalent Tstub ΣFt,Rd Total value of tension resistance Ft,Rd · number of bolts 508305 N Σ leff,1 100 mm Σ leff,2 100 mm Mpl,1,Rd 0.25 Σ leff,1 tf 2 fy / γM0 1996875 Tab. 6.2 Mpl,2,Rd 0.25 Σ leff,2 tf 2 fy / γM0 1996875 Tab. 6.2 Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 101 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used General input Partial safety factors ew 9 emin 50 Fig. 6.2 m 44 Fig. 6.2 n 50 Lb Bolt elongation length 45 Tab. 6.2 Lb* 8.8 m 3 As / (Σ leff,1 tf 3) 784 Tab. 6.2 May prying forces develop? Yes if Lb ≤ Lb*;No Yes Tab. 6.2 TR, Mode 1. Method 1 4 Mpl,1,Rd / m 1.815E+05 N Tab. 6.2 TR, Mode 1. Method 2 (8n2ew)Mpl,1,Rd / (2 m·n ew(m+n)) 2.146E+05 N Tab. 6.2 FT,1,Rd Tension resistance, Mode 1 2.146E+05 N Tab. 6.2 FT,2,Rd Tension resistance, Mode 2 (2Mpl,2,Rd + n ΣFt,Rd) / (m+n) 3.129E+05 N Tab. 6.2 FT,3,Rd Tension resistance, Mode 3 ΣFt,Rd 5.083E+05 N Tab. 6.2 FT,Rd Tension resistance min {FT,1,Rd; FT,2,Rd; FT,3,Rd} 2.146E+05 N 8.7.3 Tstub finite element model 8.7.3.1 Software used The analyses are performed using ANSYS /31/ within the ANSYS Workbench environment. The geometries are prepared in ANSYS DesignModeler. 8.7.3.2 Material models For the bolts, a linearelastic material model is used. The elastic material properties are given as follows: Poisson’s ratio: ν = 0.3 Young’s modulus: E = 210 000 MPa For the base material, the elasticplastic material S355 described in [4.6.6] Provisional tensile failure criteria is implemented using an elastic material model together with a multilinear kinematic hardening material model. The elastic material properties are given as follows: Poisson’s ratio: ν = 0.3 Young’s modulus: E = 210 000 MPa A multilinear kinematic hardening material model is used to define plastic behaviour. Twenty points are used to define the stressstrain curve, using an uneven distribution such that the first part of the curve has a finer resolution. The curve is given as a true stress vs true plastic strain curve, as required by ANSYS Mechanical. The stressstraincurve used is shown in Figure 840. Numerical values are given in Table 811. The weld is modelled with a material similar to the S355 material, but modified to be 25% stronger. The resulting stressstrain curve is given in Table 811. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 102 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 840 Stressstrain curve for S355 Table 811 True stress vs true plastic strain Strain [] Stress [MPa] Strain [] Stress [MPa] 0 320 0 400 0.004 357 0.004 446.25 0.015 366.1 0.015 457.63 0.018 377.77 0.018 472.21 0.021 387.87 0.021 484.84 0.025 399.56 0.025 499.45 0.03 412.11 0.03 515.14 0.039 430.79 0.039 538.48 0.051 450.67 0.051 563.34 0.075 480.76 0.075 600.95 0.1 504.44 0.1 630.55 0.15 539.74 0.15 674.67 0.2 566.23 0.2 707.79 0.3 605.75 0.3 757.19 0.4 635.43 0.4 794.29 0.5 659.44 0.5 824.3 0.6 679.73 0.6 849.66 Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 103 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Strain [] Stress [MPa] Strain [] Stress [MPa] 0.7 697.36 0.7 871.7 0.8 713 0.8 891.26 0.9 727.09 0.9 908.86 8.7.3.3 Geometry modelling The Tstub geometry dimensions are shown in Figure 839. The bolt shaft is modelled using the tension area. The bolt heads and nuts are modelled as the cylinder inscribed within the hexagonal prism. Washers are not modelled. The material assignment is shown in Figure 841. Figure 841 Material assignment 8.7.3.4 Element types and mesh The geometry is meshed with higher order hexahedral solid elements, SOLID186. Two mesh densities are investigated. One fine mesh has element size approximately tf/3 × tf/3 × tf/3; one coarse has element size approximately tf × tf × tf. The bolts are meshed with even smaller elements. For the fine mesh, uniform reduced integration is used. For the coarse mesh, full integration is used, as this is the recommended setting for models with only one solid element through the thickness. The resulting meshes are shown in Figure 842 and Figure 843. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 104 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 842 Coarse element mesh Figure 843 Fine element mesh Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 105 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used 8.7.3.5 Connections Nonlinear contact is defined between bolt heads/nuts and flanges and at the interface between the two flanges. The four contacts between the bolt heads/nuts and flanges are defined as frictional contacts with properties as defined in Table 812. The friction coefficient is taken as the lowest value for slip factor, from EN199318, Table 3.7 /4/. A typical contacttarget designation is shown in Figure 844. The coarser meshed side, in this case the flange, is selected as the target (master) side. The contact between the flanges is defined as a frictional contact with properties as defined in Table 812. The contacttarget designation is shown in Figure 845. Table 812 Contact settings Bolt head/nut to flange Flange to flange Friction coefficient μ = 0.2 μ = 0.2 Behaviour Asymmetric Asymmetric Formulation Augmented Lagrange Augmented Lagrange Interface treatment Adjust to Touch Adjust to Touch Figure 844 Contact definition, bolt head/nut to flange Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 106 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 845 Contact definition, flange to flange 8.7.3.6 Analysis settings The analyses are run as static structural analyses. Under analysis settings, large deflection is turned on. Auto time stepping is used in order to enhance convergence as well as for results accuracy. 8.7.3.7 Loads and boundary conditions Frictionless supports are applied at both capped ends of the assumed continuous Tstub. One side of the T stub is fixed in the global Xdirection. The applied supports are shown in Figure 846. Preload is applied to the bolts in the first step. The value is taken as the calculated bolt preload Fp,Cc as given in [8.7.2.2]. For succeeding steps, the bolts are kept in a locked position, implying that the bolt elongation is determined by the bolt shaft stiffness. In the second load step, one side of the Tstub is subjected to a tensile force with value given by the allowable force FT,Rc found in [8.7.2.2]. The applied loads are shown in Figure 847. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 107 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 846 Applied supports Figure 847 Applied loads 8.7.3.8 Results The first principal plastic strain plot is given in Figure 848 and Figure 849. For the coarse mesh model, the maximum values for plastic strain is found under the bolt heads. However, since punching shear is checked by code requirements, local strains in this region may safely be disregarded. The relevant plastic strain Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 108 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used values are found in inner corner of the flanges, as seen in Figure 848 and Figure 849. The maximum first principal strain values as well as bolt force reactions are given in Table 813. Table 813 Results Summary Maximum EPPL1 [] Force reaction in bolts [N] Coarse mesh model tf × tf × tf 0.00153 221 220 221 460 Fine mesh model tf/3 × tf/3 × tf/3 0.00605 222 420 222 380 Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 109 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 848 First principal plastic strain results. Coarse mesh model Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 110 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T hiscopy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 849 First principal plastic strain results. Fine mesh model Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 111 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used 8.7.4 RHSCHS Joint finite element model 8.7.4.1 FE Model The model geometry for the RHSCHS joint is shown in Figure 850. The materials used are the same as described for the Tstub model in [8.7.3.1]. As for the Tstub model, two mesh densities are investigated. The coarse mesh has element size approximately tf × tf × tf; the fine mesh has element size approximately tf/3 × tf/3 × tf/3. The resulting meshes are shown in Figure 851 and Figure 852 respectively. Figure 850 Joint geometry Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 112 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 851 Coarse mesh Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 113 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 852 Fine mesh Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 114 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used 8.7.4.2 Loads and boundary conditions The applied analysis settings are shown in Table 814. As only a quarter of the actual geometry is modelled, two symmetry planes are defined using frictionless support. One side of the joint is constrained in the axial direction. The applied supports are shown in Figure 853. Preload is applied to the bolts in the first step. The value is taken as the calculated bolt preload Fp,Cc as given in [8.7.2.2]. For succeeding steps, the bolts are kept in a ‘locked’ position. One side of the joint is subjected to a force leading to axial tension in the joint. The applied loads are shown in Figure 854. It is not known in advance at which applied load the allowable value for EPPL1 from [8.7.3.8] is exceeded. Trialanderror is required. In the final analysis setup, the load is gradually applied such that the principal plastic strain is just below the allowable value in analysis step 2 and just above in step 3. The allowed load will be the load applied in the last substep in which the allowable first principal plastic strain is not exceeded. Using relatively fine substepping in step 3, the utilization is maximized. Table 814 Analysis settings Number of steps 3 Auto time stepping On On On Settings for step number… 1 2 3 Initial substeps 10 10 10 Minimum substeps 5 10 10 Maximum substeps 50 50 50 Large deflection Solver type Direct Figure 853 Applied supports Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 115 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 854 Applied loads 8.7.4.3 Results Results are summarized in Table 815. All values are given for the substep at which the occurring first principal plastic strain value is closest to but not exceeding the allowed value found in [8.7.3.8]. Again, the strain results are scoped to the flanges, close to the weld, to avoid the results around the bolt holes. The applied axial force is reported in Table 815. In order to find the total axial force in the member, the force applied in the analysis is multiplied by a factor 4, accounting for the double symmetry used. The bolt force reactions are also reported in the table. Table 815 Results Summary Coarse mesh model tf × tf × tf Fine mesh model tf/3 × tf/3 × tf/3 Allowable EPPL1 [] (from Table 813) 0.00153 0.00605 Occurring EPPL1 [] 0.00152 0.00597 Applied force [N] 233 500 233 500 Total axial force [N] 934 000 934 000 226 800 225 350 Force reactions in bolts [N] 226 720 225 370 The first principal plastic strain values are presented in Figure 855 and Figure 856 for the coarse and the fine element mesh, respectively. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 116 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 855 First principal plastic strain. Coarse mesh model Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 117 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 856 First principal plastic strain. Fine mesh model 8.7.5 Discussion 8.7.5.1 Obtaining characteristic resistance The characteristic tension resistance is taken as the force at the time step at which the occurring first principal plastic strain value is closest to but not exceeding the allowed value found in [8.7.3.8]. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 118 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS Furthermore, it is checked that the tension resistance of one fastener and punching shear resistance of one fastener is not exceeded. This is done by comparing force reaction in bolts in Table 815 with the tension resistance of one bolt Ft,Rc and punching shear resistance Bp,Rc from [8.7.2.2]. Referring to Table 815, the difference in allowable strain for the two mesh densities compared with the difference in characteristic resistance for the two mesh densities may be noted. This underscores the importance of using the same setup, including mesh density, for the calibration object as for the designed object. 8.7.5.2 Obtaining design resistance Since calibration is performed both for the coarse and fine mesh, the same allowed force is expected. This is also the case in this specific example. However, the resulting allowed force could differ slightly due to the uncertainties in FEmodelling. In that case, any of the two results would be considered acceptable. All calculations and analyses are performed using characteristic values. In order to obtain design resistance, the resistance found in [8.7.5.1] must be divided by the appropriate partial factor. In this example, the design mode is mode 1, where partial factor γM0 is relevant. Also, if all design calculations in [8.7.2.2] are performed with the appropriate values assigned to material factors,mode 1 is still the design mode. For this reason, we argue that In the case that mode 2 would give the design value, both γM0 and γM2 influence on the design resistance. In this case, the calibration process could be performed using design values. Alternatively, the calibration process could be performed using characteristic values and the material factor with the highest numerical value could be used to find the design resistance. If, however, the mode 3 would give the design mode, dividing by γM2 is appropriate. 8.7.5.3 Notes on modelling tolerances For both the Tstub and the RHSCHS joint models, the flanges are modelled perfectly aligned, resulting in perfect contact between the flanges. As long as the fabrication tolerances of the structure comply with EN 10902:2008 /32/ and the same modelling approach is used for both calibration object and structure, this approach is considered valid. However, if fabrication tolerances exceed the above mentioned tolerances, the worst expected tolerance should be modelled in both models. 8.7.5.4 Check points for the current analysis For the pretension of the bolts to function properly, the mesh on the bolt shaft should be mapped meshed and at least two elements should be used along the bolt shaft. Since the washers are not included in the model, the unrealistic small contact area may lead to an artificially large contact pressure, resulting in a large penetration and/or local plasticity. These effects may lead to loss of the bolt pretension. As a part of the results verification, the resulting penetration as well as local plasticity is verified. The penetration should be an order of magnitude smaller than the flange compression. Also, the resulting pretension is checked. 8.8 Example: Check of stiffened plate exposed to blast loads 8.8.1 Description of stiffened plate wall The wall shown in Figure 826 is to be checked for blast pressure. The wall is built as a stiffened plate spanning between floor and roof girders. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 119 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 857 Blast wall example 8.8.2 Model description The example geometry is a strip of the wall shown in Figure 857 with only one single longitudinal stiffener. The width of the wall is taken equal to the distance between stiffeners, with the single stiffener at the centre of the plate, so that symmetry can be utilised to simulate an infinitely wide wall. For the present example, it is judged that this is an adequate representation of the weakest spot on the wall, i.e. that the wall will be stronger in proximity to the corners of the room. The wall plate is connected to heavy HEM400 girders at the top and bottom, representing the roof and floor levels of the structure. The girders are also reinforced with a 15 mm plate between the flanges, in line with the longitudinal stiffener. The wall plate is welded to the girders using a welded, Lshaped bracket with two lap joints, as seen in Figure 858. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 120 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 858 Bracket connecting wall and girder Symmetry is also utilised at the midelevation between the top and bottom girders, to further reduce the model size, see Figure 859. Figure 859 Symmetry conditions in FE model Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 121 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used See also [8.6.5] for boundary conditions. Plate thicknesses are listed in Table 816. Table 816 Plate thicknesses Component Dimensions Wall plate 10 mm Stiffener 10 mm Lbrackets 10 mm All steel is S355 material, except the HEM girder, which is defined as linearelastic steel because it is not meant to be checked in the present analysis. See also [8.6.4]. Since the analysis will be of a transient dynamic type, any extra mass on the wall such as insulation or architectural cladding should be accounted for, if deemed relevant. If the cladding does not contribute to the wall stiffness, this could for example be done by scaling the steel density of the relevant portions of the wall accordingly. For the purpose of this example, it is assumed that the wall is bare, without external cladding. 8.8.3 Software, element types and mesh The general FE program ANSYS Mechanical v16.1 is used for the FE analyses. The geometry is meshed with eightnode, secondorder plastic SHELL281 elements. The mesh density in the critical areas is equal the plate thickness of 10 mm, while larger elements have been allowed in less critical regions. The mesh is shown in Figure 860. Figure 860 Element mesh Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 122 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used In summary the model is set up as follows: — secondorder, 8node shell elements with full integration, SHELL281 — element size = 10 × 10 mm, i.e. t × t — five integration points through thickness — nonlinear material S355 (t ≤ 16mm) as specified in [8.6.4]. 8.8.4 Materials For the present analysis a low fractile (5%) steel capacity is sought and the applied material model according to [4.6.6] is presented in Figure 861. Figure 861 Nonlinear material model For part 4, the relation between stress and strain is as follows: For the chosen steel type, S355, the relevant parameters for plate thickness less than 16 mm are shown in Table 817.All relevant plate sections are below 16 mm in thickness, so only one set of nonlinear material properties is used in the model. Table 817 Nonlinear properties for S355 steel (true stressstrain) Thickness [mm] t ≤ 16 E [MPa] 210000 σprop [MPa] 320.0 σyield [MPa] 357.0 σyield2 [MPa] 366.1 εp_y1 0.004 Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 123 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Thickness [mm] t ≤ 16 εp_y2 0.015 K[MPa] 740.0 n 0.166 Density [kg/m3] 7850 Poisson’s ratio 0.3 The material type is defined in ANSYS using the von Mises yield criterion. Note that strain rate hardening effects as mentioned in [4.6.8] have not been accounted for in the present analyses. For calibration of tensile failure strain criteria, please see [8.8.8]. 8.8.5 Boundary conditions and loads Symmetry conditions are applied at the centre elevation and along the side of the wall strip, see [8.8.2]. The flange at the far end of the HEM400 girder is fully fixed (see Figure 859), as it is assumed that the girder is part of a roof or floor structure that is supported both horizontally and vertically by intermediate bracing. Note that the girder and supportingstructure is not intended to be checked in the present analysis. As the explosion load is considered an accidental scenario, the load and material safety factors are 1.0, except for an additional safety factor for the tensile failure check, as prescribed in [5.1.3]. This factor, γtf, equals 1.20. An explosion load is a highvelocity, shortduration load, and is therefore often best described in nonlinear transient analysis as a pressure time history. The present explosion load is shown as a timepressure curve in Figure 862. For nonlinear analyses it is often practical to apply all safety factors on the load side, as explained in [4.10]. Therefore the tension failure safety factor is implemented by multiplying the entire curve by 1.2, as is also shown in Figure 862. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 124 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 862 Blast pressure timehistory graph It is seen that the pressure peaks rapidly, and the pressure drop is followed by a slight negative pressure before diminishing completely. The duration of the transient analysis must be at least long enough to capture the peak response, which may be delayed due to inertia effects. The time history used, including the additional safety factor of 1.2, is given in Table 818. The pressure is applied in the positive Ydirection, on the entire wall plate at the stiffener side, and to the exposed, vertical part of the bracket. No pressure has been applied to the girder web, as the girder is primarily included as a support or boundary condition. Table 818 Tabularised blast pressure timehistory, including tensile failure safety factor Point Time [s] Pressure [MPa] 1 0.000 0.000 2 0.022 0.002 3 0.028 0.005 4 0.032 0.010 5 0.036 0.019 6 0.040 0.034 7 0.050 0.082 8 0.054 0.029 Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 125 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Point Time [s] Pressure [MPa] 9 0.057 0.000 10 0.060 0.007 11 0.064 0.012 12 0.068 0.012 13 0.074 0.010 14 0.078 0.005 15 0.085 0.000 16 0.090 0.001 17 0.095 0.000 18 0.100 0.000 19 0.105 0.000 20 0.110 0.000 8.8.6 Solution parameters for transient implicit analysis in ANSYS The present transient analysis in ANSYS uses the HHT method (or alphamethod). Recommendations for solution parameters are given in [4.3.2]. It should be noted that the parameter nomenclature in ANSYS is different, as shown in Table 819. Table 819 Correlation between ANSYS and notation used in [4.3.3] for HHTmethod ANSYS ANSYSvalue used Table 41 γ 0.05 α α 0.2756 β δ 0.55 γ The time step size should be chosen sufficiently small to obtain an accurate solution. ANSYS recommends that the maximum integration step size is 1/20 of the system response period, so there should be 20 points per cycle. The response frequency is calculated by ANSYS during a full transient analysis and the weighted average of the responses for all frequencies excited by a given load is calculated. This means that steps per cycle can be tracked in the solution output. Generally, the defined maximum number of substeps per load step is 100 and the minimum number is 10 for the present transient analysis. A load step is defined as the step between two points on the load curve. The stepspercycle value was found to be ~35130 for the load steps near the peak load on the timehistory curve, and much larger values were seen at other load steps. It is possible to finetune the allowable time step sizes and to use various ANSYS commands such as CUTBACK and SOLCONTROL, to optimize the clock time of the solution. It is vital to test the sensitivity of the used time control settings to verify that the chosen parameters are adequate for a converged result. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 126 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used 8.8.7 Stiffener buckling and imperfections The primary failure mode is tensile failure in the wall plate and/or Lbracket. As the explosion pressure ramps up, the longitudinal stiffener is subject to compression and is expected to eventually buckle. The effects of imperfections, misalignments and residual stresses must be taken into account in the non linear analysis. This is done by imposing initial (stressfree) displacements on all nodes/elements in the shape of the first relevant eigenmode from an eigenbuckling analysis. These equivalent imperfections are scaled in accordance with Table 58 for longitudinal stiffener or flange outstand. This means that the imperfections are scaled so that the point of maximum deflection in the “bow twist” eigenmode shape is displaced by δT0, calculated as Tan(0.02) · (125+10) mm ~ 3.0 mm. The analysis procedure is as follows: A linearelastic analysis is set up with a nominal pressure load applied in the same manner and direction as for the transient analysis. The magnitude of the pressure load is not important in this linear analysis. Starting with the stress state from the linearelastic analysis, a buckling eigenvalue analysis yields the requested number of eigenvalues corresponding to the loaded model. Typically the first eigenmode, and lowest buckling eigenvalue, is governing. The shape of the first relevant eigenbuckling mode is imposed to the FE model used in the transient analysis. Various methods can be employed to impose the scaled mode shape deflections to the model. All major FEA packages are able to do this, either by use of builtin automated procedures (some iteration may be needed to achieve the chosen maximum deflection) or through the use of custom scripting. In the present case, the imperfections are scaled to 3.0 mm at the stiffener flange close to the midspan symmetry boundary condition, see Figure 863. Figure 863 First relevant eigenbuckling mode, stiffener buckling Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 127 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used 8.8.8 Calibration of tensile failure strain In [5.1.6] the critical strain at tensile failure can be estimated. In order to determine the critical strain values, two calibration cases CC01 and CC02, see [5.1.3], should be tested for the same element type and mesh density as is used in the ‘actual’ analysis. Calibration case CC01 covers both gross yielding (where strain above 2% is seen in a zone larger than 20 times the plate thickness t) and local yielding (zone < 20t). For the local yielding check the maximum principal plastic strain (used for gross yielding) is modified according to Equation (10) as follows: for the plate thickness t = 10 mm and the element length l = 10 mm, as used in the actual model. The calibration examples are set up as follows: — Secondorder, 8node shell elements w. full integration, SHELL281 — Element size = 15 ×15 mm, i.e. corresponding to t × t like in the actual model — Five integration points through thickness— Nonlinear material S355 (t ≤ 16mm) as specified in [8.6.4]. The maximum principal plastic strain (EPPL1) is chosen as the critical result parameter, so basically the maximum EPPL1 value found in the calibration tests must not be exceeded in the current transient explosion analysis. Using the geometry and boundary conditions specified for the two calibration cases the following results are shown in Table 820: Table 820 Result from calibration cases Applied displacement Critical/maximum principal strain Δx (mm) Δz (mm) Surface layer Middle layer Failure Type CC01 21 0 0.045 0.045 Gross CC01 21 0 0.119 0.119 Local CC02 50 70 0.250 0.150 Local, Bending Strain plots can be seen in Figure 864 through Figure 866. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 128 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 864 Principal plastic strain, calibration case CC01 It is seen that the critical principal strain values for the bending cases, CC02, are very high. In the region of maximum strain in the actual model, see [8.8.9], the extent of the yield zone is only in the order of 1 times the thickness in the strain direction, normal to the weld. Therefore, the critical tensile strain is decided as 0.119, corresponding to calibration case CC01 for local yielding, see Table 820. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 129 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 865 Principal plastic strain, calibration case CC02 (surface layer) Figure 866 Principal plastic strain, calibration case CC02 (middle layer) Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 130 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used 8.8.9 Results 8.8.9.1 Blast response The deformation of the blast panel is examined to verify that the model is responding to the pressure load as expected. The maximum deformation in the blast direction along the Yaxis is shown in Figure 867. Figure 867 Wall deformation for explosion load (plot is scaled with a factor of 2.0) The Yaxis deformation is tracked over time, showing the response to the explosion pressure timehistory, see the red curve in Figure 868. It is noted that the maximum deformation of the wall plate ‘lags’ behind the explosion pressure because of inertia in the dynamic analysis. The peak load is at ~0.05 s, but the peak displacement occurs at ~0.07 s. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 131 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 868 Max. deformation curves, transient and static responses Also in the plot is the response curve from a static analysis with the same timehistory pressure, i.e. an analysis of the same system, but without time integration (no dynamic effects). The static analysis is using the same time reference for the loading, but the time value is arbitrary, or not physical. It is seen that the deformation response in the static analysis follows the first peak of the pressure history exactly (~0.05 s). Similar curves for transient, dynamic analyses with only one half and one quarter of the steel density are seen to position themselves between the other two curves, so the transient solution resembles the static analysis more as the system mass is reduced. This comparison illustrates the dynamic effects in a transient, dynamic analysis with a shortduration load, and the importance of modelling the system mass correctly. For a blast wall, this means, as mentioned previously, that the analyst should take care to include all relevant masses, like insulation and architectural cladding. 8.8.9.2 Stress results Looking at the overall stress levels in the wall strip (at the time of maximum stress), it is seen that the bracket and plate are experiencing relatively high stresses. Stresses in the plate are concentrated near the top where the stiffener ends and at the midspan, symmetry boundary. The bracket shows peak stresses along the bend and along the weld closest to the HEM girder. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 132 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 869 Equivalent stress in wall strip (at time of maximum stress) Looking closer at the bracket in Figure 870, it is seen that tensile stresses develop at the top of the horizontal part and on the ‘inside’ of the vertical part, which corresponds well with the deformation pattern. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 133 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 870 Tensile stress in bracket (displacement scale =3.0) The stiffener experiences high stresses at the midspan due to buckling, see Figure 871. There is no tensile failure in the middle of the stiffener plate, and there is no plastic strain in the wall plate near the midspan location, so the explosion scenario is not limited by the effects from stiffener buckling. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 134 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 871 Stress at stiffener (buckling). Displacement scale =1.0 8.8.10 Tensile failure critical strain In the tensile failure check the plate and bracket is checked against the critical maximum (plastic) principal strain determined in [8.8.8]. The plate shows a local, maximum principal plastic strain of 0.055 at the end of the girder, near the bracket connection, see Figure 872. With the strain being as localized as this, the result shall be checked against the local yielding criterion for calibration case CC01. The local strain criterion is determined to 0.119 in [8.8.8], which is larger than the calculated strain. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 135 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 872 Local principalstrain in plate, max. value of 0.055 The bracket shows a uniform line of plastic strain at the border between the first and the second element row along the first girder weld. The maximum principal plastic strain, located right at the bend in the bracket, is 0.038, which is below the critical strain level of 0.119, found in CC01 for local yielding, and obviously also well below the criteria for bending, see [8.8.8]. Figure 873 Local yielding in bracket along first girder weld and at bend Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 136 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used 8.8.11 Weld check The wall plate is connected to the top and bottom girders using Lbrackets with lap joints, i.e. 4 welds per bracket, see Figure 874. The welds are assessed according to the recommendations in [5.1.5]. Figure 874 Naming of fillet welds (bonded contact pairs) The welds are not modelled, but are instead represented by linetoline bonded contact pairs. The maximum total reaction force (global XYZ components) is extracted in ANSYS for each weld/contact pair, see Table 821. Table 821 Weld reaction forces Fx [kN] * Fy [kN] Fz [kN] Resultant [kN] Weld A 0.57 7.79 129.31 129.55 Weld B 3.47 18.12 219.46 220.24 Weld C 0.15 137.24 15.24 138.09 Weld D 0.07 187.57 118.54 221.89 (Loads are reported for different time steps for each individual weld, and do not represent a simultaneous load balance) *: (The minimal transverse reactions are likely due to the buckled stiffener) It is seen that weld B, the first weld between plate and bracket, and weld D, the first weld between girder and bracket, transfer the largest total forces, see Figure 875 and Figure 876. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 137 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 875 Weld B reactions Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 138 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 876 Weld D reactions Weld D is checked using the “simplified method for design resistance of fillet weld”, Section 4.5.3.3 in /4/. According to this, the design resistance of a fillet weld may be assumed to be adequate if, at every point along its length, the resultant of all the forces per unit length transmitted by the weld satisfy the following criterion: where: Fw,Ed is the design value of the weld force per unit length; Fw,Rd is the design weld resistance per unit length. Since the wall strip is 500 mm wide in the FE model, the weld force per unit length is: The above calculation expects the forces to be uniformly distributed along the weld, and for the present symmetry/strip model this is judged to be an adequate assumption. If peaks are experienced along the weld, these should be taken into consideration. These weld forces are taken from an analysis with a tensile failure safety factor of 1.2 applied to the pressure load. This factor is not required for the weld check, but the forces are used asis for the present example. However, due to the nonlinear, dynamic nature of the analysis it cannot be assumed that the weld forces can simply be divided by 1.20 to get unfactored forces. The proper way to get unfactored weld forces is to rerun the analysis without the factor applied to the pressure timehistory. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 139 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used With the fillet weld size equal to a = 7 mm, the design resistance per unit length is calculated as: where: a is the fillet weld size = 7 mm fu is the nominal tensile strength of the weaker part joined (S355) = 470 MPa It is seen that the fillet weld resistance is higher than the maximum acting forces, and the welds are all ok. 8.9 Example: Low cycle fatigue analysis of tubular joint subjected to out of plane loading This example presents a low cycle fatigue analysis of a tubular Tjoint subjected to an outofplane fully reversible load of ±60 kN. The objective of the analysis is to estimate the design life based on the recommendations in [5.2.5]. The assumed geometry and dimensions are given in Table 822 and Figure 877. Table 822 Dimensions [mm] Chord diameter D = 300 Chord thickness T = 15.9 Chord length L = 1800 Brace diameter d = 160 Brace thickness t = 11.5 Brace length l = 500 Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 140 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 877 Geometry of test example, dimensions in mm It is assumed that the cyclic stressstrain behaviour is well described by the RambergOsgood relationship: The values for the RambergOsgood parameters are presented in Table 823 for the chord and the brace. Table 823 RambergOsgood parameters K' [MPa] n' Chord 731.7 0.096 Brace 699.5 0.108 In order to obtain the cyclic strains a finite element analysis is carried out using the FEMsoftware ABAQUS. An 8noded shell element (S8R) model is established with load and support conditions as shown in Figure 878. The chord is constrained at each end for all translational and rotational degrees of freedom. The outofplane load was applied by means of a reference point located at the cross section centre of the brace end. This reference point is connected to the circumference of the brace end by means of kinematic coupling. The load was applied using three steps as illustrated in Figure 879. FE element analysis of additional load steps gives similar results. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 141 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 878 Boundary and loading conditions for tubular joint Figure 879 Load steps Figure 880 (a) shows an overview of the finite element mesh. Figure 880 (b) shows a closeup of the bracechord intersection area. The finite element mesh in the hot spot region is in accordance with the recommended practice DNVGLRPC203 for tubular joints. In this example the element nodes coincide with the specified extrapolation points (a and b) as given below. Hence, nodal values are applied in the extrapolation procedure for calculating the hot spot strain range. For chord side failure, the distance from the Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 142 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinearfinite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used hot spot to the first extrapolation point, a is obtained by means of the equation below. The distance to the second extrapolation point, b is obtained by the equation below. Figure 880 Left: (a) Meshed model, Right: (b) Closeup of bracechord intersection area Figure 881 shows the principal strain range due to the outofplane cyclic loading. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 143 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 881 Maximum principal strain range The hot spot strain range is obtained according to the following procedure: 1) Establish the total strain range components ( ) by subtracting the minimum strain values of load step 2 by the maximum values of load step 3. In ABAQUS this is done by using the “Create Field Output” option. 2) Calculate the extrapolated strain range for each strain component ( ) by means the equation below. 3) Calculate the 1st principal hot spot strain range , see equation below. The resulting hot spot strain range is 0.0048. Air environment is assumed. The thickness of the chord member is below the reference thickness of 25 mm, so the thickness effect does not need to be taken into account. Hence, the characteristic design life due to the cyclic loading is obtained by solving the following equation, see [5.2.5]: Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 144 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used 8.10 Example: Low cycle fatigue analysis of plate with circular hole In this example a low cycle fatigue analysis of a plate with a circular hole subjected to cyclic displacement of 1.0 mm is presented. The objective of the analysis is to estimate the design life based on recommendations in [5.2.6]. The dimensions of the plate are presented in Figure 882. The plate material is of grade S355 and the cyclic stressstrain curve is obtained from Table 54. Elastic modulus of 210 000 MPa and Poisson’s ratio of 0.3 is assumed. The finite element analysis is carried out using ABAQUS. The plasticity is specified using the combined hardening option. The plastic hardening is specified using the half cycle option where the stress/plastic strain relation is tabulated according to specifications given in [5.2.4]. The number of back stresses is set to 10. Figure 882 Geometry of considered specimen The maximum principal strain range is obtained by performing a finite element analysis with the FEM software ABAQUS. The finite element analysis is performed with 8noded shell elements with reduced integration (S8R). The boundary conditions and cyclic displacement is applied as illustrated in Figure 884. Note that a total of 6 complete load cycles is specified in the analysis in order to see how the stress strain hysteresis curve developed. Figure 883 Geometry and loading Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 145 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 884 Load steps The maximum principal strain range is obtained according to the following procedure: 1) Perform a strain convergence study. The mesh around the hole is refined until the strain value in the relevant nodal point converges. Based on the convergence study it was found sufficient to use 48 elements around the hole. 2) Establish the strain component ranges ( , etc.) by subtracting the strain component values of load step 12 from the values of load step 13. Hence, the stress/strain output from the last cycle is used as basis for calculating the design fatigue life. In ABAQUS the strain range is obtained by using the “Create Field Output” option. 3) Calculate the maximum principal strain range based on the strain component ranges. 4) Calculate the design fatigue life based on the seawater with cathodic protection curve. Figure 885 shows the maximum principal strain range due to the specified cyclic loading of the plate. The hysteresis loop in the location adjacent to the hole with the highest cyclic strain is plotted in Figure 886. The maximum principal strain range of Δεl = 0.011 obtained from the last half cycle in the finite element analysis is used as basis for calculating the design fatigue life. The maximum principal strain range of Δεl = 0.011 is considered to be a representative value based on the first cycles. By solving Equation (14) in [5.2.6] a design fatigue life of N = 139 is obtained. Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 146 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used Figure 885 Equivalent strain range Figure 886 Stress versus strain in y – direction (parallel to the 1st principal strain direction) Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 147 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used APPENDIX A STRUCTURAL MODELS FOR SHIP COLLISION ANALYSES A.1 Element library of offshore supply vessels The joint industry project that established this RP prepared structural models for offshore supply vessels (OSV). The models are described in http://rules.dnvgl.com/docs/pdf/DNVGL/RP/201609/DNVGL20150984 rev1.pdf . The models are prepared in Abaqus and LSDyna formats that can be downloaded from http:// rules.dnvgl.com/docs/pdf/DNVGL/RP/201609/RPC208ShipmodelLibraryAbaqus.zip and http:// rules.dnvgl.com/docs/pdf/DNVGL/RP/201609/RPC208ShipmodelLibraryLSDyna.zip . Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019, amended January 2020 Page 148 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used http://rules.dnvgl.com/docs/pdf/DNVGL/RP/2016-09/DNVGL-2015-0984-rev1.pdf http://rules.dnvgl.com/docs/pdf/DNVGL/RP/2016-09/DNVGL-2015-0984-rev1.pdf http://rules.dnvgl.com/docs/pdf/DNVGL/RP/2016-09/RP-C208-Ship-model-Library-Abaqus.zip http://rules.dnvgl.com/docs/pdf/DNVGL/RP/2016-09/RP-C208-Ship-model-Library-Abaqus.zip http://rules.dnvgl.com/docs/pdf/DNVGL/RP/2016-09/RP-C208-Ship-model-Library-LS-Dyna.zip http://rules.dnvgl.com/docs/pdf/DNVGL/RP/2016-09/RP-C208-Ship-model-Library-LS-Dyna.zip CHANGES – HISTORIC There are currently no historical changes for this document. C ha ng es – h is to ri c Recommended practice — DNVGLRPC208. Edition September 2019,amended January 2020 Page 149 Determination of structural capacity by nonlinear finite element analysis methods DNV GL AS T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used About DNV GL DNV GL is a global quality assurance and risk management company. Driven by our purpose of safeguarding life, property and the environment, we enable our customers to advance the safety and sustainability of their business. We provide classification, technical assurance, software and independent expert advisory services to the maritime, oil & gas, power and renewables industries. We also provide certification, supply chain and data management services to customers across a wide range of industries. Operating in more than 100 countries, our experts are dedicated to helping customers make the world safer, smarter and greener. SAFER, SMARTER, GREENER T his copy of the docum ent is intended for use by turner, trey at A tkins Ltd. only. D ow nloaded 2020-07-22. N o further distribution shall be m ade. R equires a valid subscription to be used DNVGL-RP-C208 Determination of structural capacity by non-linear finite element analysis methods Changes – current Acknowledgements Contents Section 1 Introduction 1.1 General 1.2 Objective 1.3 Scope 1.4 Validity 1.5 Definitions 1.5.1 Definition of terms 1.5.2 Symbols 1.5.3 Verbal forms Section 2 Basic considerations 2.1 Limit state safety format 2.2 Characteristic resistance 2.3 Types of failure modes 2.4 Use of linear and non-linear analysis methods 2.5 Empirical basis for the resistance 2.6 Ductility 2.7 Serviceability limit states 2.8 Permanent deformations Section 3 General requirements 3.1 Definition of failure 3.2 Modelling strategy 3.3 Modelling accuracy 3.4 Determination of characteristic resistance taking into account statistical variation 3.5 Requirement to the software 3.6 Requirements to the user Section 4 Requirements to finite element-analysis 4.1 General 4.2 Selection of software for finite element analysis 4.3 Selection of analysis method 4.3.1 Implicit versus explicit solver 4.3.2 Solution control for dynamic implicit analysis 4.3.3 Solution control for static implicit analysis 4.3.4 Solution control for explicit analysis 4.4 Geometry modelling 4.5 Mesh 4.5.1 General 4.5.2 Selection of element type 4.5.3 Mesh density 4.5.4 Mesh refinement study 4.6 Material modelling 4.6.1 General 4.6.2 Material models for metallic materials 4.6.3 Stress-strain measures 4.6.4 Evaluation of strain results 4.6.5 Stress-strain curves for ultimate capacity analyses 4.6.6 Recommendations for steel material qualities (low fractile) 4.6.7 Recommendations for parameters for steel material qualities to obtain mean capacity 4.6.8 Strain rate effects 4.7 Boundary conditions 4.8 Load application 4.9 Contact modelling 4.9.1 Contact pair definitions 4.9.2 Symmetric and asymmetric contact 4.9.3 Contact constraint enforcement methods 4.9.4 Controlling the accuracy of contact analyses 4.10 Application of safety factors 4.11 Execution of non-linear finite element analyses, quality control 4.12 Requirements to documentation of the finite element analysis Section 5 Representation of different failure modes 5.1 Design against tensile failure 5.1.1 General 5.1.2 Tensile failure resistance calibrated against a known solution 5.1.3 Tensile failure in base material - simplified approach for plane plates 5.1.4 Representation of tensile failure applying element erosion 5.1.5 Failure of welds 5.1.6 Simplified tensile failure criteria in case low capacity is unfavourable 5.2 Failure due to repeated yielding (low cycle fatigue) 5.2.1 General 5.2.2 Fatigue damage accumulation 5.2.3 Determination of cyclic loads 5.2.4 Cyclic stress strain curves 5.2.5 Low cycle fatigue of welded joints 5.2.6 Low cycle fatigue of base material 5.2.7 Shake down check 5.3 Accumulated strain (ratcheting) 5.4 Buckling 5.4.1 General 5.4.2 Determination of buckling resistance by use of linearized buckling values 5.4.3 Buckling resistance from non-linear analysis using standard defined equivalent tolerances 5.4.4 Buckling resistance from non-linear analysis that are calibrated against standard formulations or tests 5.4.5 Strain limits to avoid accurate check of local stability for plates and tubular sections yielding in compression. 5.4.6 Buckling strength in case low capacity is unfavourable 5.5 Repeated buckling Section 6 Bibliography 6.1 Bibliography Section 7 Commentary 7.1 Comments to [4.1] General 7.2 Comments to [4.5.2] Selection of element 7.3 Comments to [4.6.6] Recommendations for steel material qualities (low fractile) 7.4 Comment to [4.6.8] Strain rate effects 7.5 Comments to [5.1.1] General 7.6 Comments to [5.1.3] Tensile failure in base material - simplified approach for plane plates 7.7 Comments to [5.1.5] Failure of welds 7.8 Comment to [5.1.6] Simplified tensile failure criteria in case low capacity is unfavourable 7.9 Comment to [5.2.3] Determination of cyclic loads 7.10 Comment to [5.2.4] Cyclic stress strain curves 7.11 Comment to [5.2.6] Low cycle fatigue of base material 7.12 Comment to [5.2.5.1] Accumulated damage criterion 7.13 Comments to [5.2.7] Shake down check 7.14 Comments to [5.4.1] General 7.15 Comments to [5.4.5] Strain limits to avoid accurate check of local stability for plates and tubular sections yielding in compression. Section 8 Examples 8.1 Example: Strain limits for tensile failure due to gross yielding of plane plates (uniaxial stress state) 8.1.1 T-section cantilever beam 8.1.2 T-section cantilever beam with notch 8.2 Example: Convergence test of linearized buckling of frame corner 8.3 Example: Determination of buckling resistance by use of linearized buckling values 8.3.1 Step i) Build model 8.3.2 Step ii) Linear analysis of the frame 8.3.3 Step iii) Determine the buckling eigenvalues 8.3.4 Step iv) Select the governing buckling mode and the point for reading the representative stress 8.3.5 Step v) Determine the von-Mises stress at the point for the representative stress σRep from step ii). 8.3.6 Step vi) Determine the critical buckling stress 8.3.7 Step vii) Select empirically based buckling curve 8.3.8 Step viii) Determine the buckling resistance Rd 8.4 Example: Determination of buckling resistance from non-linear analysis using standard defined equivalent tolerances 8.4.1 Description of model 8.4.2 Results 8.5 Example: Determination of buckling resistance from non-linear analysis that are calibrated against standard formulations or tests 8.5.1 Step i: Prepare model 8.5.2 Step ii: Determine relevant buckling modes 8.5.3 Step iii: Select object for calibration and prepare model 8.5.4 Step iv: Determine the appropriate buckling mode for the calibration object 8.5.5 Step v: Determine magnitude of the equivalent imperfection 8.5.6 Step vi: Perform non-linear analysis of the model with imperfections 8.6 Example: Buckling check of jacket frame structure during deck installation 8.6.1 Float-over concept 8.6.2 Model description 8.6.3 FE program and element types 8.6.4 Materials 8.6.5 Boundary conditions and loads 8.6.6 Analyses 8.6.7 Linear (eigenvalue) buckling analysis 8.6.8 Non-linear buckling analysis with standard-defined equivalent tolerances 8.6.9 Comparison – linear vs non-linear results 8.7 Example: Joint of rectangular hollow section (RHS) and circular hollow section (CHS) under tension loading 8.7.1 Introduction 8.7.2 Calibration case 8.7.3 T-stub finite element model 8.7.4 RHS-CHS Joint finite element model 8.7.5 Discussion 8.8 Example: Check of stiffened plate exposed to blast loads 8.8.1 Description of stiffened plate wall 8.8.2 Model description 8.8.3 Software, element types and mesh 8.8.4 Materials 8.8.5 Boundary conditions and loads 8.8.6 Solution parametersfor transient implicit analysis in ANSYS 8.8.7 Stiffener buckling and imperfections 8.8.8 Calibration of tensile failure strain 8.8.9 Results 8.8.10 Tensile failure - critical strain 8.8.11 Weld check 8.9 Example: Low cycle fatigue analysis of tubular joint subjected to out of plane loading 8.10 Example: Low cycle fatigue analysis of plate with circular hole Appendix A Structural models for ship collision analyses A.1 Element library of offshore supply vessels Changes – historic