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See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331928317 Oceans Report - Addressing SDG14 issues with factual data and state of the art knowledge. Technical Report · February 2018 DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.29210.59846 CITATIONS 0 READS 9,502 10 authors, including: Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: Marine Litter Pollution View project Toxic pressure of herbicides on microalgae in Dutch estuarine and coastal waters View project Bas Bolman Deltares 27 PUBLICATIONS 200 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Arjen Richard Boon University of Applied Sciences Avans 60 PUBLICATIONS 854 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Christophe Briere Egis Group 39 PUBLICATIONS 373 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Theo Prins Deltares 63 PUBLICATIONS 2,685 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE All content following this page was uploaded by Arjen Richard Boon on 12 October 2019. 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https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Theo-Prins?enrichId=rgreq-251fbdc9337a3006174c513a748c54f1-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMzMTkyODMxNztBUzo4MTMxMDU3ODk1NDI0MDNAMTU3MDg3MDkzNTg3OA%3D%3D&el=1_x_7&_esc=publicationCoverPdf https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Arjen-Boon?enrichId=rgreq-251fbdc9337a3006174c513a748c54f1-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMzMTkyODMxNztBUzo4MTMxMDU3ODk1NDI0MDNAMTU3MDg3MDkzNTg3OA%3D%3D&el=1_x_10&_esc=publicationCoverPdf 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 1 of 103 Management summary bolman Typewriter Oceans Report Addressing SDG14 issues with factual data and state of the art knowledge bolman Typewriter bolman Typewriter bolman Rectangle bolman Stamp bolman Typewriter Oceans Report Addressing SDG14 issues with factual data and state of the art knowledge 11200587-000 © Deltares, 2017, B Bas Bolman Arjen Boon Christophe Brière Cees van de Guchte Theo Prins Erwin Roex Claudette Spiteri Joana Mira Veiga Dick Vethaak Nicky Villars 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Deltores Keywords Marine policy, Sustainable Development Goals, Blue Economy, Plastics, Pollution Summary The objective of this report is to address identified SDG14 issues with factual data and state of the art knowledge and experiences. The Government of the Netherlands should be active on the oceans agenda due to the consequences of climate change, the production of sustainable proteins for food production, the provision of growth and employment, maintaining world leadership in coastal protection and water management; water innovation; circular economy and dealing with the problem of marine pollution. Almost half of the world's seabirds and marine mammals have ingested plastic marine litter and almost every marine organism is contaminated with synthetic chemicals. As a result of policy measures, riverine loads of nitrogen and phosphorus have reduced since the 1990s. However, in the Dutch Caribbean eutrophication is a major stressor for coral reefs and seagrass meadows. Considering acidification it is estimated that impacts on molluscs and tropical coral reefs will cost over USD 1,000 billion annually by the end of the century. Climate change will cause sea level rise but the Netherlands is well equipped to deal with this in the comingcentury. New monitoring techniques consist of remote sensing via satellite imagery and aquatic and airborne drones. These techniques facilitate the monitoring of eutrophication and plastics and other pressures so that effective policy measures can be taken. The role of the Regional Seas Programmes is to implement the international agenda on marine and coastal issues. The strategies of RSPs consist of reducing pollution, resilience for people and ecosystems, integrated ecosystem- based policies and enhancing effectiveness. Regional Seas Conventions are the instrument to implement RSPs. The Government of the Netherlands regards RSCs as essential for effective ocean governance. C8 Jan 2018 Bas Bolman ~ Sharon Tatman -~ Frank Hoozemans \ Initials Review Initials Approval Initi~ljVersion Date Author Arjen Boon I Christophe Brière ( Cees van de Guchte Theo Prins Erwin Roex Claudette Spiteri Joana Mira Veiga Dick Vethaak Nick Villars State final Oceans Report 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report i Contents Management summary 1 1 Introduction 3 1.1 Background and context 3 1.2 Objective and policy questions 3 1.3 Approach 4 1.4 Definitions 4 1.5 Reading guide 4 2 Policy context 6 2.1 International policy 6 2.2 National policy 11 2.3 Highlights 13 3 The importance of oceans and seas for the Netherlands 15 3.1 Blue economy & policy 16 3.2 Research institutes 24 3.3 Highlights 25 4 Identification of relevant issues 29 4.1 Plastic marine litter 29 4.2 Contaminants 35 4.3 Nutrients and organic matter 38 4.4 Underwater sound 44 4.5 Acidification 48 4.6 Coastal protection 50 4.7 Indonesia as an international case of multiple issues 53 4.8 Highlights 57 5 New monitoring technologies 59 5.1 Definition of the problem 59 5.2 Policy context 64 5.3 What are the new technologies and what can they offer? 65 5.4 Incorporating and transitioning to new technologies 72 5.5 Key issues & questions 74 5.6 Highlights 76 6 The role of relevant institutions 77 6.1 Regional Seas Conventions 77 6.2 World Ocean Council 82 6.3 Other relevant institutions and conferences 83 6.4 Highlights 85 7 Conclusions 87 7.1 Answers to policy questions 87 7.2 Opportunities and building blocks for policy development 90 bolman Text Box bolman Text Box 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report ii 7.3 A glance at the future? 92 8 References 93 Appendices A Appendix – List of experts from the Netherlands A-1 B Appendix – List of FP7 and Horizon 2020 projects B-1 C Appendix – Overview of Regional Seas Programmes C-1 D Appendix – Overview of TKI Maritime projects D-1 E Appendix – Overview of conferences and events E-1 F Appendix – Overview of relevant Deltares projects in Indonesia F-1 G Appendix – Project results for policy makers G-1 bolman Text Box 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 1 of 103 Management summary The objective of this report is to address identified SDG14 issues with factual data and state of the art knowledge and experiences. This main objective is divided into four policy questions. The answers to these questions can be found below. Why should the Government of the Netherlands be active on the oceans agenda? The Government of the Netherlands should be active on the oceans agenda due to the consequences of climate change, the production of sustainable proteins for food production, the provision of growth and employment, maintaining world leadership in coastal protection and water management; water innovation; circular economy and dealing with the problem of marine pollution. What are the relevant issues? The relevant issues selected from an SDG14 perspective are plastic marine litter, contaminants, nutrients and organic matter, acidification and coastal protection. Each year, app 8 million tonnes of plastic enter the oceans. All marine turtles and almost half of the world’s seabirds and marine mammals have ingested plastic marine litter. Almost every marine organism is contaminated with synthetic chemicals. In the Netherlands many different pesticides are detected in surface waters; many exceed the water quality standards. Eutrophication leads to changes in biogeochemical cycling of elements, changes in food webs and oxygen depletion. As a result of policy measures, riverine loads of nitrogen and phosphorus have reduced since the 1990s. In the Dutch Caribbean eutrophication is a major stressor for coral reefs and seagrass meadows. App. 26% of the anthropogenic CO2 emitted to the atmosphere is absorbed by the ocean. It is estimated that impacts on molluscs and tropical coral reefs will cost over USD 1,000 billion annually by the end of the century. The IPCC estimates that the frequency and impact of coastal flooding events are likely to increase in the future due to climate change and sea level rise. The Netherlands is well equipped to deal with sea level rise in this century. What is the importance of new technologies in support of monitoring SDG14? The importance of new technologies to monitor SDG14 is to enable policy makers to increase awareness of the status of the marine environment and to develop appropriate policy measures to combat marine pollution (SDG14.1) and acidification (SDG14.3). The Sentinel-2 and Sentinel-3 satellites to measure chlorophyll-a, turbidity, and suspended sediment concentration. The monitoring of marine plastics is still a new area; ESA is sponsoring new projects to detect plastics via satellite observations. The EU and OSPAR are assessing the possibilities of satellite remote sensing for MSFD eutrophication assessments of the North Sea. Aquatic and airborne drones are currently being tested, e.g. to measure water depth, to inspect structures, to collect samples for water quality measurements and to identify floating (plastic) litter. What is the role of relevant institutions for policy development on oceans? The role of the Regional Seas Programmes is to implement the international agenda on marine and coastal issues. The strategies of RSPs consist of reducing pollution, resilience for people and ecosystems, integrated ecosystem-based policies and enhancing effectiveness. Regional Seas Conventions are the instrument to implement RSPs. The Government of the Netherlands regards RSCs as essential for effective ocean governance. Of strategic importance to the Netherlands are the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) and the Arctic Region (Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy – AEPS). bolman Text Box 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 3 of 103 1 Introduction 1.1 Background and context There is a new momentum within the ministries of Infrastructure and Water management (MinIenW), Foreign Affairs (MinBuZa), Economic Affairs and Climate Policy (MinEZK) and Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality (MinLNV) to address various issues on the sustainable governance of oceans and the seas, in particularly those mentioned under Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14. This momentum was created after the Oceans Brief (April 2017) on Oceans to the Dutch parliament 1 and the United Nations (UN) SDG 14 Oceans Conference in New York (June 2017). The interest of the Government of the Netherlands also comprises indications on the importance of oceans and seas for both policies and economic development in the Netherlands. An item to be addressed concurrently relates to signalling and roughly assessing the importance of the Regional Seas Conventions as vehicle to implement (elements of) the action agenda of the Netherlands. 1.2 Objective and policy questions The objective of this report is to address identified SDG14 issues with factual data and state of the art knowledge and experiences.Possible relations between SDG14 with current international policy agendas of the Netherlands will also be addressed. This main objective is divided into four policy questions: a. Why should the Government of the Netherlands be active on the Oceans agenda? b. What are the relevant issues? c. What is the importance of new technologies in support of monitoring SDG14? d. What is the role of relevant institutions in the context of policy development on oceans? These four policy questions are further elaborated below: a. This policy question includes links with the relevant transition agendas of the Dutch Government. The size of the blue economy as an indicator of the importance of the oceans and seas for economic development in the Netherlands will be assessed, including the importance for the relevant research institutes in terms of turnover. Links will also be made with Top Sector Water & Maritime. Where possible, the connections will be described between the proposed activities of TKI Maritime and its contributions to the SDG14 agenda and the objectives of the transition agenda of MinIenW. b. The identification of relevant issues relates to the following topics: • Pollution, including nutrients, contaminants and emerging ones, plastics and underwater sound, acidification • Coastal protection against flooding c. This report also provides an indication of the importance of new technologies in support of monitoring SDG14, such as global observatories and satellite data. Such new developments maybe considered by the Government of the Netherlands regarding their input in upcoming reviews of the existing SDG14 monitoring and reporting mechanisms. 1 http://bit.ly/2janYYT http://bit.ly/2janYYT 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 4 of 103 d. In the section on the analysis of the roles of relevant institutions in the context of policy development on oceans, special emphasis will be put on assessing the role of the Regional Seas Conventions. Opportunities will be identified to explore and/or present building blocks of policy development in the Netherlands on oceans and seas. 1.3 Approach This report is based on a literature study. Both grey literature such as policy documents and sector reviews as well as peer reviewed papers were used. Where appropriate experts of Deltares have been consulted. Considering the scope of this assignment, the focus is on relevant Dutch policy related to oceans. Several sectors are not covered in this report, including navy and inland shipping. The navy is excluded due to its public nature; inland shipping is excluded due to the fact that this activity does not take place in marine waters. 1.4 Definitions This report uses a variety of concepts of with known definitions. As such it is assumed that the reader is familiar with the domain of marine policy. However, some concepts may not be known even by experienced readers. Below a selection of concepts is defined in detail. Production value Production value is defined as the value of all goods with the purpose to be sold, including those not yet sold. Production value also includes incomes for delivered services as well as the value of products with a market equivalent produced for own use such as self- management, home-grown and agricultural products for own consumption by farmers (CBS, 2017). Value added Value added is defined as the difference between production value and intermediate consumption (excluding deductible VAT). Intermediate consumption is defined as the products consumed during the reporting period in the production process, valued at purchase prices, excluding deductible VAT. These may or may not be raw materials, semi- manufactured goods and fuels purchased during the reporting period, but also services such as communications services, cleaning services and external audit services (CBS, 2017). 1.5 Reading guide The report continues with an analysis of the policy context in chapter 2 in order to provide the reader with more background information. In chapter 2 the five transitions of the Transition Agenda of MinIenW are mentioned. Three of these transitions are relevant for this report: energy transition (green symbol), climate adaptation (red symbol) and circular economy (blue symbol). The symbols on the left of this section will guide the reader throughout the report. The policy framework of chapter 2 will be applied in chapter 3 to each of the maritime sectors. Additionally the size of each sector in the blue economy is addressed. Chapter 3 also covers an overview of the economic relevance of research institutes in the Netherlands, focussing on marine and maritime disciplines. Chapter 4 addresses the above mentioned issues, including pollution, nutrients, contaminants, plastics, underwater sound, acidification and coastal 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 5 of 103 protection. Indonesia is used as an international example where multiple issues come together. Chapter 5 presents the emerging technologies that may be used to monitor SDG14 targets. Chapter 6 analyses the regional seas conventions; relevant institutions and conferences in the context of the above mentioned policies are listed. The report finishes with chapter 7, answering the policy questions and providing recommendations. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 6 of 103 2 Policy context This chapter provides an overview of the selected policy framework. In the international section policies such as SDG14 and UNCLOS are analysed. In the national section the Topsector Water & Maritime, Green Deals and the transition agenda of MinIenW are elaborated. Hence, this section does not evaluate the effectiveness and/or efficiency of policy; rather the aim is to provide a background of the policies first, before applying them to the context of maritime sectors in the next section. 2.1 International policy SDG14 On 25 September 2015 countries adopted a set of goals with the aim to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure prosperity for all. This is part of a new sustainable development agenda which is implemented between 2016-2030. Each goal has a specific set of targets. In total there are 17 SDGs. The Addis Ababa Action Agenda provides concrete policies and actions to support the implementation of the SDGs. In principle, implementation is the responsibility of nation states. However, all other stakeholders are expected to contribute to the realisation of the agenda (UN, 2017a). Implementation is still in an initial phase and many efforts are needed to realise actual progress instead of simply linking existing initiatives to the SDGs. According to the Oceans Brief, more ambition and an integral vision are needed to realise the SDG targets (MinBuZa, 2017). Monitoring of the progress occurs via a set of 169 indicators that are connected to the targets of the SDGs. On a national level, CBS is responsible for measuring the progress. Currently a third of all SDGs indicators are measurable by CBS. In some cases other indicators have been found to monitor the progress of SDGs. However, it is likely that new indicators need to be developed in order to be able to monitor the full set of indicators (CBS, 2016). On a EU level, Eurostat is the responsible agency to monitor the SDGs on member state level. The overall objective of SDG14 is to conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development. SDG14 contains 10 targets with 10 connecting indicators. At this moment the Government of the Netherlands has identified three SDG14 targets which have their primary interest to be addressedin respect to the above (UN, 2017a): 14.1 By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, particularly from land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution. Among Box 2.1 - Facts & figures on policy SDG14 focuses on increasing knowledge and reducing marine pollution and acidification The Top Sector Water & Maritime has resulted in 32 projects on global water challenges Green Deals stimulate green economic growth by enabling new and sustainable initiatives Relevant ocean topics on the transition agenda of MinIenW are energy transition, climate adaptation and circular economy 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 7 of 103 others, a new Memorandum of Understanding / Voluntary Agreement has been signed in New York (June 2017), on “Ghost Gear” in fisheries 2 . 14.3 Minimize and address the impacts of ocean acidification, including through enhanced scientific cooperation at all levels. This issue directly relates to combatting CO2 emissions as being debated under the Climate Convention. There appears to be a considerable variation in acidification both at global, regional and local scales. Envisaged impacts (e.g. on corals) bring irreversible tipping points into sight 3 . 14.a Increase scientific knowledge, develop research capacity and transfer marine technology, taking into account the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission Criteria and Guidelines on the Transfer of Marine Technology, in order to improve ocean health and to enhance the contribution of marine biodiversity to the development of developing countries, in particular Small Island Developing States and least developed countries. Marine Strategy Framework Directive & Water Framework Directive The Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD - Directive 2008/56/EC) aims to protect and restore Europe's marine ecosystems and to ensure the ecological sustainability of economic activities linked to the marine environment in European Seas. It is the first EU legislative instrument related to the protection of marine biodiversity and ecosystems. It focuses specifically on 11 qualitative Descriptors of Good Environmental Status, around which the national marine strategies are developed and implemented. The process is cyclical and the implementation at national level entails: an assessment of the environmental status; the establishment of targets; the implementation of monitoring and programme of measures. The 2nd cycle will start in 2018, for which the EC has published a revised set of criteria and methodological standards (Commission Decision on Good Environmental Status) for the 11 Descriptors. The Water Framework Directive (WFD – Directive 200/60/EC) was adopted in 2000, and aims at protecting aquatic ecosystems and promoting sustainable water, preventing deterioration and achieving good status of Europe’s waters. Water management under the WFD focuses on river basins as the natural geographical and hydrological unit, and concerns both surface waters and groundwater. The WFD specifically addresses pollution and other pressures that have an impact on the ecological status, which is assessed on the basis of four biological quality elements. The WFD covers coastal waters (up to the 1st nautical mile for ecological status and 12 nautical mile for chemical status). Thus, in coastal waters there is some overlap with the MSFD, but the MSFD has a broader coverage of environmental issues through the 11 Descriptors of Good Environmental Status. The WFD has a 6-year cycle of implementation, where the assessment of ecological status, monitoring and the definition of programs of measures are laid down in River Basin Management Plans (RBMP). The most recent RBMPs were published in 2015. Many of the measures in the RBMPs concern pressures by human activities on land or in the river basins, that also have an impact on the marine environments. Consequently, achieving good status under the MSFD is partly dependent on the WFD implementation. 2 The topic of fisheries is not further elaborated in this report since this sector is the responsibility of MinLNV. 3 A separate study is being addressed by Henk Merkus, Dirk-Jan Sloot (DGRW), incl. Anouk Blauw (Deltares), and is not part of this present assignment. The Deltares study will provide a rough indication of relevant Dutch contributions on this issue. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 8 of 103 UNCLOS The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) defines the rights and responsibilities of nations with respect to their use of the world's oceans, establishing guidelines for businesses, the environment, and the management of marine natural resources. As illustrated in Figure 2.1, UNCLOS defines the maritime zones such as the territorial sea (water column and seabed within 12 nautical miles) and the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ, water column and sea bed within 200 nautical miles), the extended continental shelf (seabed within 150 nautical miles extended from the EEZ) and the high seas (UN, 1982). Some nations have signed UNCLOS but did not ratify the convention; a well- known example is the United States. Reasons for not ratifying UNCLOS may relate to sovereignty arguments. Figure 2.1: maritime zones according to UNCLOS (Bähr, 2017) The claims of nations on the seabed of the Arctic Ocean are an example where UNCLOS plays a crucial role. Under UNCLOS nations may access their natural resources within the 200 mile zone. To access resources in the seabed of the extended continental shelf (an additional 150 miles), nations can apply for such an extension with the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf. This must be done within 10 years after ratifying UNCLOS. By means of geological evidence, nations have to prove that their continental shelf extends beyond the 200 mile zone. As of 2017, Denmark, Russia and Norway have submitted their claims to the Commission. The high seas are a primary reason of concern regarding the effectiveness of international governance. Under UNCLOS the access to resources in the water column are open to all (UN, 1982). Free access and the freedom of fishing for all states have resulted in the so- called Tragedy of the Commons (Economist, 2014). This is confirmed by the Oceans Brief, stating that the “laissez-faire” attitude of the world community regarding oceans is a very large risk for all humans on the planet including the planet itself. As such, current governance structures for the management of the high seas are insufficient to achieve healthy and productive oceans and seas for future generations (MinBuZa, 2017). 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 9 of 103 Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction The conservation of Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) is a new treaty in the making and will be part of UNCLOS. Due to the above mentioned “laissez-faire” problem of UNCLOS it has not been possible to address the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction. This problem should be tackled by the BBNJ process, which started in 2006. In 2015 the General Assembly agreed that an internationally binding instrument should be developed under UNCLOS. In 2017 countries agreed to recommend elements for the treaty. It is expected that a conference on the elaboration of the treaty will be organised in 2018 (UN, 2017b). The Government of the Netherlands is very active in the negotiations towards a treaty. It aims for establishing binding agreements on protected areas in the high seas, with mandatory environmental impact assessments and sound international agreement on the accessand division of genetic resources from the high seas (MinBuZa, 2017). Marine Protected Areas Marine biodiversity in the Netherlands is protected under the Birds Directive (2009/147/EC) and Habitats Directives (92/43/EEC). Based on these directives the EU adopted the Natura 2000 framework in 1992. The aim of Natura 2000 is to conserve and restore biodiversity in the EU. Currently five areas have been appointed as Natura 2000 areas, with a total of 19% of the Dutch EEZ (Figure 2.2): 1. Wadden Sea 2. Voordelta 3. Noordzeekustzone 4. Vlakte van de Raan 5. Klaverbank 6. Friese Front 7. Doggerbank Management plans have been made for the Wadden Sea, Noordzeekustzone, Voordelta, Noordzeekustzone and Vlakte van de Raan. Management plans are a first way of licensing for conducting activities in MPAs; another way of obtaining a license is via an Environmental Impact Assessment 4 . In case of both instruments initiators of a proposed development or plan have to consult an independent research institute to assess their impact on conservation objectives. Contrary to many other MPAs in the world, most areas in the Netherlands are not closed for marine activities. In fact only 1.4% of the MPAs in the Dutch EEZ are fully protected. An example is the Noordzeekustzone. According to the latest outcomes of negotiations between Fishery Organisations, Authorities and NGOs (VIBEG 2), the Noordzeekustzone is divided into six zones: 1) closed areas for fisheries, 2) open for fisheries except bottom trawling, 3) innovation areas, 4) other fishery areas, 5) research areas and 6) dynamic zoning. The closed area of zone 1 consists of approximately 10% of the total area MinEZ, 2017). Clearly the Government of the Netherlands is under pressure; although fisheries and aquaculture are the smallest maritime sector (see paragraph 2.1) they have built up an enormous lobby to keep areas open, especially regarding MPAs but also regarding offshore wind parks. On the other side the Government is under pressure from NGOs, using the argument that only less than 1.4% of the MPAs in the Dutch EEZ is truly protected. Yet internationally the Government of the Netherlands is putting effort in the negotiations on the protection of biodiversity in the high seas. It aims to establish binding agreements on MPAs. 4 Or Passende Beoordeling in Dutch 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 10 of 103 Figure 2.2: overview of marine Natura 2000 areas in the Netherlands (Van der Wal, 2010) 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 11 of 103 2.2 National policy Top Sector Water & Maritime In 2010 the Cabinet of the Netherlands introduced the Top Sector Policy. The idea behind this policy is to stimulate the sustainable growth of sectors through research, development and innovation via public-private cooperation. The reason to do this is the ambition to maintain the top position of the Netherlands and to strengthen its international competitive position. The Minister of Economic Affairs is responsible for the nine Top Sectors, including Agri & Food, Chemical industry, Creative industry, Energy, High Tech Systems & Materials, Logistics, Life Sciences & Health, Horticulture & Starting Materials and Water & Maritime. The Top Sector Water and Maritime aims to tackle global water challenges to increase welfare. Such challenges consist, amongst others, of a growing world population, urbanisation and climate change. This Top Sector consists of three sub-sectors (also known as Topconsortia for Knowledge and Innovation or TKIs): Water Technology, Delta Technology and Maritime Technology. This report focuses on Maritime Technology, which contains four themes: mining at sea, clean ships, smart and safe shipping and effective infrastructure (see Figure 2.3) (Top Sectoren, 2017; Top Sector Water, 2017). Figure 2.3: schematic overview of the nine Top Sectors, with a focus on the Top Sector Water & Maritime, which entails three TKIs. TKI Maritime Technology entails four themes (made by authors). 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 12 of 103 The implementation of TKI Maritime occurs in three configurations. The first configuration is seed money projects, organised via Maritime Innovation Impulse Projects (MIIP). Consortia of industries, research institutes and sometimes also NGOs can submit project proposals to the Innovation Council. Each project receives up to EUR 30.000, which is 50% of the total costs. Between 2014 and 2017 a total 32 projects have been granted financing. The second configuration is Joint Industry Projects (JIPs). Again, consortia of industries and research institutes can submit project proposals, this time to the TKI Board. The size of JIPs varies from several hundreds of thousands of euros to several million euros. At least 40% of this amount should be financed by industrial partners, in cash and/or in kind. In 2016 a total of 25 JIPs have been granted financing. The third configuration is the MIT 5 regulation. The aim of this regulation is to stimulate innovation in SMEs across the borders of regions in the Netherlands. Subsidies are provided for knowledge vouchers, consulting, feasibility studies (with a maximum of EUR 25.000) and R&D cooperation. Note that this regulation was not specifically made for the maritime sector. As of 2017 it is not clear which projects have been granted for the maritime sector (Top Sector Water, 2017; NML, 2014). Green Deals The Green Deals approach exists since 2011. The government of the Netherlands wants stimulate green economic growth by enabling new and sustainable initiatives from the society, for example in the domain of resources, biodiversity, water, mobility, energy, climate, food, construction and biobased economy. This is done by removing obstacles in laws and regulations, creation of new markets, provision of information and stimulation of optimal cooperation. Via clear agreements among specific partners concrete results can be achieved; each partner has its own responsibility. As of mid-2016 a total of 200 Green Deals have been made with over 1,200 parties. The Netherlands Enterprise Agency is responsible for assessing new initiatives and assess if the criteria are met (Green Deals, 2017a). Transition agenda The MinIenW transition agenda is based on the long term ambitions of the Ministry, captured in the document “Koers IenM”. This document identifies a series of trends and developments that will impact society, such as the involvement of civilians in policy and implementation, big data and decentralisation. It also lists ambitions for the Netherlands in terms of coastal protection, infrastructure, recycling, participation and smart cities (MinIenM, 2015). In 2016, the board of directors of MinIenW used the objectives of the document to formulate five transitions. In the next period these transitions will be made more concrete, in cooperation with the (political) environment. The five transitions include: 1. Energy transition Reduce CO2 emissions to zero by 2050 as quickly as possible to help combat global warming; 2. Climate adaptation Ensure that the (effects of) flooding remain to a minimum; 3. Smart and green mobility An infrastructure of high quality and good accessibility, including the necessary investment. Together with the regions, MinIenW supports development towards smart mobility; 4. Circular economy 5 Mkb-innovatiestimulering Regio en Topsectoren 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 13 of 103 By 2050, all raw materials are optimally used and reused. Productsand materials are reusable from design. The production of new raw materials takes place in a sustainable manner; 5. Liveable and accessible cities We are working on an excellent spatial economic structure and good international accessibility of the urban regions. For this report three transitions are relevant: energy transition, climate adaptation and circular economy. Where relevant in the text, a symbol has been used to refer to the appropriate transition. 2.3 Highlights 1. Be aware of the current neoliberal dogma in marine policy National policies focus on the sustainable use of seas and oceans; the primary focus is economic growth and development. Sustainability and the reduction of environmental impacts are secondary to economic interests. This is not always made explicit; therefore it is wise to be aware of the neoliberal oriented dogma that is currently dominant in marine management in the Netherlands. This also applies to other maritime nations. As the Oceans Brief states, the “laissez-faire” attitude of the world community regarding oceans is a very large risk for all humans on the planet including the planet itself. The same brief also states that current governance structures for the management of the high seas are insufficient to achieve healthy and productive oceans and seas for future generations. 2. Better integration of marine policy with SDG14, incl. EU policies and blue economy Policies could be better connected with each other; both at the organisational level as well as the content level. It is recommended that the SDGs in general are integrated into the Top Sectors and Green Deals in order to provide for shared ambitions. Moreover, within the Top Sectors and Green Deals more synergies and connections can be made; this will reduce overlap and stimulate cooperation. 3. Establish an action plan for the implementation of the SDGs Currently many public and private organisations are active with the SDGs. However, in most cases it is simply linking existing initiatives to the SDGs. This is not enough, otherwise the SDG targets would have been realised already. New actions are needed that directly contribute to the SDGs, and specifically SDG14. Clearly more and concrete efforts in the form of committed and shared actions are needed. This is underlined by the Oceans Brief, stating that more ambition and an integral vision are needed to realise the SDG targets (MinBuZa, 2017). 4. MPAs: do international ambitions align with national reality? Internationally the Government of the Netherlands is putting effort in the negotiations on the protection of biodiversity in the high seas. It aims to establish binding agreements on marine protected areas (MPAs). At the same time MPAs in the Netherlands seem to be compromised; only 1.4% of the North Sea is currently fully protected. Other MPAs have been assigned but these are not fully protected. Thus it seems that the international efforts of the Government of the Netherlands are more ambitious than the current state of MPAs in the Dutch EEZ. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 14 of 103 5. Operationalise the Oceans Brief The Oceans Brief of 2017 is an ambitious document setting clear targets on what to achieve. As such the brief is a very useful Oceans agenda as it prioritises many maritime and marine issues. The next step should be the operationalisation of the Oceans Brief; in other words, how to achieve the ambitions. Clear actions are needed with a clearly defined commitment and responsibility by ministries together with timelines. 6. Be aware of the relevance of other SDGs Although SDG14 explicitly focuses on Oceans, other SDGs are also relevant. SDG2.4 focuses on sustainability in agriculture. SDG6.3 focuses on the reduction of pollution from land-based sources to fresh water systems. SDG12.4 relates to the management and reduction of chemicals and waste in production and consumption. SDG15.1 aims to achieve sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and SDG 15.8 wants to reduce the impacts of non-indigenous species. These other SDGs reconfirm the interconnectedness between fresh water and marine ecosystems via a series of pressures such as nutrients, residues and waste. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 15 of 103 3 The importance of oceans and seas for the Netherlands This chapter describes the blue economy of the maritime sectors in the Netherlands. Figures on production values, value added and employment are presented first. To put these figures into a broader context a comparison with the EU is made. The navy sector, the fisheries and aquaculture sector and the inland shipping sectors are not covered here. Note that economic figures are always a topic of debate. An example is whether or not to include tourism and more specifically hotel nights as a contributor to the blue economy. In the report of Nederland Maritiem Land (NML) this is not covered whereas the European report of COGEA does focus on tourism explicitly. Hence, NML and COGEA apply different statistical methods. Therefore it is advised to regard the below mentioned figures as indicative. This chapter focuses primarily on the blue economy and the relation between maritime sectors and policies. However economics are not the only way to illustrate the importance of oceans and seas. Water and the Netherlands are inseparable already for thousands of years. Oceans and seas are crucial for the existence of the Netherlands; in the past, the present and the future. On a global level, 2.9 billion people obtain 20% of their protein needs from fish, while 90% of the global fish population is maximally exploited (Bähr, 2017). Oceans and seas play a very important role in easing the effects of climate change. Recent estimates have calculated that 26 to 27% of the CO2 from human activities over the decade 2002–2011 was absorbed by the oceans (Figure 3.1 - Le Quéré, 2012; Bähr, 2017). Currents in the Atlantic Ocean such as the Gulf Stream bring warm surface waters north and send cold, deeper waters south (Hand, 2016). The warm water of the Gulf Stream causes North-western Europe to have a relatively mild climate; this enables human activities such as fisheries, aquaculture and agriculture. Box 3.1 - Facts & figures on the importance of oceans and seas for the Netherlands Healthy oceans are crucial for human kind as a source of food and for CO2 absorption The blue economy of the Netherlands generates app. 3.3% of the gross domestic product Harbours is the largest sector with a total production value of EUR 19.053 million and a total employment of 80.431 persons The maritime sector connects mostly to SDG14.3 with investments in energy transitions The turnover of research institutes was EUR 205 million in 2016, employing 1,400 persons 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 16 of 103 Figure 3.1: Absorption of natural and anthropogenic CO2 emissions (Bähr, 2017) 3.1 Blue economy & policy Shipping and shipyards In 2016, the production value 6 of shipping was EUR 7,731 million (EUR 5,582 million directly); as such shipping is the 3 rd largest maritime sector of the Netherlands. The total value added amounted to EUR 2,375 million (EUR 1,427 million directly). The production value of the shipyard sector was EUR 7.390 million in 2016 (EUR 4,383 million directly); this sector is the 4 th largest of the Netherlands in terms of total production value. The total value added amounted to EUR 2,291 million (EUR 1,091 million directly).The shipping sector provided employment for 18,041 people (7,506 directly) while the shipyard sector employed 32,805 persons (11,661 directly) (Bosscheet al., 2017). According to COGEA (2017), the Netherlands accounted for 9% of the total gross value added for shipping in the EU in 2014 and 9% of the total employment. In the shipyard sector 6% of the total employment originated from the Netherlands 7 (COGEA, 2017). SDG14 The shipping and shipyards sectors contribute to sub-objectives 14.1 and 14.3 of SDG14. Regarding the reduction of marine pollution (SDG 14.1), the shipping sector in the Netherlands acknowledges the concerns on pollution and the long term effects for the earth, biodiversity and ultimately human health. Current efforts to improve the environmental performance of the sector focus on waste facilities in harbours. The Royal Dutch Shipowners Association (RDSA) is working towards harmonised regulations, trying to streamline different interpretations of rules for waste facilities. Additionally harbours should have sufficient capacity to process waste. Regarding ocean acidification (SDG 14.3), the shipping sector can choose from a series of voluntary environmental indices to indicate the environmental performance of ships; examples include Environmental Ship Index, Clean Shipping Index, Green Award and EEDI. Currently the focus is on LNG as a measure to reduce SOx (and NOx and CO2). The main challenge is to realise LNG infrastructure as soon as possible. Technological measures such as low sulphur fuels and scrubbers are regarded as problematic because they require large investments (KVNR, 2017). The main driver to adopt new technologies comes from introduction of Emission Control Areas by the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) (Figure 3.2). Strict sulphur norms of 0.5% will enter into force in 6 The definitions of production value and value added can be found in chapter one 7 Data on the total gross value added in the Netherlands in 2014 is missing in the COGEA database 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 17 of 103 2020 on a global scale. The North Sea will have strict norm for NOx from 2021 onwards which is 70% stricter than the current norm (MinBuZa, 2017). LNG is often praised as an important transitional fuel in the maritime sector. For the oil & gas industry LNG is part of the plan to focus more on gas and less on oil, as the latter becomes more controversial in the light of the Paris Agreement. Surely LNG has advantages when compared to Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO). Specifically for those emissions with a local impact LNG performance is impressive: NOx is reduced with app. 90%, SOx is reduced with app. 95% and Particular Matter (PM) is reduced with app. 95%. However, from a perspective of climate change the performance of LNG is not so impressive; CO2 emissions are reduced only with app. 20% (DNV GL, 2013). Also, it is often underestimated how expensive and complicated LNG projects are. Looking at the full life cycle in the supply chain of LNG, the fuel tends to be more energy and greenhouse gas (GHG) intensive than the supply chain for pipeline gas, because of the extra processing steps (Kavalov et al., 2009). In short, LNG may be a transitional fuel; it is not the ideal fuel for a low carbon economy (Cameron, 2008). Regarding SDG 14.a, the shipping and shipyard sectors mainly cooperate with the research institutes of TNO and MARIN. Examples of projects can be found below in the section on TKI Maritime. Figure 3.2: Shipping lanes and (future) Emission Control Areas (Bähr, 2017) TKI Maritime Reducing shipping emissions is addressed via the clean ships theme of TKI Maritime. Within this theme, topics such as the reduction of fuel consumption, emissions and efficient use of materials and underwater sound are covered. In the clean ships theme, 7 projects are currently running. These projects focus on topics such as more efficient propellers, hull optimisation in still waters, hybrid propulsion systems, Energy Saving Devices and predicting ship resistance, cavitation and pressure fluctuations (TKI Maritiem, 2017). Green Deals As of 2017 there is one Green Deal covering the topic of shipping, called the “Shipping Waste Chain”. The aim is to reduce further pollution of seas and oceans. The cooperating partners want to contribute to closing the plastic cycle via prevention, separation and recycling of plastic, improvement of supervision and harmonisation of waste collection in harbours. As part of the Green Deal, the ports of Rotterdam and Amsterdam offer the service to ships owners to hand over their plastic waste for free. The Government of the Netherlands has committed itself to also approach other nations due to the international character of shipping. A selection of other involved partners in this Green Deal includes Groningen Seaport, Port Authorities of Amsterdam and Rotterdam, RDSA and the North Sea Foundation (Green Deals, 2017b). In the new government agreement of 2017 the cooperating political parties 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 18 of 103 acknowledge that the environmental performance of the shipping sector in the Netherlands can be further improved. A new Green Deal is proposed to increase the sustainability of inland shipping, nautical shipping and harbours (Kabinetsformatie, 2017). Transition agenda The topic of shipping emissions also connects to the transition agenda of the Ministry of Infrastructure & Environment. SDG 14.1, the efforts of RDSA and the projects of TKI Maritime all connect to the first topic of the agenda which entails Energy Transition. The aim of this transition is to reduce CO2 emissions as fast as possible to net zero in 2050. This measure should contribute to holding the further warming of the earth. Offshore This sector consists of two sub-sectors: offshore oil and gas and offshore wind parks. Combined these sub-sectors had a total production value of EUR 9,079 million in 2016 (EUR 5,805 million directly); offshore is the 2 nd largest maritime sector in the Netherlands in terms of total production value. The value added accumulated to EUR 3,959 million in the same year (EUR 2,485 million directly). The offshore sector employed 54,344 persons (27,554 directly) (Bossche et al., 2017). App. 1% of the total gross value added and employment for offshore wind parks in the EU in 2014 can be attributed to the Netherlands (COGEA, 2017). Considering gas production, the Netherlands is the second largest producer after the UK, with a share of 25.23% in the EU 8 (JRC, 2015). SDG14 Offshore oil & gas activities cause a number of pressures during the different life cycle phases such as exploration, drilling, installation, production, transport of workers and decommissioning. Regarding SDG 14.1 on the reduction of marine pollution, on the most relevant pressures is pollution as a consequence of the discharge of production water during the production phase (Tamis et al., 2011). In 2012 the risk-based approach of OSPAR was adopted. This approach prioritises mitigating measures regarding the components in the discharged water giving the highest environmental risks. The authorities 9 in the Netherlands have introduced guidelines for the implementation of this approach (WUR, 2016b). Regarding SDG 14.3, the oil & gas industry is involved in storing CO2 in empty gas fields of the North Sea. The K12-B project was the first of its kind in the world. This gas field is located app. 150 km northwest of Amsterdam, producing natural gas with a relatively high CO2 content. Until recently the CO2 was vented but now it is injected into the gas field. Between 2004 and 2015 a total of 90 kT of CO2 was injected (K12-B, 2017). Considering SDG 14.a, research cooperation specifically occurs in interaction with OSPAR, NOGEPA and Wageningen Marine Research on thetheme of marine pollution. In case of the K12-B project, monitoring and research activities occur between GDF SUEZ E&P, CSIRO and TNO (Tamis et al., 2011; WUR, 2016b; K12-B, 2017). In the offshore wind sector the installation and production phase can cause pressures on the marine environment. Piling during the installation causes underwater sound. This pressure may have impacts on marine mammals, which is a relevant form of marine pollution under SDG 14.1. In the Netherlands the current mitigation measure forbids piling during specific times of the year (SDN, 2012). Other potential pressures consist of collision of birds with the blades. In the wind park of Egmond research has illustrated that 0.01% of the 5 million birds annually passing through the park was hit by a blade (Noordzeewind, 2012). Regarding SDG 8 Consistent employment figures per EU member state are currently not available for the oil & gas sector 9 Staatstoezicht op de Mijnen and Rijkswaterstaat 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 19 of 103 14.a, research institutes and industries are cooperating to find solutions to reduce the potential effects of underwater sound. An example of such an effort is the Blue Piling Technology, developed by Fistuca, Van Oord and TNO. This technology uses combustion to push a column of water inside a pole to generate a piling stroke. It does not only reduce underwater sound; it also reduces the costs of installation (RVO, 2012). Examples of research on the prevention of bird collisions could not be found. There are many studies pointing at the added value of offshore wind parks on marine biodiversity. Turbines offer hard substrate for organisms to settle, which literally forms the foundation of a new habitat. It has been proven that fish such as cod are attracted to these habitats (Lindeboom et al., 2011). In order to work achieve the ambitions of the Government of the Netherlands to achieve zero CO2 emissions in 2050, many more wind parks need to be installed. Some studies have been conducted to calculate cumulative impacts of multiple wind parks 10 ; however studies on cumulative effects of a North Sea dominated by wind parks in 2050 do not exist. TKI Maritime Both the offshore oil and gas industry as well as the offshore wind industry are part of the Top Sector Energy. For the wind sector there is a TKI Offshore Wind and for the oil and gas industry there is a TKI Gas. However, within TKI Maritime, there are a three projects relating to the offshore sector; they are categorised under the theme of Mining at Sea. The DISCO JIP aims to improve a specific type of buoy in the vicinity of floating production platforms. The Wind Load JIP aims to align the outcomes of wind tunnels and modelling regarding wind flows around offshore structures. The Breakin JIP aims to gain insight in the modelling of the impacts of waves on offshore structures (TKI Maritiem, 2017). Green Deals Since the Green Deals focus on green economic growth, the focus is primarily on the transition from hydrocarbons towards other forms of energy. Currently the theme of energy contains 105 Green Deals; one of them relates to offshore wind. The Green Deal Netherlands Wind Energy Association aims to reduce the cost price of wind energy with 40%. It also aims to improve the international competitive position of the Netherlands (Green Deals, 2017c). Transition agenda Both the offshore oil and gas industry as the offshore wind industry are important for the first item on the transition agenda, focussing on the energy transition. In the new Government Agreement of 2017 storage of CO2 is of key importance; the industry is expected to store 18 megatons by the year 2030. In the same document the offshore wind sector is further stimulated by allocating extra space for the sector. Maritime engineering Maritime engineering consists of activities such as dredging, coastal works, land reclamation and spatial planning. The sector plays a crucial role regarding land reclamations such as the extension of the harbour of Rotterdam (Tweede Maasvlakte). The sector is also important regarding the maintenance of the coastline via sand nourishments. The maritime engineering sector had a total production value of EUR 3,116 million in 2016 (EUR 1,647 million directly). The value added was EUR 1,111 million in the same year (EUR 541 million directly). The maritime engineering sector employed 13,859 persons (6,201 directly) (Bossche et al., 2017). Due to a lack of data it is not known what the share of maritime engineering is in the Netherlands, compared to the EU. 10 https://www.buwa.nl/en/cumulative-effects-of-wind-farms-at-sea.html https://www.buwa.nl/en/cumulative-effects-of-wind-farms-at-sea.html 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 20 of 103 SDG14 Maritime engineering causes pressures such as de-oxygenation, nutrient/organic enrichment and underwater sound, which are relevant from the perspective of SDG14.1. In most projects the plume caused by a dredge hopper is reason of concern, causing changes in the siltation rate and potentially affecting vulnerable habitats and species. Therefore most Environmental Impact Assessments involve a specific maximum of mg/l in order to limit the size of the plume. The industry may use the so-called “green valve” to better control the flow of water and sand. From a perspective of SDG14.3 (acidification) gaseous emissions such as CO2, SOx, NOx and P.M. are relevant. The Performance Ladder is a measure to stimulate the sector to reduce its CO2 (and other gaseous emissions) footprint. However, all marine contractors already perform at the highest possible level on the Performance Ladder. Therefore there is no stimulus for the sector to further improve its performance. Considering SDG14.a (increasing scientific knowledge), the sector is mainly cooperating with research institutes and universities in the Building with Nature programme. TKI Maritime The maritime engineering sector is mostly affiliated with TKI Delta Technology. Within TKI Maritime the sector is also affiliated with the Mining at Sea theme. However, all projects within this theme relate to the energy sector. Green Deals The Green Deal “Het nieuwe draaien” aims to reduce CO2 emissions by 10% and NOx emissions by 15%. This is realised by a change in behaviour of drivers and operators, education, use of cleaner and better maintained equipment. This Green Deal has been signed by contractors such as BAM, Van Oord and Boskalis. The Green Deal “Grond- weg- en waterbouw” aims to achieve more sustainability in the tender procedures and projects. It consists of four transitions in behaviour: 1) seeing sustainability as added value instead of costs; 2) from reactive to proactive; 3) from unique to uniform; 4) from individualism to cooperation. Transition agenda The maritime engineering sector relates to the energy transition and to climate adaptation. As described above several measures are being taken to reduce CO2 emissions; however a new stimulus during sand nourishment projects is lacking. Considering climate adaptation the sector plays a crucial role in maintaining the coastline and ensuring its current position in the future. Harbours Harbours are the largest sector in the maritime domain in terms of production value and employment. The sector had a total production value of EUR 19,053 million in 2016 (EUR 11,617 million directly). The value added was EUR 9.674 million in the same year (EUR 7,151 million directly). The maritime engineering sector employed 80,431 persons (45,941directly) (Bossche et al., 2017). According to COGEA (2017),18% of the total value added and 10% of the employment in EU harbours can be attributed to the Netherlands. SDG14 For SDG14.1 on the reduction of marine pollution, the focus is amongst others on waste facilities in harbours. As mentioned in the shipping section, harmonised regulations and sufficient capacity are needed for waste treatment. For SDG14.3 on acidification, harbours focus mainly on SOx. The reason for this focus is that the areas of harbours often have SOx levels that exceed EU limits. The EU ship emissions directive (EU Directive 2005/33/EC) aims 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 21 of 103 to reduce air pollution levels in harbours. It requires all anchored ships to use fuels with low sulphur content. Many harbours also invest in harbour electricity facilities, to prevent ships using their engines to generate electricity. To measure the environmental performance of ships, the Environmental Ship Index has been introduced. It rewards ships with lower gaseous emissions by reducing the harbour tariffs. Another index that is often used by harbours is the concept of EcoPorts, issuing certification for those harbours that meet certain environmental standards. For SDG14.a on the development of scientific knowledge, harbours increasingly cooperate with research institutes. The Port of Rotterdam for example has established Smart Port as a platform for knowledge sharing. Within Smart Port new research projects are initiated, e.g. to further reduce emissions in the harbour. TKI Maritime The harbour sector connects to the theme of effective infrastructure. One project is financed under this theme, called ROPES. The objective of this project is to provide insight into the effects of passing ships and to validate and develop methodologies for the evaluation of such effects on ships moored in a port in order to provide solutions for existing and new port and terminal developments (TKI Maritiem, 2017). Green Deals In cooperation with the shipping sector, harbours are cooperating in the Green Deal “Shipping Waste Chain”. The aim is to reduce further pollution of seas and oceans. The cooperating partners want to contribute to closing the plastic cycle via prevention, separation and recycling of plastic, improvement of supervision and harmonisation of waste collection in harbours (Green Deals, 2017b). Several harbours are involved in the Green Deal LNG Rijn & Wadden, focussing on the development LNG infrastructure and enabling conditions such as investments, regulations and awareness (Green Deals, 2017d). Transition agenda The harbour sector connects to the first transition on the agenda, being energy transition. The section above describes the current measures that are taken to initiate this transition. These measures include, amongst others, voluntary measures such as indices (EcoPorts, Environmental Ship Index & Green Deals) and obligatory measures such as the EU ship emissions directive. With the introduction of waste facilities for ships, harbours also connect to the circular economy theme on the agenda. Fisheries and aquaculture Fishery companies in the Netherlands are active around the globe. Outside the Dutch EEZ, pelagic freezer trawlers fish on pelagic species such as herring and mackerel. Inside the Dutch EEZ beam trawling on flatfish (plaice and sole) and shrimp (brown shrimp) are dominant. The dominant discourse in the sector is currently the discard ban. In 2019 all non- targeted species have to be landed. The aim behind the “landing obligation” is to steer the sector towards innovations enabling more selective fishing practices (WUR, 2017a). Aquaculture consists of the cultivation of mussels (blue mussel) and oysters (Japanese oyster and Flat oyster) (Agrimatie, 2017). Economically the sector is the smallest in the maritime domain. In 2016 the total production value of fisheries and aquaculture was EUR 805 million (EUR 569 million directly). The total value added was EUR 433 million (EUR 351 million directly). The sector provided employment for 3,101 (2,251 directly) (Bossche et al., 2017). On the EU level the Dutch fleet represents app. 4% of the total added value and 1% of the total employment (COGEA, 2017). 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 22 of 103 SDG14 For SDG14.1 on the reduction of marine pollution, there are several initiatives to reduce waste from fishery vessels. The most important initiative occurs under the Green Deals (see below). For SDG14.3 on the reduction of acidification, the most important developments in beam trawling have been the Sumwing and Pulsewing. The SumWing is a wing-shaped beam with a self-correcting function. A stabilizer causes the SumWing to remain in a horizontal position. The SumWing results in less abrasion and resistance. Therefore it reduces fuel consumption and reduces the environmental impact of beam trawling. This innovation results in fuel savings of 10-20%. The Pulsewing uses the Sumwing but replaces the tickler chains with cables releasing electric signals to the sea bed, through which the flatfish are “stimulated” and end up in the net. This technology saves another 10-20% of fuel. The development of the both technologies was funded by the Government of the Netherlands and the European Fishery Fund (EFF) (Taal and Klok, 2014). From a SDG14.a perspective, fishery organisations and research institutes cooperate to assess the environmental impacts of pulse fishing. Cooperation also takes place from the perspective of the discard ban to research more selective fishing methods. Another example is a cooperation project to find alternative materials for the nylon ropes that are used to protect beam trawling nets from abrasion 11 . Finding alternatives would reduce the release of nylon ropes from fisheries, reducing its contribution to marine litter. This project is partly financed by the Government of the Netherlands. TKI Maritime Fisheries and aquaculture are not represented in TKI Maritime; they are part of the Top Sector Agri & Food. Green Deals The Green Deal “Fishing for a clean sea” aims to reduce marine litter from fisheries. Measures consist of separating waste on board and facilities to process waste in the fishery harbours. This project also includes the collection of litter as a bycatch (Green Deals, 2017e). Transition agenda The efforts of the fishery industry mainly link to the energy transition, due to technology development such as the Sumwing and Pulsewing to reduce fuel consumption. Maritime support services Maritime support services are a very broad category consisting of public and private entities. This sector consists for example of HFO providers, salvage services, brokers, insurance companies, consultancies, research institutes, inspection services and customs. The total production value of this sector was EUR 4,695 million (EUR 1,904 million directly) in 2016. The total added value was EUR 1,626 million (EUR 1,179 million directly). Maritime support services provided employment for 18,119 persons (12,544 directly) (Bossche et al., 2017). Due to the variety of stakeholders in this sector it is not possible to make comparisons on an EU level. SDG14 For SDG14.3 it is known that tug operators in harbours are increasingly focussing on reducing gaseous emissions, which are elaborated under the shipping and harbour sections. An example of research cooperation (SDG14.3 & SDG14.a) is the E3 Tug. This project 11 http://www.vispluisvrij.nl http://www.vispluisvrij.nl/ 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 23 of 103 designed a hybrid diesel-electric vessel able to realise a significant reductionin CO2 emissions (WUR, 2017b). TKI Maritime Research institutes are the only stakeholder from the maritime support services involved in TKI Maritime. Research institutes are involved in all four themes with a total of 25 projects. Most of these projects are focussing on smart and safe shipping (13 in total). MARIN excels in involvement and is involved in most Joint Industry Projects. In Research institutes section 3.23.2 more information is provided on the research institutes covering the maritime and marine domain. Green Deals Maritime support services are not visible in the Green Deals. This not only applies to the private entities within this sector; also the public entities are not visible. Only consultancies are involved in Green Deals. Transition agenda Maritime support services such as tugs and salvage services relate to the energy transition. As for the other entities it is not possible to categorise them within the five transitions of the Transition Agenda. Yacht construction/water sports This is also a broad sector, including yacht construction, marinas, reparations and maintenance, brokers, boat rental, sailing schools and sea fishing. Over the past decade the Netherlands has become a world leader in custom made super yachts. The total production value in 2016 was EUR 3,705 million (EUR 2,368 million directly). The total value added cumulated to EUR 1,847 million (EUR 1,142 million directly) in the same year. The sector employed 26,078 persons in 2016 (13,561 persons directly) (Bossche et al., 2017). It was not possible to compare this sector on an EU level. SDG14 The only direct link with SDG14.3 (acidification) is the development of hybrid shipping. As the tonnage of private yachts is lower, hybrid solutions become more attractive. Diesel-electric and even electric yachts are being built recently; this reduces gaseous emissions. Marinas excelling in clean and safe facilities can receive a Blue Flag in the Netherlands, a voluntary certificate. Marinas taking further action for additional sustainability measures may receive a Green Pennon as a proof of their efforts (Maritiem Nederland, 2017). TKI Maritiem The yacht construction/water sports sector is not involved in TKI Maritiem. Green Deals The yacht construction/water sports sector is not involved in Green Deals. Transition agenda The yacht construction/water sports sector connects to the energy transition via the increased focus on electrical yachts. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 24 of 103 Maritime suppliers Maritime suppliers deliver products and services to the maritime sector. Products consist for example of electro-technical and mechanical devices, coatings and the building of interiors for ships. Services may consist of engineering advice, maintenance, project management and safety analyses. The total production value of this sector was EUR 5,389 million (EUR 3,558 million directly) in 2016. The total value added was EUR 2,764 million (EUR 1,676 million directly) in the same year. The maritime suppliers sector provided employment for 31,121 persons (16,762 persons directly) (Bossche et al., 2017). Due to a lack of data it is not possible to compare this sector on an EU level. SDG14 Mainly SDG14.3 is relevant here, specifically regarding the innovations in cleaner engines and emission control systems. Companies like Wärtsilä develop technology for on board LNG solutions as well as LNG infrastructure on land. Other relevant players are the constructors of scrubbers. A scrubber installation filters SOx from the emissions. TKI Maritiem The Maritime suppliers sector is not involved in TKI Maritiem. Green Deals The Maritime suppliers sector is not involved in Green Deals. Transition agenda As mentioned above, maritime suppliers deliver amongst others equipment for the reduction of gaseous emissions. Therefore they are linked to theme of energy transition in the Transition agenda. 3.2 Research institutes In the Netherlands there are five large research institutes focussing partly or fully on marine and maritime research, including Wageningen Marine Research (WMR), Royal Netherlands Institute of Sea Research (NIOZ), Netherlands Organisation for Applied Natural Science Research (TNO), Deltares and the Maritime Research Institute Netherlands (MARIN) 12 . They provide a broad range of disciplines such as marine ecology, ecotoxicology, oceanography and marine governance. Products and services include desk studies, policy advice, surveys, monitoring and facilities such as mesocosms, test basins and laboratories. Most of these research institutes receive structural funding from one or more ministries with the aim to support policy makers. Another important source of funding comes from the European Commission via the seventh framework programme (FP7) and Horizon 2020. A list of marine and maritime research projects with EU funding is provided in Appendix B. Table 3.1 provides an overview of the turnover and employment at the institutes. Together the research institutes generated a turnover of app. EUR 205 million in 2016, with an estimated employment of app. 1,400 persons. Table 3.1: overview of the turnover and employment at marine and maritime research institutes in the Netherlands Institute Turnover (million EUR) Employment Year Source WMR 23 160 (persons) 2016 WUR, 2016a NIOZ 31 244 (fte) 2016 NIOZ, 2016 Deltares 109 742 (fte) 2016 Deltares, 2016 MARIN 42 350 (persons) 2017 Marin, 2017 12 TNO also has a Maritime and Offshore unit. It was not possible to retrieve economic data from TNO. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 25 of 103 Over the years these research institutes have developed an impressive knowledge base on the issues covered in this report (see chapter 4). This knowledge base can be used by the Government of the Netherlands to become more visible on the (inter)national Oceans Agenda. These projects cover a broad range of topics relevant for policy makers, including the distribution of invasive species; a decision support tool and harmonised monitoring for reduce marine litter; guidelines to identify sources for marine litter; identification of new and unregulated chemical contaminants in seafood and disaster risk reduction measures. A full list of projects relevant for the Government is provided in Appendix G. In 2010 the TO2 Federation was initiated. All institutes mentioned above except for NIOZ are cooperating within TO2 to solve societal challenges and improve the innovation capacities of the private sector in the Netherlands. As such, TO2 connects knowledge and its application in the so-called golden triangle of private sector, government and research institutes. By doing so the Netherlands aims at a place in the top 5 most innovative knowledge economies of the world (TO2, 2017). The TO2 institutes have been evaluated by the Rathenau Institute in 2017. It concludes that the quality and the impact of the research institutes is good to very good and that the research is (highly) valued by the stakeholders. However, the vitality of the TO2 institutes is a concern. The excellent research base and core competencies required for applied research are no longer available. The main reason for this is the systematic decline in government funding for the TO2 institutes (Schaaf et al., 2017). 3.3 Highlights As illustrated in Table 3.2, the total production value of all sectors analysed in this report is app. EUR 60,000 million with a total employment of app. 275,000 persons. The total maritime sector therefore accounts to app. 3.3% of the GDP of the Netherlands (Bossche et al., 2017).Table 3.2: overview of the economic contribution of the maritime sectors in the Netherlands (Bossche et al., 2017) Total production value (mln of EUR in 2016) Direct production value (mln of EUR in 2016) Total value added (mln of EUR in 2016) Direct value added (mln of EUR in 2016) Total employment (persons in 2016) Direct employment (persons in 2016) Shipping 7,731 5,582 2,375 1,427 18,041 7,506 Shipyards 7,390 4,383 2,291 1,091 32,805 11,661 Offshore 9,079 5,805 3,959 2,485 54,344 27,554 Maritime engineering 3,116 1,647 1,111 541 13,859 6,201 Harbours 19,053 11,617 9,674 7,151 80,431 45,941 Fisheries and aquaculture 805 569 433 351 3,101 2,251 Maritime support services 4,695 1,904 1,626 1,179 18,119 12,533 Yacht construction/water sports 3,705 2,368 1,847 1,142 26,078 13,561 Maritime suppliers 5,389 3,558 2,764 1,676 31,121 16,762 Totals 60,963 37,433 26,080 17,043 274,801 141,721 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 26 of 103 Table 3.3: connections between maritime sectors and SDG14, TKI Maritime, Green Deals and Transition agenda. SDG 14 TKI Maritime Green Deals Transition agenda 14.1 14.3 14.a Mining at Sea Clean ships Smart & safe ship- ping Effec tive infra structur e Ener gy trans ition Cli ma te ad apt atio n Smart and green mobilit y Circula r econo my Liveable and accessible cities Shipping √ √ √ √ √ √ Shipyards √ √ √ √ √ Offshore √ √ √ √ √ √ Maritime engineering √ √ √ √ √ √ Harbours √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Fisheries and aquaculture √ √ √ √ √ Maritime support services √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Yachts/water sports √ √ Maritime suppliers √ √ 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 27 of 103 All maritime sectors are involved in SDG14.3 and most of them are also involved in SDG14.1 and 14.a (Table 3.3). The involvement with SDG14.3 implies that most maritime sectors are currently involved in projects relating to the reduction of emissions. Most of the sectors are also involved in TKI Maritime; many companies are actively involved in finding innovative maritime solutions to increase efficiency and reduce their footprint, together with research institutes such as MARIN and TNO. The maritime engineering is not involved in TKI Maritime due to the fact that they are linked to TKI Delta Technology. The active sectors in the Green Deals include shipping, offshore, maritime engineering and harbours. They are involved in projects such as waste recycling and energy efficiency. Regarding the transition agenda there is a heavy bias towards the energy transition theme. This corresponds well to the previous findings, illustrating that many sectors are investing in energy efficiency. The highlights of the maritime sector are: 1. The blue economy generates 3.3% of the gross domestic product The blue economy of the Netherlands is not to be underestimated, both on a national level as well as on an EU level. Moreover, the Netherlands is globally renowned for its coastal protection works and expertise. The total direct and indirect production value of the analysed sectors in the blue economy of the Netherlands (excluding fisheries, aquaculture, inland shipping and the navy) amounted to app. EUR 60 billion in 2016. If the excluded sectors are also taken into account, the blue economy of the Netherlands generates 3.3% of the gross domestic product. The Netherlands’ share of the EU blue economy is app. 12% in terms of value added (direct and indirect). Considering employment (direct and indirect) the Netherlands provides app. 5% of the total blue economy jobs in the EU (COGEA, 2017; Bossche et al., 2016). These facts and figures legitimise an active role of the Government of the Netherlands on the Oceans Agenda. 2. Create more legitimacy for Ocean policy by focussing on the Dutch Diamond Cooperation in the Golden Triangle – the corner stone of the Top Sectors – is out-dated. The Government of the Netherlands should focus more on the Dutch Diamond, actively involving NGOs in its work. This forces private sectors, governments and research institutes to focus more on the societal relevance of their work. It increases the legitimacy and acceptance of industrial activities, policies and research. 3. Engage with conservative sectors regarding the energy transition agenda13 Several maritime sectors can be characterised as conservative regarding the energy transition; this specifically applies to the shipping and oil and gas sectors. Partly this can be explained by the long term nature of investments in these sectors, which often covers multiple decades. On the long term this attitude will damage these sectors; those sectors that are not open to change will disappear. The conservative attitude of these sectors may prove to be challenging in achieving the ambition of zero CO2 emissions in 2050. It is recommended that the Government of the Netherlands actively engages with these sectors to stimulate them to invest far more in the energy transition. Not only to achieve the 2050 targets but also for the sake of their own existence on the long term. 4. Initiate a joint effort to assess cumulative impacts of multiple wind parks In order to achieve the ambitions of the Government of the Netherlands to achieve zero CO2 emissions in 2050, many more wind parks need to be installed. Some studies have been 13 This report uses three symbols on the left of the main text. The green symbol refers to energy transition, the red symbol refers to climate adaptation and the blue symbol refers to circular economy. These themes are part of the Transition Agenda of MinIenW. For more information please consult paragraph 2.2. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 28 of 103 conducted to assess cumulative impacts of multiple wind parks; however studies on cumulative effects of a North Sea dominated by wind parks in 2050 do not exist. It is important for policy makers to be aware of cumulative impacts of multiple wind parks because of relations with Natura 2000, Marine Strategy Framework Directive and due to concerns from fisheries organisations and NGOs. Due to the scale and complexity of such a study there are no suitable methodologies available to conduct such a cumulative impact assessment. Therefore the Government of the Netherlands could initiate a process with North Sea countries, the wind sector, research institutes and NGOs to develop a methodology to conduct a large scale cumulative impact assessment. The Netherlands could take a leading role internationally with the added benefit that such a methodology will be necessary in many other places world-wide. 5. Reconsider LNG as a transitional fuel The ambition of the Government of the Netherlands in the Energy Agenda is to reduce CO2 emissions to zero by 2050 to help combat global warming. LNG is seen as a transitional fuel; however LNG contributes specifically in reducing local emissions (NOx, SOx, PM) while CO2 is only reduced with app. 20%. LNG is more energy and GHG intensive than the supply chain of pipeline gas. Creating an LNG infrastructure is complicated and expensive. If the Government of the Netherlands wants to achieve zero emissions in 2050 it is questionable if LNG can really serve as a transitional fuel. Therefore LNG should be reconsidered. 6. Revise the Performance Ladder The Performance Ladder is a measure to stimulate the sector to reduce its CO2 (and other gaseous emissions) footprint. However, all marine contractors already perform at the highest possible level on the PerformanceLadder. Therefore there is no stimulus for the maritime engineering sector to further improve its performance. It is recommended to start a stakeholder dialogue with the sector to develop new measures to stimulate the reduction of CO2. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 29 of 103 4 Identification of relevant issues 4.1 Plastic marine litter Definition of the problem Plastic is a light, cheap, durable and versatile material which has revolutionised our societies, with a multitude of uses and applications. These features bring about a lot of benefits but they are also the reason why plastic can be so problematic. Plastics are not only a permanent presence in our daily lives but plastic waste is found throughout the marine and coastal environments, evident from the poles to the equator. It is the most dominant and persistent fraction of all the waste that ends up in the oceans. It tends to accumulate in the oceans, drifting with currents, be deposited on the coast or sink to the sea-floor. Ultimately it will fragment into smaller and smaller pieces that can be mistakenly ingested by a diversity of marine animals and enter the food chain. Furthermore, plastic can leach out harmful additives or concentrate other contaminants from the surrounding water. Box 4.1 - Facts & figures on plastics in the world & EU 8.3 billion tonnes of plastic has been produced since the 1950’s, most has ended up in landfills or the environment (Geyer et al., 2017) It is estimated that each year, 8 million tonnes of plastic enter the oceans (Jambeck et al., 2015) Plastics production is 20 times higher than in 1960s and is predicted to quadruple by 2050 (EPRS, 2017a) About 6% of global oil consumption is used to produce plastics; by 2050, this share could reach 20% (EPRS, 2017a) In the EU, plastic production has exploded but only 1/3 is prepared to be recycled. 93% of plastics are derived from virgin fossil fuels and only 7% are from recycled polymers (EPRS, 2017a). In the EU, 40% of post-consumer plastic waste is incinerated with energy recovery and the rest is either landfilled or recycled. About half of the plastic waste collected and recycled is treated in the EU; the other half is exported, mainly to China (Technopolis Group, 2016). All the species of marine turtles and almost half of the world’s seabird and marine mammal species are known to have ingested plastic marine litter (Werner et al., 2016). 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 30 of 103 Marine plastic pollution is a growing global challenge. It can originate from losses or deliberate discards at the sea or from land-based sources, such as from visitors of the coast, and reach the sea through rivers, sewage or wind. Strong winds, hurricanes, heavy rains and flooding associated to natural disasters can also pull large amounts of debris into the sea. Marine litter poses threats to the environment and human livelihoods, with negative impacts on habitats and species and high costs to vital maritime and coastal sectors, such as tourism. The implications to human health are yet to be understood but there is evidence for concern. Plastic Pollution as a consequence of linear economies Marine litter is a pervasive and complex societal problem, with roots in linear economies, abundant disposable products and packaging, poor waste prevention and management, and people’s behaviour (Figure 4.1).The responsibilities lie across a multitude of sectors and therefore it has no simple solution. The issue is not only an environmental problem but also a loophole in resource efficiency, which can potentially be addressed by moving towards a more circular economy. Plastic litter that ends up in the sea represents a mismanaged valuable resource that could have had otherwise an extended life, with additional value for society. Material value may also be lost as a result of single use design and low recycling rates. This is particularly true for plastic packaging: according to Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2016), 95% of plastic packaging material value (worth US$80-120 million annually) is lost after use. A Circular Economy it is the needed societal response to finite resources and the demand for jobs and growth, where materials circulate in loops of renewed value, while waste and its impacts on the environment are consequently minimised. The plastic issue needs to be approached from a holistic perspective, considering the whole life-cycle of the product and follow the Waste Hierarchy. Box 4.2 - Facts & figures on plastics in the Netherlands 50% of plastic is used in packaging of which 50% is recycled (Consultic, 2016). The EU average is 26%, with high variation between countries. Beach clean-up costs to Dutch municipalities: EUR 3.9 – 5.3 Million/year (Ecorys, 2012) On average 364 items are found per 100 meter beach but with decreasing trends for plastic and polystyrene (Hougee & Boonstra, 2016). The top 15 marine litter items are majority plastic, with the exception of balloons and cigarette butts. In 100m of beach, the most abundant plastic items are: nets/ropes (126), plastic polystyrene pieces (61), plastic bottle caps (15), crisp/sweets packaging (11), small and carrier plastic bags (11 and 8, respectively), pieces of foam/sponge (7), industrial plastic (7), plastic drink bottles (6) and food containers (5). (Hougee & Boonstra, 2016). Rough estimations indicate that 50% of the floating plastic in the North Sea is transported by rivers. The Rhine. Meuse and Scheldt contribute to about 15% (Deltares, 2013). 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 31 of 103 Figure 4.1 Sources of plastics in the oceans (Eunomia, 2016) Policy Context In the Rio+20 Declaration, Marine Litter is considered as a major threat to our seas and major action to achieve significant reductions by 2025 should be taken. Significant attention has been given to the problem of marine litter by UNEP, particularly through the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities (GPA) Coordination Office. UNEP’s Regional Sea Programme spearheads monitoring, assessment and awareness-raising at the regional level. Through the Global Partnership on Marine Litter, several regional action plans have been developed. The European Commission (EC) established a 30% headline reduction for Marine Litter by 2020. Marine Litter is specifically addressed by the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD - 2008/56/EC), as one of the descriptors for “Good Environmental Status” (GES), in which “properties and quantities of marine litter do not cause harm to the coastal and marine environment”. As part of the MSFD, coastal Member States need to monitor Marine Litter and implement programmes of measures to reach GES 14 . The Regional Seas Conventions for the NE Atlantic (OSPAR), Baltic (HELCOM) and Mediterranean (Barcelona Convention) have adopted Regional Action Plans for Marine Litter in the past few years 15 . The EC has just published the Strategy on Plastics in a Circular Economy 16 , which addresses three main issues: the high dependence on virgin fossil feedstock, the low rate of recycling and reuse of plastics, and the significant leakage of plastics into the environment (European Commission, 2017).In line with the Circular Economy Package, the EC has revised the waste policy and legislation and proposed new targets for waste management, which includes a 14 See paragraph 2.1 for more information on the MSFD 15 See paragraph 6.1 for more information on the Regional Seas Conventions 16 http://ec.europa.eu/environment/circular-economy/pdf/plastics-strategy.pdfhttp://ec.europa.eu/environment/circular-economy/pdf/plastics-strategy.pdf 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 32 of 103 proposed target of 55% plastic packaging “preparing for re-use and recycling” by 2025 (EPRS, 2017b). Experts from the Netherlands Leading experts in the Netherlands are prominent internationally in the field of plastic marine litter. Koelmans (WUR) is a leading scientist on ecotoxicology and nanoparticles; Vethaak (VU/Deltares) is an expert on ecotoxicology, micro and nanoplastics, integrating UN- GESAMP’s Working Group on global assessment of microplastics in the marine environment and the Scientific Committee of ICES; Van Franeker (WUR) is an expert on ingestion of litter by marine birds and has contributed to the development of Regional and European Impact Indicators of plastic pollution; Van Sebille (UU) is a leading scientist on global transports of debris, including plastics, and is a co-chair of the Working Group on Floating Litter under the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR). A full list of experts can be found in Appendix A. Priority areas and highlights With growing evidence and understanding of the dimension of the problem of marine plastic pollution, the issue is gaining momentum and attention at the European and Global arenas. It is now necessary to embed these goals and commitments into local and national policies and support society and new business models in its transition to more circular economies. Box 4.3 - Microplastics Microplastics are those plastic particles smaller than 5mm. The so called “primary” microplastics can originate from eroding of a multitude of synthetic products and applications, during its normal use (e.g. release of fibres from synthetic garments and textiles) or where they have a function as such. This is the case of the industrial plastic resin pellets that or often found on the beach (“mermaid tears”) or the plastic microbeads that are added to cosmetics (e.g. toothpaste and scrubs) as part of their composition. Finally, another category called “secondary” microplastics, results from the fragmentation of larger items (e.g. a plastic bag), either in land or in the sea, due to sunlight and mechanical stress. The release of primary microplastics into the ocean has been estimated at 0.8-2.5 Million tonnes per year, with the overwhelming majority (98%) generated from land-based activities (Boucher & Friot, 2017). Only 2% is generated from activities at sea. The largest proportion of these particles result from synthetic textiles and garments (e.g. during laundering) and from the abrasion of tyres while driving. The car tyre dust, in particular, has been estimated to correspond to 5–10% of input of plastic into the ocean according to Kole et al., 2017, with per capita emissions ranging from 0.23 to 4.7 kg/year. Plastic microbeads used in scrubs, toothpastes, etc. are just one of the applications of a vast category of polymers used in cosmetic products but also, overall a fraction of the total input of microplastics into the oceans. It has become increasingly clear that microplastics are abundant everywhere, not only in the marine environment but sewage, freshwater systems, drink water, air and food products (e.g. Vethaak and Leslie 2016). The plastic pollution of the oceans has been the first and primary focus of concern but more and more evidence reveals that this may be just the tip of the iceberg of a much larger global problem. Recent studies that reveal nanoparticles in the brain of fish and possible associated behavioural impacts are an indication that we are far from glimpsing the implications that plastic particles can pose on the environment and human health. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 33 of 103 Specifically on the topic of plastic waste and marine litter, the Government of the Netherlands should consider to: 1. Take the leadership on the topic of marine plastic pollution and circular economy This is an opportunity to profile the Ministry in the global arena. The Dutch water sector is well renowned for its water management skills, i.e. at the forefront of innovative water management, such as the famous Delta Works and smart solutions in solving global water issues. In addition, the Netherlands is an acknowledged front runner in circular economy. The Government of the Netherlands aims to achieve clean Dutch delta waters as a result of innovative approaches and circular economies and by optimally exploiting its best expertise towards litter-free water ways and harbours. The results and products of these initiatives can be used as a showcase, inspire other parts of the world and be marketed globally. 2. Strengthen the monitoring of marine plastic pollution in the Netherlands and contribute to European and Regional Seas Initiatives Again, there is an opportunity for the Government of the Netherlands to take leadership in the issue of marine plastic pollution by continuing to sustain the Dutch beach litter monitoring programme, possibly extending it to major transport pathways of litter such as rivers and possibly effluents (microplastics); improve the linkage of data to better identify and monitor sources and potential loopholes of plastic leakages in sectors; continue to contribute with expertise to regional and European efforts, e.g. within OSPAR and the MSFD GES Technical Group on Marine Litter; consider to transfer the knowhow and technical expertise to other regional seas, such as on monitoring (e.g. through UN’s Global Partnership on Marine Litter); contribute to the EU mission “Plastic litter free Europe”. 3. Prioritise preventive approaches over “end-of-pipe” solutions Since most of the plastic that reaches the sea will likely sink or fragment into countless minute particles, focus on preventing that huge amounts of waste reaches the sea should take priority over much less effective and more costly “end-of-pipe” approaches. Initiatives such as The Ocean CleanUp are valuable, in particular to raise societal awareness but are far from being the panacea for the issue of plastic pollution and may even divert attention from the root causes and the sources of marine litter. Nevertheless, these types of applications can be important, e.g. if targeting rivers polluted with solid waste. Other clean-up approaches are worth encouraging, in particular those practices of litter removal that are coupled with normal activities, such as Fishing for Litter programmes or the removal of plastic waste and particles from dredged sediments before its final disposal. On the other hand, removal of large fishing nets from underwater can prevent ghost-fishing and additional nets to be entangled and lost. Initiatives that encourage fishermen to dispose old or damaged fishing nets in harbours, including the facilities to collect and recycle them in a sustainable way, should be supported. 4. Seek synergies with the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Climate policy to boost the transitioning from 'take-make-consume-throw away' to more circular economies In particular this can be achieved with policies that: Encourage design for re-use and recycling. According to the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, approximately half of the plastics currently in use could improve its recyclability through small adjustments in design (e.g. pigments, additives and choice of polymers), while 30% of plastic packaging needs fundamental redesign before it can be re-used or recycled. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 34 of 103 Strengthen the demand for recycled materials: to increase competiveness of recycled raw materials (recyclates) in relation to virgin ones, e.g. through incentives or requirementof minimum content of recyclates in products; green public procurements; higher carbon tax, as recycling saves carbon. Target for higher sorting and recycling rates: Recycling of plastic packaging in the Netherlands has improved in the past years, with increased efforts on household packaging collection by municipalities. However, plastic recycling rates can still increase and reach the levels of other materials, such as glass or metal, while incineration with recovery of energy should be limited to the fraction of waste that cannot be recycled. Improve communication about sorting and types of plastics: Communication to public on the sorting of plastics to be recycled is still confusing and could be improved, possibly with better labelling and information to consumers. For example, biodegradable plastics (only degrading in very special conditions, not applicable to the ones found in the sea) should not be placed together with other types of plastic for recycling. Another example of miscommunication, is that the terms “biodegradable” and “bio-plastics” are often interchangeable but mean very different things: the latter are made from living (not fossil) resources such as corn but are not necessarily biodegradable, despite the term “bio”. 5. Tackle the most problematic plastic items through approaches that are proved to be feasible and effective in other countries – exchange successful experiences Some plastic items, such plastic food and beverage packaging, are among the most abundant types of marine litter found on Dutch shores and require special attention. Applying specific measures to tackle these items at different life-cycle stages can be considered as a “low-hanging-fruit”, as they can lead to significant reductions in their “leakage” to the environment and in the litter found on the beaches. Several examples exist in Europe and elsewhere, so exchange of experiences and mutual learning to capitalise these good practices should be sought. A successful one is the tax on single-use plastic bags. In Ireland, the plastic bag levy introduced in 2002, led to a reduction of 90% of its consumption and 70% of the number of plastic bags detected on beach surveys. • Consider to restrict or at least support initiatives that prevent the use of particularly abundant single-use plastic items on more sensitive areas (e.g. on beaches), such as plastic straws, stirrers and cutlery; • Extended Producer Responsibility schemes and incentives such as the Deposit-Refund Scheme for drink containers could potentially increase the collection of high-quality materials (between 80-98% of material put in the market is returned) and prevent this type of items to pollute the rivers and sea. 6. Place micro and nanoplastics higher on the agenda and engage with stakeholders for alternatives Micro and nanoplastics are a problem because they are abundant everywhere. Not only in the marine environment but also in sewage, freshwater systems, drink water, air and food products. Evidence reveals that this may be just the tip of the iceberg of a much larger global problem. The effects of plastic particles on the environment and human health are still largely unknown. Therefore, a restriction on rinse-off cosmetics containing microplastics should be considered, as there are alternatives available. Recently, Sweden has announced such a ban would be put in place in 2020. Countries such as Finland, France, Iceland, Ireland, Luxemburg and Norway will likely put forward similar initiatives, and which could be further explored at a joint European level. Despite the need for this specific intervention, microbeads 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 35 of 103 in cosmetics are just a small percentage of the sources of microplastics and other sources, such as synthetic textiles and car tyre dust must be addressed. 4.2 Contaminants Definition of the problem Besides a small number of (diminishing) points sources like emissions from shipping and the offshore industry 17 , the presence of pollutants in the marine environment mostly originates from diffuse emission sources like atmospheric deposition and riverine inputs from inland waters. This is in contrast to the situation in freshwaters, where point sources often still contribute to a large extent to the total load of contaminants present, enabling these to be pinpointed and addressed. In order to decrease the concentrations of contaminants in the marine environment, it is important to address inland emission sources, such as wastewater, agriculture and urban run-off. Most of the substances found in the marine environment are ubiquitous. Almost every marine organism, from plankton to whales and polar bears, is contaminated with synthetic chemicals. Major contaminant groups that currently pose a risk for coastal and oceanic environments are pesticides and certain persistent organic pollutants (POPs), including brominated flame retardants, pentadecafluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and other often unidentified endocrine disrupting compounds. These compounds both threaten the base of the marine food web as well as top predators, such as marine mammals. Monitoring of compounds in the marine environment is mostly targeted to POPS (see box 4.4) and other “usual suspects”. However, new emerging treats to coastal and oceanic life that urgently deserve further study relate to pharmaceuticals, understudied 17 https://oap.ospar.org/en/ospar-assessments/intermediate-assessment-2017/pressures-human-activities/trends- discharges-spills-and-emissions-offshore-oil-and-gas-inst/ Box 4.4 – Facts and figures on contaminants Almost every marine organism, from plankton to whales and polar bears, is contaminated with synthetic chemicals. POPs are readily dissolved in fatty tissue, where concentrations can become magnified by up to 70,000 times the surrounding medium. Appropriate waste water treatment has a great impact on the amounts of pharmaceuticals found in coastal waters but it depends on the biodegradability of these substances, which varies considerably. Diclofenac, for example, is hardy degraded in STPs. In the Netherlands many different pesticides are detected in surface waters, and many of these also exceed the water quality standards in fresh waters. The current legislation does not ensure sufficient protection for marine plants. Diuron and terbutylazine are of particular concern. More than 3,000 PFAs substances are marketed but research and regulation focus only on a very limited fraction of this large set. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 36 of 103 herbicides, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances and microplastics (for the latter, please see section on Plastic Pollution). Pharmaceuticals The state of knowledge on pharmaceuticals in the Dutch marine environment was recently reviewed by Roex (2016). The main conclusion of this review is that at the moment there is little known about the effects of drug residues on aquatic ecosystems, especially in the long term and for marine systems, and that monitoring results for the Dutch situation are very scarce. Due to their release into the environment via Sewage Treatment Plants (STP) in inland waters, relatively low concentrations of these substances are found in coastal waters all over the world. Probably, direct emissions from aquaculture can also be of local importance in the Netherlands, especially in the southern delta of the Netherlands. The biodegradability within this group of compounds differs enormously. Some of these compounds are almost totally removed in an STP (i.e. paracetamol), while other compounds are hardly degraded(i.e. diclofenac). Due to both the aging and the increase of the population in the Netherlands, and the fact that the marine environment mainly acts as a sink for these compounds, concentrations of these compounds, especially in coastal environments, are suspected to rise. Based on the low concentrations found of these substances, it cannot be stated that the risks of these substances are negligible. Since these substances are designed to be biologically active as lower concentrations as possible, harmful effects at low concentrations needs to be considered. Furthermore, Backhaus et al., (2011) show that for substances with a different mechanism of action (fluoxetine, propranolol, triclosan, zinc- pyrithione, clotrimazole) and with individual concentrations where no effect has been observed, there may still be effects on an algae population when the substances are mixed. This again implies that the effects of combined toxicity should be considered in the risk assessment in general but certainly also for the indicated substances. Box 4.5 - Stockholm Convention and the “Dirty Dozen” In response to the problems caused by POPs, the international community adopted the Stockholm Convention in 2001 The objective of the Convention is to eliminate production and use and restricting exports of specific POPs. The Convention focuses on an initial set of 12 chemicals, the so called “Dirty-Dozen”, of which 9 are pesticides. Though not soluble in water, POPs are readily dissolved in fatty tissue, where concentrations can become magnified by up to 70,000 times the surrounding medium. Fish, predatory birds, mammals, and humans are high up the food chain and so accumulate the greatest amounts. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 37 of 103 Pesticides In the Netherlands many different pesticides are detected in surface waters, and many of these also exceed the water quality standards in fresh waters 18 . However, monitoring of pesticides in coastal and marine environments is very limited. An inventory of RIVM and RWS (Smit & Kalf, 2014) on how other nations deal with pesticides and water quality shows that other countries face similar problems, but the substances may differ from place to place, for example depending on the presence of greenhouses that operate whole year round. It is noted that the Netherlands has derived water quality standards for much more substances than in other countries. When standards are not available, compounds may not be identified as problematic. There are substances that are not identified as being a problem, whereas the indicative standards are most likely too high. Studies by Deltares (Sjollema et al., 2014) have shown that in the current legislation especially marine microalgae are insufficiently protected. Diuron (a recognised Priority Substance within the WFD) and terbutylazine were found to be the highest contributor to the toxic pressure on coastal microalgae. Polyfluoroalkyl substances More than 3000 per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are, or have been, on the global market, yet most research and regulation continues to focus on a limited selection of rather well-known long-chain PFASs, particularly perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and their precursors. PFAS are transported by air and ocean currents to remote Arctic regions. The production and use of PFAS and PFOA has recently been phased out in the Netherlands and EU. Therefore pollution input of PFOS and PFOA to marine habitats may be expected to gradually reduce. However this is uncertain or not the case for the many other PFAAs and their ongoing production and use will lead to continued accumulation of PFAAs in the food chain and top predators in oceans such as marine mammals. The above will require more emphasis on the sources, fate and effects of other PFASs in the marine environment. Experts from the Netherlands Key Dutch experts have important international roles in what concerns marine pollution. Vethaak (VU/Deltares) has been actively involved as scientific advisor in the topic, namely but supporting the developments of integrated assessment and monitoring of marine contaminants within OSPAR and ICES. Other leading researchers include de Boer (VU), who is currently coordinating the Inter-laboratorial Assessment of Persistent Organic Pollutants project under UNEP and is advisor of other international organisations; and Murk (WUR), who is involved in the international C-IMAGE consortium that studies the impacts of the Deepwater Horizon accident in the Gulf of Mexico. A full list of experts can be found in Appendix A. Priority areas and highlights Specifically on the topic of pollutants, the Government of the Netherlands should consider to: 1. Monitor closely the concentrations of pharmaceuticals in marine and coastal areas and support research on combined toxicity in marine organisms The monitoring of concentrations of pharmaceuticals in marine and coastal areas is important because little known about the effects of drug residues on aquatic ecosystems, especially in the long term and for marine systems, and that monitoring results for the Dutch situation are very scarce (Roex, 2016). Concentrations of pharmaceuticals in Dutch marine and coastal 18 www.bestrijdingsmiddelenatlas.nl http://www.bestrijdingsmiddelenatlas.nl/ 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 38 of 103 waters should be closely monitored and research on mixture toxicity and effects of drug residues in marine organisms should be promoted, in particular the impact of chemical stress on lower trophic levels (primary and secondary producers) and microbial communities and nutrient cycles. 2. Develop a monitoring programme targeted towards those pesticides which exceed standards and review quality standards for herbicides In the Netherlands many different pesticides are detected in surface waters, and many of these also exceed the water quality standards in fresh waters. Still, monitoring of pesticides in coastal and marine environments is very limited. It is noted that the Netherlands has derived water quality standards for much more substances than in other countries. When standards are not available, compounds may not be identified as problematic. There are substances that are not identified as being a problem, whereas the indicative standards are most likely too high. Therefore it is recommended to develop a targeted monitoring programme for pesticides in the marine environment, especially in coastal environments, based upon the monitoring results in the freshwater environments, e.g. mostly focussed on pesticides which exceed the water quality standards the most. In addition, the current environmental quality standards (EQS) for herbicides, as drawn up by the European Commission should be reconsidered because they do not adequately protect marine microalgae. 3. Initiate an inventory of sources and potential impacts of emerging PFAs substances The production and use of polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) has recently been phased out in the Netherlands and the EU. Therefore pollution input of PFOS and PFOA to marine habitats may be expected to gradually reduce. However, this is uncertain or not the case for the many other Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) and their ongoing production. Its use will lead to bioaccumulation in marine food webs and threaten oceanic wildlife, in particular top predators. Therefore this topic should be of concern to marine policy makers. It is recommended to conduct an inventory study to identify the sources, fate and potential impact of most hazardous new emerging per- and polyfluoroalkylsubstances and their precursors in the Dutch environment. 4.3 Nutrients and organic matter Box 4.6 – Facts and figures on nutrients and organic matter Enrichment of waters is caused by waste water treatment, industry, agriculture, aquaculture Eutrophication reduces the quality of ecosystem services related to fisheries, aquaculture, and recreation) Eutrophication leads to changes in biogeochemical cycling of elements, changes in food webs and oxygen depletion Eutrophication is addressed via the Nitrates Directive, Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive, Water Framework Directive, Marine Strategy Directive and by OSPAR’s Eutrophication Strategy Since the 1990s riverine loads of nitrogen and phosphorus have reduced In the Dutch Caribbean eutrophication is a major stressor for coral reefs and seagrass meadows 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 39 of 103 Definition of the problem Eutrophication is the enrichment of water by the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus. It leads to increased plant growth, changes in the balance of organisms, and water quality degradation (Figure 4.3). As plant material decays, increased oxygen consumption in bottom waters is required, potentially leading to hypoxia (a reduction of oxygen in water). Hypoxia results in the deterioration of the impacted ecosystems and the loss of marine life. The environmental problems created by eutrophication reduce the quality of ecosystem services related to fisheries, aquaculture, and recreation (EEA 2015). Marine eutrophication is a global phenomenon, that not only affects local individual ecosystems, but has the potential for impacts at a regional, and possibly, global scale through changes in biogeochemical cycling of elements, changes in food webs and the occurrence of ‘dead zones’ where oxygen is depleted (Duarte, 2009). Figure 4.2: Inputs of nitrogen to marine water, where all relevant sources and pathways are shown. Phosphorus inputs show similar sources and pathways, with the exception of emission to the air and subsequent atmospheric deposition (Aertjeberg et al., 2001). Box 4.7 - Marine eutrophication Humans have drastically altered the cycling of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) since the Industrial Revolution. The amount of reactive N cycling through the biosphere has doubled, through fertilizer production and the use of fossil fuel (Figure 4.2). Through a variety of processes, including mining of natural reserves, increased soil erosion, discharges of urban waste and application of inorganic fertilizers, the amount of P mobilized on earth has tripled. While this has benefited the world’s population through increased food production, it also has led to accumulation of N and P in the environment and a several fold increase of nutrient loadings to freshwater, coastal and marine ecosystems (Galloway et al., 2003; Erisman et al., 2011). 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 40 of 103 The causes of enrichment of coastal and marine waters are direct discharges from point sources (such as wastewater treatment plants, industry, aquaculture), diffuse sources (e.g. agriculture, households unconnected to sewerage, stormwater overflows) and atmospheric deposition. In many cases those sources are on land, and lead to enrichment of freshwater systems that serve as a transport route for nutrients to the sea. Emissions of nitrogen compounds from road transport, combustion for heat and power generation, industrial processes, and from fertilizer applications, animal manure and husbandry are the main sources causing atmospheric deposition of nitrogen. Policy Context Marine eutrophication is addressed by several EU Directives: Nitrates Directive, Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive, Water Framework Directive (WFD), Marine Strategy Directive (MSFD) and by OSPAR’s Eutrophication Strategy (OSPAR, 2017). The overall goal of these policies is to achieve a healthy marine environment where eutrophication does not occur. In the Netherlands, the European Directives and the agreements from OSPAR are implemented through the WFD river basin management plans and through measures targeting agriculture (manure policy). State of play in the Netherlands Currently, the Dutch part of the North Sea still shows symptoms of eutrophication such as elevated algal blooms, predominantly in coastal waters. This is caused by riverine loads of nitrogen and phosphorus from anthropogenic sources on land. Atmospheric deposition is a significant source of nitrogen, in particular in the central (offshore) part of the North Sea (Troost et al., 2013). Consequently, in parts of the Dutch coastal and marine waters the objective of a healthy marine environment where eutrophication does not occur (as laid down by the WFD, MSFD, OSPAR) is not yet achieved. Figure 4.3: Forming of oxygen minimum zones in the ocean (Bähr, 2017) Major improvements in the state of coastal and marine waters are visible since the 1990s, due to strong reductions in riverine loads of N (30%) and P (50%) (OSPAR, 2017), largely explained by reduced concentrations in particular in the Rhine, at the Dutch-German border (Gaalen et al., 2015). Within the Netherlands however, the highly intensive agricultural sector is the main source (>60%) of emissions to water of N and P (Rozemeijer et al., 2014; Fraters et al., 2017), and although concentrations in the inland water systems are decreasing, there is 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 41 of 103 still a large proportion of the freshwater systems that are considered eutrophic. It is expected that the objectives of the WFD will not be achieved by 2027, mainly in parts of the inland waters (Gaalen et al., 2015). For coastal and marine waters, the situation is better due to the strong influence of transboundary nutrient transport (in particular the river Rhine). State of play in the Caribbean There is relatively little information on eutrophication in the Caribbean but a few recent publications highlight eutrophication as a major stressor for coral reefs and seagrass meadows. Discharges from sewage systems, leaching from septic tanks leading to nutrient- enriched groundwater outflow, run-off from land via salinas and stormwater overflows, discharges from recreational and commercial shipping and industrial discharges are sources of nutrient enrichment, while insufficient functioning of sewage treatment adds to the problem (Lapointe & Mallin, 2011, Slijkerman et al., 2013, Bakker et al., 2017). 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 42 of 103 The effects of nutrient enrichment are difficult to measure directly though elevated nutrient concentrations because most of the nutrient will rapidly be taken up in the sediment or in biomass. However, detrimental effects on seagrass meadows and coral reefs under eutrophication conditions have been observed (e.g. IUCN. 2011, Govers et al., 2014, Slijkerman et al., 2014, Tussenbroek et al., 2016, Bakker et al., 2017). Furthermore, high nutrients and organic loading may increase the susceptibility of coral reef and near shore environments to ocean acidification (Webb et al. 2017). Although a decrease in the coverage of corals and increase of macroalgae and cyanobacterial mats correlates with increasing water temperatures and decreased water quality, due to the lack of long term monitoring data of nutrient concentrations, it is not possible to unequivocally determine causal relations (de Bakker et al., 2017). Box 4.8 - Agriculture as a main source of nutrients Fertilizer production is one of the main causes of the increased inputs of nutrients to coastal waters. The increased use of fertilizerfacilitates the strongly increased production of livestock (meat). As a consequence of global production and international transport of feed this results in local concentrations of nutrient emissions to air and water. Europe is one of the world’s largest and most productive suppliers of food, with a high proportion (20-30%) of global meat and milk production, concentrated in a number of regions including the Netherlands (Figure 4.5). In Europe, the contribution of livestock to N emissions to the environment equals the use of fertilizer (Erisman et al., 2011). Figure 4.4: Global and European livestock manure and fertilizer nitrogen consumption (Erisman et al., 2011) At the European scale, agriculture is the main source of increased nutrient loads to the sea, in addition to sources like atmospheric deposition, households, sewerage, wastewater treatment plants and industry. Worldwide, these are the major sources causing increased transport of nutrients to the sea, which has mainly occurred between 1960 and 1980 in the developed regions of Europe, North America, Asia and Oceania. The increased transport of nutrients to the sea has its main impact in coastal ecosystems. For the oceans, atmospheric deposition including long range transport by air is a significant source of nitrogen. At the global scale, international shipping is responsible for approximately 15% of the production of NOx and this can be a significant source of nitrogen in open oceanic water (Erisman et al., 2011). 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 43 of 103 Experts from the Netherlands For the topic of nutrients and organic matter it is obvious that the Utrecht University and NIOZ are leading. Professor Middelburg (Utrecht University) is very well known in the field of (bio)geochemistry. He frequently publishes in journals such as Science. Soetaert (NIOZ) is specialised in the interplay between physics, ecology, and biogeochemistry in the marine environment. Slomp (Utrecht University) is professor in marine biogeochemistry. Her research focuses on improving the quantitative understanding of the cycling of elements that are important to life in marine environments. Philippart (NIOZ) is an expert in coastal ecology. She studies long-term changes of the Wadden Sea food web, including pelagic and benthic microalgae and bivalves (larvae). She also conducts comperative analyses of Wadden systems, such as impacts of climate change & eutrophication. A full list of experts can be found in Appendix A. Priority areas and highlights 1. Stronger policies to reduce nutrients in inland waters, including stricter limits to intensive agricultural practices In the Netherlands, agriculture is the main source of nutrients emissions due to its highly intensive character. The currently implemented changes in agricultural practices (e.g. through the Manure Policy) are expected to have only limited effects on water quality and on the achievement of the ecological objectives of the WFD in the Netherlands. Despite the relatively large impact of transboundary nutrient transport on the level of eutrophication in Dutch coastal waters, the Netherlands should not only rely on the measures of neighbouring countries to solve the eutrophication problem in the coastal waters. Agricultural practices that seek to maximize production up to the limits of what is environmentally sustainable, need to change to ensure that objectives set by EU environmental policies can be achieved within a reasonable time frame. 2. Address the NOx deposition from fossil fuels used by shipping Maritime transport mainly uses fossil fuels, which is not only a source of carbon emissions, but also of NOx. Particularly in the oligotrophic ocean atmospheric deposition of the nitrogen compounds may be a significant source along busy transport routes. Measures to reduce the use of fossil fuel will contribute to lowering the emissions of greenhouse gases as well as nutrients. 3. In the Caribbean: support the establishment of programmes to monitor nutrient sources and concentrations and implementation of “no-regret” measures Due to its characteristics, the Caribbean marine ecosystems are more susceptible to the impact of small increases in nutrient loads, which in turn can detrimentally affect the coastal ecosystems ultimately causing problems to the tourist industry. A more structural monitoring programme is needed to better understand the sources of nutrients and the ecological impacts of loads to the coastal and marine environment. No-regret measures such as improvements in sewage treatment and reduction of storm water overflows should already be taken with no delay. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 44 of 103 4.4 Underwater sound Definition of problem Underwater sound is generated by a multitude of human activities, among which shipping, military-sonar activities, dredging, fishing, oil and gas exploitation and offshore wind farms. For a few decades, there is high public concern over the potential impacts of underwater sound, in particular associated with episodes of cetacean strandings. It is already known for a long time that marine mammals, such as whales, depend on sound for communication within their pod but also for long-distance communications between different groups. Meanwhile, our understanding of the importance of underwater sound for marine organisms has evolved considerably, revealing that fish use sound to find their food, for detection of predators, and conspecifics for reproduction; and invertebrates appear to rely on the recognition of sound for their survival. It is generally believed that human-induced sound levels can have significant, albeit more subtle impact on various marine organisms, e.g. through disturbing foraging efforts, communication or masking background sound. From various studies it has become clear that underwater sound levels from offshore wind farm constructions, for example, disrupt marine mammals’ normal spatial distribution up to levels that threaten their survival and some preventive and mitigation measures are taken to minimise these adverse impacts. Furthermore, significant progress has been made in underwater sound monitoring and modelling. The known knowns On the one hand, sound as a problem field has been around for already a long time. Usually the sound produced by ships’ engines was already suspect from disturbing migration and foraging pathways of seals and porpoises. During the construction of offshore wind farms very high sound levels (over 200 dB re 1 µPa) were measured. Such levels were suspect of Box 4.6 – Facts and figures on nutrients and organic matter Most whales, dolphins seals and many fish use sound to navigate, find food and mates, avoid predators and communicate; Underwater noise from shipping, pile driving, seismic surveys and naval sonar operations have been linked to adverse effects on marine animals, such as hearing loss, disruption of normal behaviour, displacement and, in worse cases, serious injury or death; Airguns used in oil and geophysical research can reach peak sound levels up to 250dB - 1,000 times louder than a ship; Shipping represents a continuous input of sound into the ocean, mainly in low-frequency range up to 300Hz, which is also the main range of communication of certain species of whales; Public and scientific concern has grown over the last decade after a series of mass mortalities of cetaceans associated with the use of mid-frequency active sonar in coastal areas (e.g. strandings in Bahamas, 2000; Madeira, 2000; Canary Islands, 2002) 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 45 of 103 causing lethal effectson small (larval) fish and PTS (see box 4.9) of marine mammals over large distances. This created a strong impetus to study the actual relationships between the sound pressure of offshore wind farm construction and the possibility of PTS, TTS in marine mammals, and death rates of larval of fish, especially in the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. We now know that these very high sound levels do not cause the adverse effects as first suspected. Still, they create avoidance behaviour and through that significant loss of foraging habitat or migration pathways for marine mammals. Significant effects on the survival of larval sole, herring and seabass have not been found for specific species thought relatively sensitive to high underwater sound pressure levels. The known unknowns Many aspects of the underwater sound, namely on pressure dose-response of different species, the relation with and distortion of the natural underwater soundscape and how underwater life depends on this (e.g. for food, reproduction, migration) remain to be studied and quantified. Although there has been a great improvement in acoustic modelling underwater, and there is a relatively good overview of sound sources in the marine environment, it is not possible to show how this results in an underwater acoustic environment. Registration of main impulsive sound sources has started and this may result in a modelling effort as a first overview of the human-induced soundscape. Also, the underwater sound induced by human sources is just one in a set of multiple pressures in the marine environment, and there is only limited attention to the cumulative effects of our activities in and uses of the marine environment, even on highly protected species groups such as marine mammals. Box 4.9 - Underwater sound, a complex type of pollution Underwater sound is a complex phenomenon. Sound has various characteristics that make it hard to compare to other types of pollution such as contaminants or plastics. Within the MSFD, underwater energy, as it is called, is part of the set of pressures that need to be regulated. It discerns impulsive sound (such as emanated from piling) and ambient sound (such as emanated from shipping). Especially impulsive sound may have strong direct effect that lead to permanent or temporary loss of hearing quality (Permanent or Temporary Threshold Shift, PTS or TTS) in marine mammals and fish. Other more subtle indirect effects occur such as avoidance behaviour (leading to displacement), or masking of background signals (leading to loss of communication). Furthermore, it is not always clear what property of the sound is responsible for the impact on the organisms’ hearing capabilities, e.g. the total energy in the sound pressure wave (pulse), or the peak pressure level of the signal. The effect on the organism can be direct (PTS/TTS) or indirect (e.g. masking), and how organisms react, if and how they compensate behaviourally, and how it affects their individual and population fitness is in general not well understood. Hence, both the complex character of underwater sound, and the various direct and indirect ways an organism may be impacted by the sound render this to a complex type of pollution. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 46 of 103 Experts from the Netherlands The Netherlands is at the forefront of underwater sound research and monitoring, with Dekeling from MinIenW leading the Interreg Project Joint Monitoring Programme for Ambient Noise North Sea – JOMOPANS (2018-2020) and chairing the EU’s Technical Group on Underwater Noise. In the Netherlands there are four experts with an outstanding track record. Clearly TNO is important here as three out of four experts work at this institute. Professor Slabbekoorn (Leiden University) focuses on evolution of acoustic signals and explaining causes. Lam (TNO) is internationally known for his research on effects of sonar and underwater noise on marine mammals. Ainslie (TNO) is highly experienced in effects of underwater noise on fish and marine mammals. Furthermore he focuses on standardization of underwater acoustical terminology. Lastly De Jong (TNO) is also internationally known for his expertise on noise control, ship acoustics, naval ship signature management, underwater acoustics and effects of noise on marine life. A full list of experts can be found in Appendix A. Priority areas and highlights Specifically on the topic of underwater sound, the Government of the Netherlands should consider to: 1. Engage with governments worldwide and stakeholders to promote standardised approaches and encourage development of new technologies to mitigate underwater sound Continue to engage in international collaborations, such as within regional seas (e.g. North Sea, OSPAR), namely by disseminating the results from JOMOPANS, promoting commitments and standardised methodologies in other parts of the world; engage in discussions on underwater sound pressure at the high seas/international waters; continue to engage with stakeholders and industry to develop new technologies that minimise underwater sound (e.g. in shipping industry). This is an opportunity to profile the Netherlands, which is at the forefront monitoring and research of the topic. 2. Improve and extend underwater sound registration and monitoring systems and strategies Underwater sound is important because of its potential environmental impact. It can lead to permanent or temporary loss of hearing quality (n marine mammals and fish. Other more subtle indirect effects occur such as avoidance behaviour (leading to displacement), or masking of background signals (leading to loss of communication). Due to these risks international legislation is in the making; therefore marine policy makers should consider to improve and extend underwater sound registration and monitoring systems and strategies. The North Sea and Baltic Sea register for underwater impulsive sound sources should be extended with assessments of ambient sound sources, and monitoring systems for underwater sound. The main sources of ambient sound are well known, and shipping and fishing can be largely followed using the AIS system. Proposals for monitoring strategies in the OSPAR area or supporting EU policy have been put forward recently and need an impulse to get off the ground. It is expected that the recently funded joint project JOMOPANS (led by RWS) will improve monitoring methodologies and contribute to a harmonised approach in the North Sea. 3. Focus on a programmatic and strategic impact programme The current offshore wind monitoring program covers various essential steps to improve the understanding of the possible impacts of impulsive sound on marine mammals in the North Sea (harbour porpoise and common/grey seals). However, various essential elements in the 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 47 of 103 lifecycle of marine mammals and population fitness but also the cumulative effects of underwater sound need a more in-depth approach. This is needed due to new insights in the environmental effects of underwater sound on mammals and fish and the new international regulations that are in the making. The impact assessment of underwater sound on marine mammals therefore needs to be embedded in a strategic and programmatic research programme, combining more goals and financial sources than just for offshore energy development. Other sources of sound should be included in the impact assessment and research, following a methodical and strategic approach. Ideally, this should be carried out in an international setting (such as brought forward through the OSPAR WG and MSFD Technical Group). 4. Consider and build upon evidenceof impacts on commercial fish species No attention is given to the impact of impulsive sound on the behaviour of fish (avoidance, foraging, etc.), although there is evidence that behavioural changes occur in impulsive and high ambient sound level environments. Therefore, there are possible significant effects on the catchability of commercial species, especially in the light of the projected capacity of offshore wind farms in the Dutch part of the North Sea. It would be sensible to start a research programme to understanding the impact of human-induced underwater sound on commercial fish species but also on important staple food species (e.g. as possible disturbance of food availability to marine mammals and birds). 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 48 of 103 4.5 Acidification A considerable part of the anthropogenic CO2 released into the atmosphere is absorbed by the oceans but this comes at costly expense – seawater acidification can have profound impacts on marine life. More acidic sea water affects the ability of marine organisms to produce their shells and skeletons from calcium carbonate minerals. These organisms are not only shellfish but include plankton creatures that are at the base of marine food-chains or corals, which support entire ecosystems. Also worrisome is the fact that as the oceans continue to absorb more CO2, their capacity to store carbon could diminish (UNESCO, 2015). This means that more of the CO2 emitted would remain in the atmosphere, further aggravating climate change. Acidification is another factor exerting pressure over ecosystems and species already weakened by the combined effect of over-exploitation, pollution and increase of temperature due to climate change. The difference is that it is not a local issue but needs action at global scale; it affects fundamental processes and species that sustain entire marine ecosystems and even human communities. The urgency to address it lies in the fact that, similarly to our blood, the oceans have a pH buffering system, which could be disrupted if pushed beyond a certain limit. Experts from the Netherlands The National Knowledge and innovation programme Water and Climate (NKWK) in the Netherlands has a working group focussing on ocean acidification. The members are key international experts; the group is chaired by Merkus from MinIenW. Internationally renown members include Hagens (WUR). She is a biogeochemist focussing on carbon and nutrient cycling in natural environments. De Kluijver (Utrecht University) is also a member of the working group. She is well known for acidification research. She is also an aquatic ecologist (marine and fresh water) and biogeochemist. Her research focus is on carbon cycling in plankton food webs. Van De Waal (NIOO-KNAW) is also a member of the same working Box 4.10 - Facts and figures on ocean acidification 26% of the anthropogenic CO2 emitted to the atmosphere are absorbed by the ocean, at a rate of 22 million tonnes per day (UNESCO, 2015) The oceans are now 30% more acidic than at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, with a drop of pH by more than 0.1 unit (Caldeira & Wickett, 2003) Business as usual scenarios for CO2 emissions could make the ocean 150% more acidic by 2100 (UNESCO, 2015) The current rapid rate of ocean acidification, if continued, is likely unprecedented in last 300 million years (Hönisch et al., 2012) 400 million people depend on intact coral reefs for food and protection against flooding. Ocean acidification impacts on molluscs and tropical coral reefs are estimated to cost over USD 1,000 billion annually by the end of the century (CBD, 2014) The North Sea seems to be acidifying 10 times faster than global ocean model predictions, with reductions of 0.02 pH units per year (NWO,2017) 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 49 of 103 group. He is known for his research on the implications of ocean acidification on toxic and calcareous dinoflagellates. A full list of experts can be found in Appendix A. Priority areas and highlights Specifically on the topic of acidification, the Government of the Netherlands should consider to: 1. Design an ambitious legislative framework for climate change mitigation and CO2 reductions A new legal framework is vital to give the necessary push for short-term progress in the Netherlands. It would bind current and future cabinets to work towards a significant Dutch contribution to climate change mitigation and prevent policy inconsistencies. Furthermore, it would provide a clear framework for society and companies for long-term investments, namely in renewable energies, energy efficiency and technological innovation. 2. Strengthen resilience of species and ecosystems to adapt to changing conditions Reinvigorate action to prevent or eliminate, at a regional or local level, other environmental pressures, such as overfishing, pollution, nutrient loadings and eutrophication which can magnify the impacts of acidification. As part of important measures is the designation and of an effective network of marine protected areas and implementation of effective marine planning. 3. Improve the understanding of future scenarios and impacts on ecosystems and its services The impact of ocean acidification can be critical for some species while others can benefit from low pH. This can lead to dramatic changes in species assemblages, structure in habitats and totally changed complete ecosystems, as it is the case of coral reefs, which has particular interest to regions such as the Caribbean. Acidification should not be seen in isolation but with the combined effect of pollution and rise in ocean temperature. Direct effects on commercial species such as shellfish or on the ones that sustain them is a potential impact that needs to be better understood. In any case, gaps in knowledge should not prevent the urgency in taking measures to reduce global CO2 emissions. 4. Bring the issue to societal awareness The issue and implications of ocean acidification have received very little media and political attention when compared to climate change as a result of CO2 emissions. The current level of public awareness and understating of the potential impacts is still limited. The issue deserves to be properly and effectively communicated, alongside other major disruptive human pressures and as a direct consequence of global CO2 emissions. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 50 of 103 4.6 Coastal protection Definition of problem Recent high-impact storm events have demonstrated the risks faced by exposed coastal communities world-wide. Among these devastating events are the recent hurricanes in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico (Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, Maria and Nate), Hurricane Katrina and Super Storm Sandy in the USA, Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines, Cyclones Sidr and Odisha in the Indian subcontinent, and the 2010 Xynthia storm in France. According to the IPCC, the frequency and impact of coastal flooding events is likely to increase in the future due to climate change and sea level rise, and on-going development and increasing populations in coastal zones. In the Netherlands, protection of the coast against erosion and safety against coastal flooding is embedded in a strong organisational system and guaranteed by law. The coastline and coastal safety is maintained through nourishment of the coast and maintenance of flood protection works. This makes the Netherlands a leading example for coastal protection world- wide. The Netherlands are furthermore at the vanguard of research and application of innovative solutions to maintain coastal protection while minimizingthe impact on the natural environment (e.g., Building with Nature-type solutions). Other nations, including many Small Island Developing States (SIDS) as well as some of the Caribbean constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, are less able to maintain coastal protection levels than the Netherlands, either due to economic constraints, or due to lack of natural resources. Many of these nations therefore rely strongly on the ability of natural coastal ecosystems, such as coral reefs, seagrass meadows and mangrove forests, to provide protection against flooding and erosion. The ability of these ecosystem-based defences, or Nature-based Flood Defences (NBFD), to provide protection against flooding and erosion is strongly dependent on the health of the coastal ecosystem. Unfortunately many coastal ecosystems worldwide are currently under increasing pressure from environmental change (ocean acidification, ocean warming, increased nutrient runoff 19 ), encroachment of habitats and exploitation of their natural resources (overfishing, coral-mining), and are therefore losing their ability to protect the coast. Furthermore, the integrity of these coastal ecosystems is being compromised by the introduction of poorly-designed conventional “hard” coastal protection works that interfere with the dynamics of the natural system. 19 See previous sections in this chapter Box 4.11 - Facts & figures on coastal protection The IPCC estimates that the frequency and impact of coastal flooding events is likely to increase in the future due to climate change and sea level rise Small Island Developing States are less able to maintain coastal protection Contrary to many non-EU countries, the Netherlands established well embedded coastal protection policies Nature Based Flood Defence is an opportunity to further profile the Netherlands as a leader in traditional and new forms of coastal protection 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 51 of 103 Policy context Coastal protection has strong links to several UN Sustainable Development Goals, namely SDG 11 (Sustainable cities and communities), SDG 13 (Climate action) and SDG 14 (Life below water). Whereas SDG 11 and 13 explicitly refer to coastal protection against disasters as a target, the goal and targets of SDG 14 provide the conditions to ensure coastal protection provide by ecosystems (i.e., NBFD) will continue into the future. Coastal protection against flooding and erosion in the Netherlands is embedded in Dutch law in the Water Act (Waterwet). Policy at the national level regarding coastal protection is set out in the Coastal Policy Guideline 2015 (Beleidslijn Kust 2015), following the recommendations of the Delta Program, which is embedded in Dutch law (Deltawet waterveiligheid en zoetwatervoorziening), and the objectives of the Climate Agenda (Klimaatagenda). These policies aim to ensure that the Netherlands will be protected from future coastal disasters by providing for robust and resilient coastal protection strategies that are able to deal with changing environmental and socio-economic conditions (Adaptive Delta Management). While not directly linked to coastal protection, the Oceans Policy Brief sets out policy to protect coastal ecosystems and thereby increase the protective capacity of NBFD. At the European level, coastal protection legislation is set out in the Floods Directive (FD) 2007/60/EC, which in relation to coastal protection requires European Member States to assess and map flood risk and take measures to increase protection where needed. Other processes at EU level that are relevant to coastal protection include: the 2013 EU Climate Change Adaptation Strategy, which aims to increase European resilience in response to current and future climate impacts; the Marine Strategy Framework Directive and the EU Biodiversity Strategy, which aim to protect coastal (NBFD) ecosystems; and the European Commission’s Research and Innovation policy agenda for Nature-Based Solutions and Re- Naturing Cities, which aims to increase the evidence and knowledge base for NBFD coastal protection. Figure 4.4: Reasons why global river deltas are at risk (Bähr, 2017) At international level the UN SDGs provide clear targets for coastal protection and disaster risk reduction, as well as the protection of coastal ecosystems that provide protection to the coast (NBFD). In addition, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030) sets out goals for the reduction or prevention of disaster risk, including coastal protection against erosion and flooding. The Sendai Framework advocates the need for good understanding, management and governance of disaster risk, and hence of coastal protection. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 52 of 103 Experts from the Netherlands For the topic of coastal protection experts originate from a variety of institutes. Herman (Deltares) is an estuarine ecologist; linking marine ecology with morphology. He conducts quantitative analyses of biogeochemical cycles, food webs and physical structures. Professor Roelvink (IHE Delft, TU Delft, Deltares) has over 20 years of experience in coastal engineering and morphology. He is the driving force behind the development of the XBeach model, which is globally used to calculate storm impacts and coastal protection. Tol (VU) ranks among the top 100 economist in the world. He is specialised in the economics of climate change and involved in IPCC. Professor Wang (Deltares) has played an international key role in the development of models for sediment transport and morphological development in estuarine environment. Bouma (NIOZ) is also world-wide known as a coastal ecologist. He is specialised in Building with Nature and Nature Based Flood Defence. He focuses on the bio-physical interactions between forces from tidal currents and waves, and species that alter these forces and thereby the environment. Walstra (Deltares) is well known for his expertise on coastal engineering, coastal zone management and sand nourishments. A full list of experts can be found in Appendix A. Priority areas and highlights With increasing development in the coastal zone around the world and increasing pressures on the coast due to sea level rise and climate change, there is an ever-growing need for coastal protection management (Figure 4.5). The Netherlands are well placed to develop and utilise new insights in coastal protection, as well as to lead international developments in this area. Key areas that Min IenW should focus on are: 1. Invest in the evidence base and understanding of Nature-based Flood Defences The protection value of coastal ecosystems against flooding and erosion is often not well known, particularly under conditions of future sea level rise and climate change. Due to this uncertainty, the economic value of such ecosystems as a coastal protection measure is often not apparent, leading to the potential for neglect and degradation of these ecosystems. A prioritisation towards the conservation and expansion of coastal ecosystems as coastal defence measures can be achieved by building an evidence base of NBFD. To be efficacious such examples should show a clear reduction in coastal threats (e.g., flooding) and clear economic benefit (i.e., located in an area with inherent value in need of protection). The development of management and design guidelines, backed-up by firm science, together with effective local capacity building, will help to further the economic argument for coastal ecosystem protection, and help coastal managers develop new NBFD-based coastal protection strategies in coastal stretches that are currentlyprotected only by conventional “hard” coastal protection works, thereby reversing the decline of coastal ecosystems in these areas. 2. Use of Integrated Water Resource Management to protect and restore coastal ecosystems Coastal systems that provide coastal protection, such as coral reefs and other NBFD, are highly susceptible to changes in water quality and poor water quality due to nutrient-rich surface runoff is a leading cause of coastal ecosystem degradation. The Netherlands has many years’ experience in Integrated Water Resource Management to improve the quality of the Dutch water systems. This knowledge can and should be combined with Integrated Coastal Zone Management in all coastal stretches with NBFD, including in the Caribbean constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Examples from the Kingdom of the 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 53 of 103 Netherlands together with local capacity building can help promote the protection of coastal ecosystems, and thereby increase their effectively as NBFD, around the world. 3. Promote the use of sustainable Nature-based Flood Defences in combination with other Disaster Risk Reduction measures In some cases NBFD will not be able to fully remove the impacts of extreme natural disasters, such as tsunamis and storms. Rather than reverting to conventional “hard” coastal protection works, a combination of NBFD together with other Disaster Risk Reduction measures may form an more effective solution, with additional ecological and economic benefits. However, for a successful implementation of these “hybrid” coastal protection measures, it is imperative for the measures to be well designed and managed to ensure that the integrity of the coastal ecosystem is maintained. The Netherlands has experience in such hybrid coastal protection measures along the Dutch coast, for instance along the Friesian and Groninger coastlines, as well as internationally through research and engineering collaborations, and is well placed to take a leading role in international developments in this area. 4.7 Indonesia as an international case of multiple issues Indonesia has put forward a number of commitments to progress towards SDG14, in particular on eradication of illegal and unreported fishing, establishment of marine protected areas, restoration of coral reefs and marine plastic litter. Seen as one of the biggest plastic polluters, pressure over Indonesia to address the issue has increased. Recently, the Government of Indonesia made an international pledge at the 2017 World Oceans Summit in Bali to reduce 70% of marine plastic litter by 2025, for which a National Action Plan on Marine Plastic Litter will be launched. In the meantime, Denmark has committed USD 1.5 million to support Indonesia in the prevention of plastic marine litter through the implementation of a waste management programme 20 . The Ministry for the Environment encourages young entrepreneurs to come up with solutions to collect the plastics in the rivers. Again, the focus is on the symptoms rather than to tackle 20 https://oceanconference.un.org/commitments/?id=205000 Box 4.12 - Facts and figures on Indonesia The Government of Indonesia aims to reduce 70% of marine plastic litter by 2025 Plastic solutions focus on the symptoms rather than the source; little progress is made On the larger islands, increased flood risk arise due to land subsidence as a consequence of large scale ground water extraction, deforestation and drainage of lowlands 23% of the world’s mangrove ecosystems can be found in Indonesia The main threat to mangroves in Indonesia comes from the expanding aquaculture industry 18% of the world’s coral reefs are found in Indonesia Cyanide and blast fishing are common practice everywhere, even in protected areas Indonesia is one of the main fish producers in Southeast Asia In 2012, 5.4 million tonnes of fish was produced, including tuna, bonitas, herring, sardines and anchovies. https://oceanconference.un.org/commitments/?id=205000 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 54 of 103 the problem from the source: plastic waste (and waste in general) being dumped into the environment and the huge appetite for plastics in Indonesia. The knowledge institutes Deltares and Wageningen University and Research have ample knowledge and experience in these fields. Despite these ambitious commitments, there seems to be little ongoing progress. For example, through the Ministry for the Environment, the Government of Indonesia is considering new legislation which would make obligatory for companies to charge for plastic. This is a big step towards reducing the plastic load into the seas. However, the draft law has been on the desk of the minister for some time and progress has stalled as the topic is not the primary focus of the Government of Indonesia at this moment. Priority for Indonesia at the moment is development and poverty alleviation. Waste reduction is currently less of a priority for Government of Indonesia but should be higher on the agenda, as should the topics of reduction of Greenhouse Gases (GHG) emissions and water pollution. Indonesia has committed to reduce GHG but it lacks the capacity to calculate emissions and therefore is not able to establish appropriate targets and mitigation measures. The development of regional and new international ports is a main topic, as Indonesia is working towards maritime highways in order to connect the outer islands to improve equal development throughout the nation. A commitment the President has made, but which the Government of Indonesia has not been able to implement, is the development of an international port in Kuala Tanjung (North Sumatra). The Netherlands is supporting the Government of Indonesia to improve their flood protection and resilience. For Greater Jakarta this is done through the National Capital Integrated Coastal Development programme (NCICD) project in collaboration with the Government of Korea. At the moment the focus of the NCICD project is mainly on long term alternative solutions (Outer Sea Wall) and less on the short term measures (Improvement of existing flood protections and measures to stop ground water extraction). This is partly because improvement of existing protection is less ambitious and result in less fancy images and plans. However, considering the huge investments required to build offshore solutions and the requirement of significant investments in infrastructure elsewhere, it is unlikely that Indonesia will pull this offshore development off. It would be much better for the image of the Netherlands to support the efforts in stopping land subsidence and improving the current flood protection levels. That would bring the efforts in line with the approach to solve problems at the source (instead of tackling the symptoms) followed in The Netherlands. Improved water supply and waste water collection and treatment strategies combined with investments in these would greatly enhance the visibility of the Netherlands, especially when these focus on the poorer areas in North and East Jakarta. The NCICD strategy can also be generalized and applied to other regions with similar problems. Increased flood risk due to land subsidence as a consequence of large scale ground water extraction is not unique for Greater Jakarta, but rather standard procedure in Indonesia in general (urban and rural areas). In addition, in rural areas flood risk and land subsidence is often enhanced by large scale deforestation and drainage of lowlands. This is mainly done to increase the total area of agricultural land. The adagio in Indonesia isthat more agricultural land is required to support agricultural production. However, yields per ha in Indonesia are extremely low. In The Netherlands production per ha is one of the highest on the globe. Projects to improve the 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 55 of 103 yield per ha would be very welcome. These kinds of projects would indirectly reduce deforestation and flood risks and could improve the water quality in the rivers, lakes and coastal waters. Especially when combined with efforts to reduce the use of pesticides. Increased flood risk and land subsidence also relate to mangrove deforestation. App. 3 million hectares of mangroves grow along Indonesia’s 95,000 km coastline, representing 23% of the world’s mangrove ecosystems (Giri et al., 2011). Mangroves have a variety of important ecosystem functions; apart from a nursery for fish, mangroves contain a high level of carbon, five times more than Indonesia’s inland tropical forests Murdiyarso et al., 2015). Mangroves are often also a source of income for fishermen; the wood is often used for cooking purposes. Mangroves are able to capture sediment efficiently; therefore they are key in subsiding coastal areas. The main threat to mangroves in Indonesia comes from the expanding aquaculture industry; brackish waters are ideal for cultivating tropical shrimp (FAO, 2007). In 2015 a large mangrove restoration project was launched by a Dutch consortium under leadership of Wetlands International. With a budget of EUR 5 million from the Sustainable Water Fund, the consortium aims to restore an area in the north of Java, using the principles of Building with Nature. Where mangroves have a function as a coastal nursery, coral reefs have the same function at sea. It is estimated that Indonesia has app. 51,000 km² of coral reefs; 51% of the region's coral reefs and 18% of the world’s coral reefs are found here. More than 480 species of hard coral have been found in Eastern Indonesia alone, representing 60% of the world’s known hard coral species. For marine biodiversity healthy coral reefs are key. More than 1,650 different fish species are found in Eastern Indonesia, providing an essential means of income for the many fishery communities on the islands. At the same time coral reefs are threatened by fisheries. Cyanide and blast fishing are common practice everywhere, even in protected areas. It is estimated that net economic income loss in Indonesia due to blast fishing in the next 20 years will be USD 570 million. The economic loss from cyanide fishing is estimated at USD 46 million annually. Other threats to Indonesia’s coral reefs include sediment discharge from deforestation, pollution from agriculture, industries and sewage. It is estimated that over 85% of Indonesia’s coral reefs is threatened by human activities; half of that percentage is under high threat (Burke et al., 2002). Indonesia is one of the main fish producers in Southeast Asia. In 2012, marine capture fisheries produced app. 5.4 million tonnes of fish, including tuna, bonitas, herring, sardines and anchovies. The country faces many challenges in fisheries, such as low income and standard of living of fishing communities, lack of financial support, weak fisheries management such as monitoring, surveillance and enforcement. The major challenge is Illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing. To address the issues the National Mid Term Priority Framework has the following priorities: community development and empowerment, climate change mitigation and adaption for fisheries, improving quality and profitability of fish products, improvement of infrastructure, strengthening monitoring, surveillance and enforcement (FAO, 2011). Although implementation and enforcement can be bothersome in Indonesia, President Widodo actually established the IUU Fisheries Task Force. The task force has the power to destroy illegal fishery vessels. Since 2014 app. 300 vessels have been blown up (VOANews, 2017). On the international level, Indonesia is active in many Regional Fishery Bodies, including Asia-Pacific Fishery Commission (APFIC), Commission for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna (CCSBT), Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC), Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC), Network of Aquaculture Centers in Asia-Pacific (NACA), Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC) and Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) (FAO, 2011). 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 56 of 103 Apart from fisheries, coastal tourism is also an important source of income. Indonesia aims to strengthen and expand the tourism industry. This is backed by a very large (US$ 200 million) World Bank project. To attract more tourists, the water quality in lakes, rivers and coastal waters has to be improved and plastic loads reduced. At the moment there is no roadmap to achieve this. Indonesia is home to some unique (deep) tropical lakes. Aquaculture is developing at an incredible rate in these lakes without proper knowledge of the water quality and the effects of (increased) aquaculture development on the lake systems. A study of the current state of the water quality of the (bigger) lakes is required and can be supported by The Netherlands (e.g. Deltares 21 and Wageningen University and Research in collaboration with the World Bank and Indonesian research institutes like LIPI). Priority areas and highlights Bilateral cooperation should primarily aim at supporting initiatives and commitments which are important to Government of Indonesia. In 2019, Presidential elections will be held and therefore 2018 is a crucial year for Government of Indonesia. There are multiple MoUs between the Government of the Netherlands and the Government of Indonesia 22 . These MoUs form a solid base for collaboration. Bilateral cooperation should primarily aim at supporting initiatives and commitments which are important to the Government of Indonesia. In 2019, Presidential elections will be held and therefore 2018 is a crucial year for the Government of Indonesia. There are multiple MoUs between the Government of the Netherlands and the Government of Indonesia, which form a solid base for collaboration. 1. Provide capacity building and support on issues where the Netherlands has strong expertise, such as greenhouse emissions, water quality, plastic waste and circular economy, nature based solutions, rebuild by design Cooperation between the Netherlands and Indonesia should focus on providing support to the Government of Indonesia where it lacks capacity, as it is the case for calculation of GHG emissions, roadmap for improving water quality, strategies for plastic pollution prevention and circular economy, which can translate in job creation and growth, with large benefits for society and the environment. Existing collaborations like the Joint Monitoring Programme Initiative, peatland development and mangroves for coastal protection are good to build on further, while new initiatives like the AIIB call for Semarang (“Water as Leverage for Resilient Cities in Asia”) can provide a new entry point to further strengthen such collaborations. 2. Support initiatives that can foster balanced development, while keeping the emphasis on improvement of services Initiatives to develop infrastructure and new investments to improve equal development throughout the archipelago, including initiatives leading to social inclusiveness solutions, should be supported, although with emphasis on improving operations and maintenance of services, e.g. on water supply, wastewater and solid waste management. In addition, this support should also be in coherence with the Government of Indonesia commitments on following up tothe Paris and Sendai agreements on Climate mitigation, adaptation and disaster risk reduction, and should thus address also their priorities on dealing with too much and too little water also. The Government of the Netherlands should aim to understand better the National Determined Contributions, National Adaptation Plans and Disaster Risk 21 For a full overview of Deltares’ project consult Appendix F 22 http://treaty.kemlu.go.id/index.php/treaty/index http://treaty.kemlu.go.id/index.php/treaty/index 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 57 of 103 Reduction plans developed so far. Linking this to the relevant SDGs is a non-regret positioning for the Netherlands. 3. Support Indonesia in sustaining their commitments through improved capacity to respond On topics where the Government of Indonesia lacks initiative and attention due to capacity constraints, the Government of the Netherlands could provide capacity support and a soft reminder of commitments made (e.g. on commitment to reduce plastic waste in the Indonesian seas and the draft law on plastics). Indonesia wants to attract more tourists and a large tourism development project throughout the nation (funded by the World Bank) is currently being implemented. Piggy backing on this development and using this initiative to address pollution issues and provide support could also represent a good opportunity. 4.8 Highlights For each of the issues in the sections above, separate highlights have been elaborated. In this section the most important highlights of each issue are selected. 1. Take the leadership on the topic of marine plastic pollution and circular economy This is an opportunity to profile the Ministry in the global arena. The Dutch water sector is well renowned for its water management skills, i.e. at the forefront of innovative water management, such as the famous Delta Works and smart solutions in solving global water issues. In addition, the Netherlands is an acknowledged front runner in circular economy. The Government of the Netherlands aims to achieve clean Dutch delta waters as a result of innovative approaches and circular economies and by optimally exploiting its best expertise towards litter-free water ways and harbours. The results and products of these initiatives can be used as a showcase, inspire other parts of the world and be marketed globally. 2. Monitor closely the concentrations of pharmaceuticals in marine and coastal areas and support research on combined toxicity in marine organisms The monitoring of concentrations of pharmaceuticals in marine and coastal areas is important because little known about the effects of drug residues on aquatic ecosystems, especially in the long term and for marine systems, and that monitoring results for the Dutch situation are very scarce (Roex, 2016). Concentrations of pharmaceuticals in Dutch marine and coastal waters should be closely monitored and research on mixture toxicity and effects of drug residues in marine organisms should be promoted, in particular the impact of chemical stress on lower trophic levels (primary and secondary producers) and microbial communities and nutrient cycles. 3. Stronger policies to reduce nutrients in inland waters, including stricter limits to intensive agricultural practices In the Netherlands, agriculture is the main source of nutrients emissions due to its highly intensive character. The currently implemented changes in agricultural practices (e.g. through the Manure Policy) are expected to have only limited effects on water quality and on the achievement of the ecological objectives of the WFD in the Netherlands. Despite the relatively large impact of transboundary nutrient transport on the level of eutrophication in Dutch coastal waters, the Netherlands should not only rely on the measures of neighbouring countries to solve the eutrophication problem in the coastal waters. Agricultural practices that seek to maximize production up to the limits of what is environmentally sustainable, need to 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 58 of 103 change to ensure that objectives set by EU environmental policies can be achieved within a reasonable time frame. 4. Engage with governments worldwide and stakeholders to promote standardised approaches and encourage development of new technologies to mitigate underwater sound Continue to engage in international collaborations, such as within regional seas (e.g. North Sea, OSPAR), namely by disseminating the results from JOMOPANS, promoting commitments and standardised methodologies in other parts of the world; engage in discussions on underwater sound pressure at the high seas/international waters; continue to engage with stakeholders and industry to develop new technologies that minimise underwater sound (e.g. in shipping industry). This is an opportunity to profile the Netherlands, which is at the forefront monitoring and research of the topic. 5. Design an ambitious legislative framework for climate change mitigation and CO2 reductions A new legal framework is vital to give the necessary push for short-term progress in the Netherlands. It would bind current and future cabinets to work towards a significant Dutch contribution to climate change mitigation and prevent policy inconsistencies. Furthermore, it would provide a clear framework for society and companies for long-term investments, namely in renewable energies, energy efficiency and technological innovation. 6. Invest in the evidence base and understanding of Nature-based Flood Defences The protection value of coastal ecosystems against flooding and erosion is often not well known, particularly under conditions of future sea level rise and climate change. Due to this uncertainty, the economic value of such ecosystems as a coastal protection measure is often not apparent, leading to the potential for neglect and degradation of these ecosystems. A prioritisation towards the conservation and expansion of coastal ecosystems as coastal defence measures can be achieved by building an evidence base of NBFD. To be efficacious such examples should show a clear reduction in coastal threats (e.g., flooding) and clear economic benefit (i.e., located in an area with inherent value in need of protection). The development of management and design guidelines, backed-up by firm science, together with effective local capacity building, will help to further the economic argument for coastal ecosystem protection, and help coastal managers develop new NBFD-based coastal protection strategies in coastal stretches that are currently protected only by conventional “hard” coastal protection works, thereby reversing the decline of coastal ecosystems in these areas. 7. Provide capacity building and support on issues where the Netherlands has strong expertise, such as greenhouse emissions, water quality, plastic waste and circular economy, nature based solutions, rebuild by design Cooperation between the Netherlands and Indonesia should focus on providing support to the Government of Indonesia where it lacks capacity, as it is the case for calculation of GHG emissions, roadmap for improving water quality, strategies for plastic pollution prevention and circular economy, which can translate in job creation and growth, with large benefits for society and the environment. Existing collaborations like the Joint Monitoring Programme Initiative, peatland development and mangroves for coastal protection are good to build on further, while new initiatives like the AIIB call for Semarang (“Water as Leverage for Resilient Cities in Asia”) can provide a new entry point to further strengthen such collaborations.11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 59 of 103 5 New monitoring technologies The aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of possibilities and give an indication of the importance of new technologies in support of monitoring SDG14, such as global observatories and satellite data. Such new developments may be considered by the Government of the Netherlands regarding their input in upcoming reviews of the existing SDG14 monitoring and reporting mechanisms. 5.1 Definition of the problem A number of significant challenges exist related to monitoring of seas and oceans, as specified below. An understanding of these challenges is important, as the most successful new and innovative technologies will address one or more of these challenges. However, before presenting these challenges, it is important to recognize that choices about measurement techniques cannot be made independently of a monitoring strategy and explicit definition of information needs. This interdependence of information needs, measurement technology and system understanding is shown in a ‘monitoring cycle’ in Figure 5.1. Box 5.1 - Facts & figures on new monitoring technologies Seven different countries are involved in the ‘traditional’ monitoring of the North Sea, each in its own EEZ territory. The Netherlands (Rijkswaterstaat) measures approximately 15 points for water quality on a regular basis in its EEZ (typically every 2 weeks). The Sentinel-2 and Sentinel-3 satellites of the Copernicus programme make images of the entire North Sea several times per week, which can be processed for several water quality parameters, including chlorophyll-a, turbidity, and suspended sediment concentration. The Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Service (CMEMS) provides in-situ, remote sensing and model-based information products for all European regional seas, as well as the Artic region and Global oceans. Products are updated daily and available per online catalogue. The European Space Agency (ESA) is sponsoring research to enable identification of plastic litter in oceans from satellite measurements. Two new research projects have started in 2017. The European Union and OSPAR are assessing the use of satellite remote sensing for MSFD eutrophication assessments of the North Sea. In HELCOM, the use of satellite remote sensing for chlorophyll-a concentrations (eutrophication indicator) is already established practice. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 60 of 103 An effective choice about monitoring strategy and monitoring techniques cannot be made independently of an objective for monitoring with specified information needs. As such, the first challenge (and often the most difficult) for any organization involved with and responsible for monitoring is to explicitly define the objectives and information needs. Choices on strategy and technology follow from these. If the focus is specifically on SDG14, then the relevant topics are 14.1 “Pollution” and 14.3 “Acidification” (see also Chapter 2.1), with the following indicators: Indicator 14.1.1: Index of coastal eutrophication and floating plastic debris density Indicator 14.3.1: Average marine acidity (pH) measured at agreed suite of representative sampling stations Figure 5.1: Schematic illustration of the monitoring cycle and the three most important components at the corners of the triangle: Information needs,measurement technologies, and information & understanding of water system properties. (Deltares, 2015a) Specific challenges with regard to ocean and coastal monitoring include: 1 Large spatial scale: The large area to be monitored and the variation in conditions within the large area (challenge of spatial scale), as well as 2 Variations in time: The variation in conditions over time (challenge of temporal scale). For different parameters, there can be different time scales that are relevant, ranging from annual or seasonal, as well twice monthly (spring-neap tidal cycle), daily or even hourly in some coastal sea areas. In coastal areas that are significantly influenced by freshwater river discharges, variations in conditions can be also linked to large rainfall and runoff events. A basic challenge to monitoring the oceans and seas is thus to identify the spatial and temporal scales of relevance (the “special-temporal resolution”) for substances of interest and to ensure that monitoring programmes are tailored to these. This is particularly important as traditionally monitoring of the oceans has been ship-based: A monitoring (or research) ship travels to a monitoring location, where a number of in-situ measurements are made and water and/or bottom samples are collected. This may be repeated for a number of defined locations (the monitoring locations) at a regular schedule (the monitoring frequency), resulting in a monitoring information at selected points. Typical frequency for visiting established monitoring locations is often monthly, or twice monthly. The Netherlands monitoring locations of the so- 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 61 of 103 called “MWTL network” in the national waters including North Sea, estuaries, large lakes and rivers are shown in Figure 5.2 Figure 5.2: Location of the national monitoring points of the Netherlands (North Sea as well as inland waters) in the Rijkswaterstaat MWTL network. Not all points shown are still part of the active monitoring network. In the North Sea approximately 15 locations are monitored typically every 2 weeks or once per month for selected water quality parameters. 3 Many substances and parameters in water, biota and sediment. With respect to ocean health (water quality or ecosystem conditions), there is a large number of substances or measurement parameters that may be relevant. This requires that a choice be made of which parameters to measure in the field as well as in collected water, sediment or biota samples. This choice must be made ahead of time in order to ensure the correct equipment, collection of appropriate samples and arrangements with laboratories for relevant analyses. The information needs, monitoring priorities, and available budgets will influence the choice of substances and parameters. As new environmental issues emerge, there can also be a shift in information needs, monitoring priorities and substances of concern. In recent years for example, ocean acidification, micro-plastics, hormone disrupting substances and other micro-pollutants are gaining attention. Micro-plastics and acidification are of specific relevance to SDG14, as these are part of the goals 14.1 and 14.3 and are included in the defined indicators. Established monitoring programs need to adjust to take these new substances into account. Because these substances have not been monitored regularly in the past, there is very little information about changes and trends. Challenges for adjusting and expanding monitoring efforts to account for new substances can include additional budget that is needed, as well as development of new and effective measurement methods for monitoring these substances. For example, for micro-plastics, there is not yet an efficient monitoring technique or a monitoring strategy adopted by many parties to allow 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 62 of 103 a good quantification of the extent of the problem in the North Sea. The European Space Agency (ESA) is sponsoring research to enable identification and quantification of plastic litter in oceans from satellite measurements. Two new research projects have started in 2017. 4 Access to collected data: Marine data collection,storage and arrangements for data access in Europe have been carried out in a fragmented way for many years. Most data collection has focused on meeting the needs of a single purpose by a wide range of private and public organisations, often in isolation from each other (EMODnet.eu). Effective and structured data management is a key issue to ensure access to monitoring data is easily accessible and can be used by multiple users, for different purposes and at different times (the ‘measure once, use often” principle). From a technical perspective, this requires a good data infrastructure, which for example has been established in the Netherlands with ‘Informatiehuis Marien’ 23 . as well as Rijkswaterstaat Waterbase 24 . At the European level, a number of different initiatives also exist, including EMODnet 25 and SeaDataNet 26 . Also the regional sea organizations OSPAR and HELCOM have also established their own data management systems for the purpose of supporting their regional sea assessments 27 28 . The European Environment Agency (EEA) also has its WISE-Marine system 29 , a portal and infrastructure for sharing information on the state of the marine environment at the European scale. Although there are many different European data management systems, often they contain much of the same data, and these can be accessible via the different systems. All of these data management infrastructures are required to conform to the EU INSPIRE Directive to allow access and exchange of data 30 . The main European initiatives are listed in Table 5.2. 5 Extracting information from data: Once measurements have been made and the monitoring data have been gathered, there is still a challenge of extracting policy relevant information from the available data, (and avoiding the ‘data-rich information poor” syndrome). For purposes of reporting policy relevant information, many organizations define indicators which are based on the available data, and the use of indicators can be more forgiving in working with different data sources. For example, OSPAR uses the weight of plastic particles in beached fulmars’ (seabird species) stomachs as an indicator of the amount of plastic pollution in the environment. The plastics pollution indicator for SDG14 (14.1.1), is “floating plastic debris density”, which will need a standardized method for measurement and data analysis. 6 Sharing data for joint assessments: For large coastal areas, seas and oceans, often many different countries or measurement organizations are involved in monitoring a shared ocean or coastal sea. For example, in the North Sea, seven different countries are involved in the ‘traditional’ monitoring of the North Sea, each in its own EEZ territory, as shown in Figure 5.3. A challenge is such settings is to ensure exchange and 23 http://www.informatiehuismarien.nl/overons 24 https://www.rijkswaterstaat.nl/water/waterdata-en-waterberichtgeving/waterdata/index.aspx 25 http://www.emodnet.eu 26 https://www.seadatanet.org 27 https://odims.ospar.org 28 http://www.helcom.fi/baltic-sea-trends/data-maps 29 http://water.europa.eu/marine 30 https://inspire.ec.europa.eu http://www.informatiehuismarien.nl/overons https://www.rijkswaterstaat.nl/water/waterdata-en-waterberichtgeving/waterdata/index.aspx http://www.emodnet.eu/ https://www.seadatanet.org/ https://odims.ospar.org/ http://www.helcom.fi/baltic-sea-trends/data-maps http://water.europa.eu/marine https://inspire.ec.europa.eu/ 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 63 of 103 comparability of monitoring data, so that “integrated” overall assessments of larger seas or oceans can be made. Inconsistencies in data from different organizations can include different spatial representation or sampling frequency or measurement method. An example of this challenge is the results from the first MSFD assessment for the North Sea. Differences between countries in measurement techniques, monitoring frequency, spatial coverage, data processing and environmental standards resulted made it difficult to provide a coherent picture of the North Sea status. This lead to the initiative Joint Monitoring Programme of the Eutrophication of the North Sea with Satellite data (JMP- EUNOSAT). This initiative recognizes that satellite remote sensing has the value of providing a consistent set of data for a large region, which is ideal for making coherent assessments. The initiative will investigate the details of satellite data processing and application for assessments, including a push towards consistency and incorporation of national data. This is all meant to lead towards more cost-effective monitoring and assessment and better coordination between countries. This specific project is directly addressing an information requirement for SDG14, namely indicator 14.1.1 ‘coastal eutrophication index’. 7 Maximizing (consistent) information with limited (decreasing) budgets: The ultimate challenge in monitoring is to obtain the desired information given the available (financial) resources In practice, this is a challenge of how to get more information at a higher spatial and temporal resolution at lower cost, which is consistent over large areas, to really be able to observe and follow the condition of the oceans. Most of the new technical and organizational monitoring developments, address one or more of these challenges. Figure 5.3: The National Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) of the 7 North Sea countries, for which each country has a monitoring responsibility. Differences in monitoring techniques, parameters, spatial and temporal coverage in monitoring, environmental standards, and data processing between the countries make it difficult to combine the national information into a joint assessment of the quality of the North Sea. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 64 of 103 5.2 Policy context Monitoring information forms the basis of our understanding of the oceans and seas, and is essential for identifying the ‘health’ of such systems and forming good policy to protect and/or restore them. Observing and monitoring the oceans is also essential for better and more sustainable management of our oceans and seas in support of the development of human activities and of the blue economy. The United Nations sustainable development goal 14 (SDG 14) that aims to ‘conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development’ also relies on monitoring information. Within Europe, the Marine Strategy Framework Directive focuses on a number of indicators and targets which should be achieved for Good Ecological Status. Monitoring is essential to provide the information needed to calculate these indicators and makes such assessments. The European regional seas work with similar indicator systems, also relying on monitoring information. At a global scale, there is also the same reliance on monitoring data from different countries and national and international data programmes for global ocean assessments. Data and information management occur often on national, but increasingly on an international basis. This requires agreements, coordination and harmonization on all aspects of monitoring, so that data can be effectively shared and combined. A first step towards this is an international agreement on Essential Ocean Variables (EOVs) which are relevant for monitoring the oceans, and providing information on the state of the oceans. In Figure 5.4, an overview is presented of the EOVs as defined by Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS). It is interesting to note that these EOVs do not include acidification, micro-plastics or new emerging chemicalsubstances. Figure 5.4: Overview of Essential Ocean Variables (EOVs) as defined by the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) and their readiness level (GOOS, 2017) 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 65 of 103 5.3 What are the new technologies and what can they offer? There are many ‘new’ technologies for monitoring the oceans, a number of which are presented briefly below. Satellites Satellite remote sensing (or Earth Observation) has already been used for several decades to monitor the oceans, but the use of a satellite data to provide standardized marine information products on a regular basis is relatively recent. In Europe, this has been occurring since 2014 in the Copernicus Marine Environmental Monitoring Service (CMEMS). The European Sentinel satellites are an important source of the CMEMS information, as well as in-situ data and computer models. The combination of these information sources for providing information for seven different regions in Europe and globally is shown in Figure 5.5. Figure 5.5: Left): SENTINEL 1 , the polar-orbiting, all-weather, day-and-night radar imaging mission for land and ocean services, launched in April 2014 (credit, ESA). (Right): Schematic overview on ocean information products as prepared by CMEMS and used in the CMEMS Ocean State Report (2016), comprising model reanalysis (RAN), In-situ data and satellite measurements. The combination of these three information sources provides the maximum flexibility in providing relevant ocean information for long-term assessments (e.g. from 1993-present) as well as for analysis of current conditions and short-term changes (NRT = near real time). Source: Journal of Operational Oceanography, Volume 9, 2016 - Issue sup2: The Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Service Ocean State Report 31 Of the recently launched Sentinel satellites in the European Copernicus programme, two are specifically dedicated to ocean and maritime observing 32 : Sentinel-1 provides an all-weather, day-and-night radar imaging capability for Copernicus ocean services involved in the management and monitoring of the European marine environment, the Arctic environment and associated sea-ice measurement, and the surveillance of the open ocean to establish directional observations of surface wave and wind observations, and for threats such as oil spills. Sentinel-3 provides a multi-instrument capability to support the accurate parameterisation of such topics as Ocean Colour (OC, e.g. turbidity and chlorophyll-a), Sea Surface Height (SSH) and Sea Surface Temperature (SST). Along with SST, OC can be used to support the accurate estimation of oceanic carbon fluxes. The Altimetry Instrument onboard Sentinel-3 support Marines applications in physical oceanography with measurement of sea surface height (SSH, relevant for following ocean water flows & currents). 31 https://doi.org/10.1080/1755876X.2016.1273446 32 https://sentinels.copernicus.eu/web/sentinel/thematic-areas/marine-monitoring https://doi.org/10.1080/1755876X.2016.1273446 https://sentinels.copernicus.eu/web/sentinel/thematic-areas/marine-monitoring 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 66 of 103 A specific example of a CMEMS satellite product is given in Figure 5.6, showing ocean temperature in the NW European Shelf. This and many more information products are available the CMEMS product catalogue 33 . The various ocean information products and analyses by CMEMS have been compiled and used to make a first ‘Ocean State Report’ Figure 5.6. The value of satellites is in providing frequent and consistent measurements for large areas. However, there is only a specific set of parameters they are capable of measuring, which for example does not include acidity, micro-plastics, nutrients or other chemical pollutants. As such satellite data is often used in combination with other information sources to provide desired information. A specific recommendation for combining remote sensing and in-situ measurements for monitoring eutrophication in the Netherlands region of the North Sea has recently been made in a study for Rijkswaterstaat 34 , see . The advised strategy also includes FerryBox measurements (see below), and possibly measurement buoys such as the SmartBuoy (see below). Figure 5.6: Left: Example of CMEMS satellite ocean information product for Sea Surface Temperature (SST) for the NW European Shelf 35 . Source. Right: The first CMEMS Ocean State Report (2016), based on the information products prepared by CMEMS. Source: Journal of Operational Oceanography, Volume 9, 2016 - Issue sup2: The Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Service Ocean State Report 36 33 http://marine.copernicus.eu/services-portfolio/access-to-products/ 34 Naar een nieuw monitoringstrategie voor eutrofiering in de Noordzee, Deltares report 1220034, Nov. 2015 35 http://marine.copernicus.eu/services-portfolio/access-to-products/ 36 https://doi.org/10.1080/1755876X.2016.1273446 http://marine.copernicus.eu/services-portfolio/access-to-products/ http://marine.copernicus.eu/services-portfolio/access-to-products/ https://doi.org/10.1080/1755876X.2016.1273446 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 67 of 103 Figure 5.7: Advice for monitoring strategy for Eutrophication monitoring in the Netherlands’ region of the North Sea, combining remote sensing (RS) with FerryBox measurements and ship-based samples and/or monitoring buoys (Deltares, 2015b). FerryBox Automated instrument packages on ships of opportunities (often ferries) are used to monitor ocean conditions along dedicated ship routes. FerryBoxes can have different sensors ranging from the simple "Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR)" up to the most recent sophisticated "FerryBoxes" with an ensemble of different sensors and biogeochemical analysers. The FerryBox network currently operating in Europe was largely developed during the EU FerryBox project (2002-2005), and is now coordinated by EuroGOOS. The oldest and best known FerryBox programme is the Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR) Survey, operated by the Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for Ocean Science (SAHFOS), an international non-profit organisation. The Foundation has been collecting data from the North Atlantic and the North Sea on biogeography and ecology of plankton since 1931, see Figure 5.8. More recently, as the Foundation has become more involved in international projects, work has expanded to include other regions around the globe. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 68 of 103 Figure 5.8: Routes of the ferries making measurements with the Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR) 37 . There are currently several different FerryBox systems operating in Europe, but all of them use the same basic principle (Figure 5.9 ): The water is pumped from below the ship into the measuring circuit of multiple sensors. The measurements that are made can be stored for downloading at a later time, or are transferred directly to an external operator. Figure 5.9 : Schematic illustration of the FerryBox measurement principle 38 There are many established FerryBox routes in Europe (Figure 5.10; left). The observed variables for a number of these routes are given in Table 5.1. Many FerryBoxes measure pCO2 and pH, both of which are relevant to SDG14 indictor for acidity. Within the Netherlands, Rijkswaterstaat has a FerryBox installation on their vessel Zirfaea. There is also a FerryBox on the TESO ferry ‘Schulpengat’ crossing several times daily between DenHelder and Texel (Figure 5.10; right). This system has been operational since 1998 and measures temperature, salinity and turbidity. These data are primarily used by NIOZ. Figure 5.10: FerryBox routes in Europe 39 The advantages of FerryBox measurements above ‘traditional’ in-situ monitoring is that there are measurements made along an entire transect of many kilometres, and these measurements are made much more frequently than the typical 1-2 times monthly. Currently, 37 https://www.sahfos.ac.uk/about-us/our-network-of-ships 38 http://www.ferrybox.com/dissemination/eu_project_ferrybox/index.php.en 39 http://www.ferrybox.com/routes_data/routes/north_sea_atlantic/index.php.en https://www.sahfos.ac.uk/about-us/our-network-of-ships http://www.ferrybox.com/dissemination/eu_project_ferrybox/index.php.en http://www.ferrybox.com/routes_data/routes/north_sea_atlantic/index.php.en 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 69 of 103 Rijkswaterstaat (WVL and CiV) are working on setting up a new ferrybox transect between Norway, Denmark and the Netherlands. Table 5.1: Ferrybox trajectories and observed variables. Destination harbours Temp Sal pCO2 Turb Chl-a AOA** pH DO Nut Amsterdam – Bergen X X X X X X Cuxhaven – Harwich X X X X X X Cuxhaven – Immingham X X X X X X X X X* Rotterdam – Immingham X X X X X X Moss-Halden-Zeebrugge- Immingham X X X X X X X X X* * Nutrients have been measured for some years but due to technical problems these measurements were discontinued. The nutrient data cannot be accessed through the portals. ** AOA: phytoplankton species (group) composition through spectral fluorescence. Smart buoys There are many examples of buoy systems equipped with automatic sensors to make continuous measurements at fixed locations in coastal waters. One example of this is the ‘SmartBuoy’ system developed by CEFAS (UK) (Figure 5.11). The SmartBuoy is mounted with sensors to collect high-frequency timeseries of salinity, temperature, turbidity, oxygen saturation, chlorophyll fluorescence and nitrate concentration near the water surface (1m depth). Additionally, water samples are collected and preserved onboard for later analysis of nutrients and phytoplankton species. Deployments can, for instance, highlight increases in nutrient-rich freshwater inputs and the variable timing of springtime blooms. With the measurement of chlorophyll and nitrate concentrations, the SmartBuoy measurements are directly relevant to SDG14 indicator 14.1.1, Index of coastal eutrophication. Rijkswaterstaat and CEFAS have had a cooperative agreement for a number of years (2006-2015) for high frequency measurements at the Oystergrounds monitoring location using the CEFAS SmartBuoy technology, though this is currently no longer active. Similar buoy systems can also be set-up to transfer information in real-time, for example by sending measurement data by satellite. Figure 5.11: A CEFAS SmartBouy, which makes automated measurements of salinity, temperature, turbidity, oxygen saturation, chlorophyll fluorescence and nitrate concentration near the water surface 40 . Such a buoy was located for at the Oyster grounds location of the North Sea from 2006-2015, as part of Rijkswaterstaat-CEFAS cooperation. Aquatic Drones A more recent development in monitoring is the ‘aquatic drone’ or autonomous ship (Figure 5.12). Rijkswaterstaat has been testing this innovation together with market partners. The initial pilot studies for this (2017) have been in freshwater systems, to measure water depth, to inspect structures, and to collect samples for water quality measurements. These aquatic drones could be employed to measure parameters of specific relevance to SDG14, though 40 https://www.cefas.co.uk/cefas-data-hub/smartbuoys/ https://www.cefas.co.uk/cefas-data-hub/smartbuoys/ 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 70 of 103 this is not yet the case. One of the challenges in using aquatic drones more extensively is the existing laws and regulations which require manned control of vessels. Figure 5.12: An ‘aquatic drone’ or autonomous ship equipped for making measurements 41 Airborne drones Airborne drones can be applied to either collect water samples, or if equipped with special cameras or sensors, can make images of the water surface to provide relevant monitoring information. Sampling drones can be programmed to fly to programmed GPS positions, collect a sample from a specific depth, testing the sample on-board and/or sending the data remotely (Figure 5.13). A number of different technology companies are specializing in these types of water monitoring drones. Drones based sensors could be used to identify floating (plastic) litter, though development of standardized procedures for this are still in the research phase. Figure 5.13: Airborne drones for water monitoring. Left: A drone for collecting water samples 42 . Right: A drone equipped with special sensors for optical imaging of water quality 43 Other measurement technologies There are many other technologies existing for the measurements of conditions on coastal waters, seas and oceans. These are too many to list and describe here in full, but they include, but are not limited to, gliders or autonomous underwater vehicles, underwater video, specialized underwater sensors, acoustic sensors, land-based High-frequency radar and airborne measurements. An overview of many technologies is available at the website of NOAA 44 and several of these are illustrated schematically in Figure 5.14. 41 https://www.shipinstall.nl/zelfvarende-drones 42 https://www.uasvision.com/2016/03/11/drones-over-water-collect-and-test-samples 43 http://eo.belspo.be/Docs/Resources/Presentations/BEODay2016/23_BEODay2016_DRONESED.pdf 44 http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/technology/tools/tools.html https://www.shipinstall.nl/zelfvarende-drones https://www.uasvision.com/2016/03/11/drones-over-water-collect-and-test-samples http://eo.belspo.be/Docs/Resources/Presentations/BEODay2016/23_BEODay2016_DRONESED.pdf http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/technology/tools/tools.html 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 71 of 103 Figure 5.14: Schematic illustration of some measurement technologies available for coastal and ocean monitoring 45 The role of models in monitoring Models are also a source of information about the status of oceans and coasts. This is quite apparent in the CMEMS coastal information catalogue, where many of the ocean information products are model-based. Some products also include integration or ‘assimilation’ of data into the modelling results, resulting in improved model information, more consistent with available measurements. A value of models above measurements as that they can ‘monitor’ the past if models are set-up for years prior to the present time, as well as provide information about the future, in the form of forecasts. Additionally, they provide information at more extensive spatial and temporal scales than are usually available from measurements. For example, the Global Storm Surge Forecasting and Information System (GLOSSIS) has been developed and is currently running operationally (i.e. continuously) so that it can provide real- time water level and storm-surge forecasts with global coverage Figure 5.15. This model is also being extended to include calculation of floating plastic pollution from land-based sources. This is also a form of ocean monitoring. Modelling forecasts can be used for early warning in those areascurrently lacking any forecasting capability, or can provide boundary conditions for more refined local models. 45 https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/ https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/ 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 72 of 103 Figure 5.15: Global water level forecasts from the GLOSSIS model 46 5.4 Incorporating and transitioning to new technologies The above summary illustrates that there is a very wide range of existing and developing monitoring technologies for measuring the status of the oceans and coastal waters. There is similarly a large range in Technology Readiness of these technologies, from initial research and prototyping to fully operational. The challenge for the developers and users of new technologies is to make the transition from research to operational use. And a related (organisational) challenge is to incorporate new technologies into the standard practices of monitoring organizations. This includes developing the procedures for processing and applying the new types of data, and possibly requiring organisational adjustments to support this. For any individual institute or Government organization involved in oceans monitoring, the transition to utilize new technologies is a process involving many steps including identification of information needs, assessment of possible techniques and strategies to meet these information needs, development of expertise to test and implement new technologies and work with new types of data, technical and financial assessment (cost-benefits) of new measurement technologies and organizational flexibility to bring them into standard use. There is no single ‘best answer’ as to which technologies should be used, as this is dependent on the information need, and the financial, technical and organizational capabilities and ambitions of the organization. The role of research projects The initial development and testing of new monitoring techniques is often at the level of European Research projects. For example the EU H2020 Jerico-NEXT project has the objective of “strengthening and enlarging a solid and transparent European network of coastal observatories for providing timely, continuous and sustainable delivery of high quality environmental data and information products related to marine environment in European coastal seas.” In this project, many in-situ monitoring techniques are being tested, improved and/or standardized within a European Ocean Observing System 47 . This includes the 46 https://www.deltares.nl/en/projects/global-storm-surge-information-system-glossis 47 http://www.jerico-ri.eu https://www.deltares.nl/en/projects/global-storm-surge-information-system-glossis http://www.jerico-ri.eu/ 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 73 of 103 refinement of the FerryBox systems (including measurement of acidity), as well as the flow cytometer methods for phytoplankton (related to eutrophication). While Jerico-NEXT is focusing explicitly on in-situ measurements, ESA also sponsors a number of projects intended to advance the application of satellite remote sensing in ocean and coastal monitoring. Recently, ESA has initiated research on "Remote Sensing of Marine Litter" in view to conduct experimental and modelling activities to define the requirements for the remote sensing of plastic Marine Litter and to propose a conceptual design of a remote sensing methodology capable of satisfying those requirements. As part of this initiative, ESA funded two parallel projects that started in September 2017: RESMALI, led by Argans Limited, UK and OPTIMAL, led by the Plymouth Marine Laboratory, UK. There are no Netherlands organisations participating in these initiatives. Many more research and demonstration projects are taking place in Europe and internationally to develop, test and implement new monitoring techniques. For the Netherlands, the European projects and related networks provide the main structure for being involved in innovations. If the Netherlands wants to be aware of the new developments, or have a leading role in development and standardization and implementation of such new techniques then active participation in a number of projects and networks is an ideal opportunity to do so. The opposite is also true, by not participating in such projects; it is difficult to effectively have information and experience related to new technologies and innovations. High Profile Events Events such as the Volvo Ocean Race can lead to popular interest in the state of the oceans and provide an opportunity to test and showcase specific technological developments, especially if a new ‘monitoring technology’ component is linked to the event or a specific team. For example, a consortium of Dutch companies, governments and knowledge institutions 48 are working with team AkzoNobel to try to improve the team’s performance in wind and waves during the Volvo Ocean Race 2017-2018. An example of how Dutch research and top sports can work together, the project links the challenging Volvo Ocean Race to innovative, sustainable shipping, clean oceans and climate models. The results of this research will be presented in June 2018 at the conference “Future of the Oceans” during the Volvo Ocean Race’s final stopover in The Hague. One of the objectives of the cooperative project is to use ship-based measurements together with Deltares’ knowledge of global tidal and current circulation and MARIN’s knowledge on sail assisted propulsion in waves to help squeeze the maximum performance out of the team AkzoNobel Volvo Ocean 65 yacht. The research could enable both MARIN and Deltares to develop new products and services for better ships and blue oceans (Figure 5.16). 48 The consortium participants are: STEAM Ocean Racing, Shell Nederland, Shell Shipping and Trading, Van Oord Dredging and Marine Contractors, Ministerie Infrastructuur en Waterstaat, Nederland Maritiemland (NML), HHR Delfland, Province Zuid-Holland, Rijkswaterstaat, C- Job Naval Architects, Deltares and MARIN on behalf of the Top Sector Water & Maritime.Other performance partners with Steam Ocean Racing : DAMEN SHIPYARDS, NileDutch, Erasmus Medisch Centrum, Royal Dutch Navy. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 74 of 103 Figure 5.16: Numerical modelling and scale model tests of the Akzo Nobel Volvo Ocean Race yacht, using measurement data from ship-based sensors to improve the team’s performance in wind and waves during Volvo Ocean Race 2017-2018 49 Networks There are a number of European and international (global) networks focused on monitoring of the oceans and coastal waters, such as GEO, CEOS, AquaWatch, EuroGOOS (see also Table 5.2). Many of these networks are involved in the new innovative measurement technologies, as well as the process of bringing these innovations into standard practice. An active participation from Netherlands organizations in these networks would help support the innovative developments and new standard practices in the Netherlands. A number of these would be directly relevant to monitoring for SDG14. Data Management There are a number of European Directives and initiatives related to data management which is an essential component of making assessment of ocean and coastal areas: INSPIRE Directive, EmodNet, SeaDataNet (see also the table below). An active participation from Netherlands organizations in these networks would help support the innovative developments and new standard practices in the Netherlands. A number of these would be directly relevantto monitoring for SDG14. 5.5 Key issues & questions What do you want to know about the oceans and what is the spatial scale and temporal scale of interest? (Definition of information needs). The information needs and the financial limitations are the key factors defining the monitoring strategy to be employed, including the choice of new technologies. What is the interest to explore new technologies and their potential to improve and supplement existing ‘traditional’ in-situ monitoring ? Taking on a leading role (nationally or internationally) is a stimulus to development and opportunities for small businesses and research institutes specializing in innovations and specific measurement technologies. Especially small business can benefit immensely by have a government agency with a long-term vision as a launching customer. What role do you want to have internationally? Most of the new developments in all aspects of monitoring are taking place internationally (in Europe or further abroad) in consortia of research institutes, small businesses and government agencies. This includes all aspects of the monitoring cycle, from specific measurement techniques, to data management, information portals, joint assessments, etc. Having a leading role in 49 https://www.deltares.nl/en/news/dutch-research-and-high-level-sports-come-together-during-volvo-ocean-race https://www.deltares.nl/en/news/dutch-research-and-high-level-sports-come-together-during-volvo-ocean-race 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 75 of 103 international networks and organizations allows the Netherlands to profit from the new information and technologies being developed in other countries and in joint cooperation. It also gives an impulse to national organizations and businesses involved in the area of ocean observing. A number of relevant networks and initiatives are listed in the table below. Table 5.2: Relevant organizations and networks Organisation purpose CMEMS The Copernicus Marine Environmental Monitoring Service http://marine.copernicus.eu/about-us/about-eu-copernicus provides regular and systematic core reference information on the state of the physical oceans and regional seas. The observations and forecasts produced by the service support all marine applications. The information products are based on in-situ, remote sensing and model-based information, as well as combined products. GEO & AquaWatch GEO, the Group on Earth Observations, is an intergovernmental organization working to improve the availability, access and use of Earth observations for the benefit of society. GEO works to actively improve and coordinate global EO systems and promote broad, open data sharing. GEO’s global priorities include supporting the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the Paris Agreement on Climate Change, and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction. (https://www.earthobservations.org/index2.php). Within GEO, AquaWatch is a working group on water quality monitoring, with a goal to develop and build the global capacity and utility of Earth Observation- derived water quality data, products and information to support water resources management and decision making. https://www.geoaquawatch.org/ SeaDataNet SeaDataNet is a distributed Marine Data Infrastructure for the management of large and diverse sets of data deriving from in situ of the seas and oceans. https://www.seadatanet.org/ EuroGOOS EuroGOOS (http://eurogoos.eu/) is a pan-European network operating within the Global Ocean Observing System of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO. EuroGOOS identifies priorities, enhances cooperation and promotes the benefits of operational oceanography to ensure sustained observations are made in Europe’s seas underpinning a suite of fit-for-purpose products and services for marine and maritime end-users. EMODNET The European Marine Observation and Data Network (EMODnet) is a network of organisations supported by the EU’s integrated maritime policy. These organisations work together to observe the sea, process the data according to international standards and make that information freely available as interoperable data layers and data products. http://www.emodnet.eu/ WISE-MARINE WISE-Marine is a portal and infrastructure for sharing information with the marine community on the marine environment at European level. Focusing on the state of the marine environment at the European scale, WISE Marine shows the information and knowledge gathered or derived through the MSFD process and other key marine policy drivers http://water.europa.eu/marine/about-us http://marine.copernicus.eu/about-us/about-eu-copernicus https://www.earthobservations.org/index2.php https://www.geoaquawatch.org/ https://www.seadatanet.org/ http://eurogoos.eu/ http://www.goosocean.org/ http://www.emodnet.eu/ http://water.europa.eu/marine/about-us 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 76 of 103 5.6 Highlights 1. Participate in Copernicus and other key European developments Many of the important developments with regard to marine monitoring and information are occurring at the European level. It is important for the Government of the Netherlands to be aware of these developments and to actively participate. Copernicus is a European programme for the establishment of a European capacity for Earth Observation and Monitoring. The Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Service (CMEMS) has been designed to provide information relevant for environmental, government, business and scientific sectors. Using information from satellites, models and in situ observations, it provides state-of-the-art analyses and forecasts daily, which offer an unprecedented capability to observe, understand and anticipate marine environment events. With this European programme much relevant information in the Northwest Shelf and the North Sea, including Dutch waters, is provided on a regular basis in a systematic and coherent way. Information relevant for Dutch policy makers is available from this European programme. By actively participating it is possible to optimally access this information and steer future developments. Without governmental support, relevant research institutes do not have sufficient mandate to be important players in programmes such as Copernicus. 2. Continue investing in new monitoring technologies and networks Monitoring is very much in development; much more data and information about coastal and marine systems is becoming available e.g. from new satellites as well as advanced models. Countries are starting to work together in formal and informal networks to joint monitoring and assessment of their shared coastal and marine waters. Data management is also evolving to cope with new demands on data availability and traceability (INPSIRE directive) and harmonization of monitoring and assessment procedures. Initiatives and networks such as EuroGOOS and EMODnet on the European level are addressing these challenges. Both the new monitoring technologies and the networks of research institutes and policy makers cannot be missed. The relevant governmental organisations of the Netherlands could benefit of investing time in these technologies and networks. This can be done by identifying relevant European programmes and networks and the appropriate governmental organisation that can stimulate this cooperation. Where necessary bring in the relevant research organisations. 3. Support research and development of new measurement techniques for parameters of concern The monitoring of SDG14 pressures such as acidification and marine plastics is a challenge, especially at the spatial and temporal scalesthat are relevant. Much of this work is still in the realm of Dutch and international research institutes. Providing support to targeted research projects would allow more direct information on possibilities and could optimally steer new research. Include thorough data analysis and assessment and interpretation as part of the nfew developments. Without this, there is not enough understanding of aht the technologies can offer. 4. Support long term monitoring to enable signalling changes in marine status before a tipping point is reached Long term data sets are of crucial importance to signal slow changes in the marine status. Signalling is a first step before any policy measures can be taken. As part of this, key long term datasets should be identified, and supported if considered relevant. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 77 of 103 6 The role of relevant institutions The aim of this chapter is to explain the role of Regional Seas Convention in ocean governance, including an analysis of the strategic themes and the issues that are covered. The chapter also lists a number of relevant institutions and conferences that should be addressed in the Oceans agenda. 6.1 Regional Seas Conventions Introduction The Regional Seas Programme (RSP) of UN Environment (formerly UNEP) was launched in 1974 and covers 18 regions. Seven RSPs are administered by UN Environment (Caribbean Region; East Asian Seas; Eastern Africa Region; Mediterranean Region; North-West Pacific Region; Western Africa Region; Caspian Sea), another 7 regions are non-UN Environment administered (Black Sea Region; North-East Pacific Region; Red Sea and Gulf of Aden; ROPME Sea Area; South Asian Seas; South-East Pacific Region; Pacific Region) and 4 regions are independent (Arctic Region; Antarctic Region; Baltic Sea; North-East Atlantic Region) (see Appendix C). The strategy and substance of the RSPs is generally specified in an Action Plan based on the region's specific environmental issues and challenges, taking into account its socio-economic and political situation. Additionally, 14 of the 18 regions have adopted legally-binding Regional Seas Conventions (RSCs) that express the commitment and political will of governments to tackle common environmental challenges through joint coordinated activities, as well as protocols and legal agreements that address specific issues, e.g. land-based pollution. Role of Regional Seas Programmes Underpinned by the Regional Seas Conventions and Action Plans, the role of the RSPs is to implement the international agenda on marine and coastal issues, bringing together governments, the scientific community, intergovernmental organizations and other Box 6.1 - Facts & figures on relevant institutions Regional Seas Programmes implement the international agenda on marine and coastal issues 7 Regional Seas Programmes are administered by UN Environment: Caribbean; East Asian Seas; East & West Africa; Mediterranean; North-West Pacific; Caspian Sea 7 regions are non-UN Environment administered: Black Sea; North-East Pacific; Red Sea and Gulf of Aden; ROPME Sea; South Asian Seas; South-East Pacific; Pacific 4 regions are independent: Arctic Region; Antarctic Region; Baltic Sea; North-East Atlantic Region Key thematic strategies are: reducing pollution, resilience for people and ecosystems, integrated ecosystem-based policies and enhancing effectiveness The Government of the Netherlands regards Regional Seas Conventions as essential for effective ocean governance. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 78 of 103 stakeholders. The RSPs provide valuable regional frameworks for i) assessing the state of the marine environment; ii) addressing key developments e.g. socio-economic activities, coastal settlements, land-based activities that interact with the marine environment; and iii) agreeing on appropriate responses in terms of strategies, policies, management tools and protocols 50 . The Regional Seas Conventions under the RSPs provide a framework for regional cooperation, coordination and collaborative actions that enables their Contracting Parties to harness resources and expertise from a wide range of stakeholders and interest groups to tackle interlinked coastal and marine issues, including national and trans-boundary ones. Apart from providing a regional legal framework, the RSCs provide a forum for inter- governmental discussions to enhance the understanding of regional environmental problems and the strategies needed to address them and promote sharing of information and experiences. Key thematic strategies Within the context of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the key thematic strategies of the Regional Seas Conventions and Action Plans for 2017-2020 are 51 : 1. Reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in line with the SDG Goal 14.1 (by 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, particularly from land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution); 2. Create increased resilience of people, marine and coastal ecosystems, and their health and productivity, in line with the SDG Goal 13 (take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts) and decisions made at the UNFCCC COP21; 3. Develop integrated, ecosystem-based regional ocean policies and strategies for sustainable use of marine and coastal resources, paying close attention to blue growth; 4. Enhance effectiveness of Regional Seas Conventions and Action Plans as regional platforms for supporting integrated ocean policies and management. In addressing coastal and marine pollution from land-based sources, the RSPs are guided by the implementation of the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities (GPA). The GPA, endorsed in 1995 by over 100 countries, focuses on 3 main sources of land-based pollution (marine litter, wastewater and nutrient management), linking terrestrial, freshwater, coastal and marine ecosystems. It is coordinated by UN Environment and supports governments in close partnership with other stakeholders (local communities, public organizations, non-governmental organizations and the private sector) through three global multi-stakeholder partnerships: the Global Partnership on Nutrient Management (GPNM), the Global Partnership on Marine Litter (GPML) and the Global Wastewater Initiative (GWI). Regional Seas Programme and their issues In what follows, specific regional issues of potential relevance and interest to the Dutch policy are identified and discussed. The highlighted opportunities should be considered in the further development of the Dutch policy agenda on oceans and seas. Emphasis is given particularly to the UN Environment-administered and independent RSPs, including European regional seas and Dutch overseas territories, and the 4 key thematic strategies of the RSPs listed above (marine pollution; climate change and its impacts; blue growth; integrated ocean policies and management). 50 http://drustage.unep.org/regionalseas/who-we-are/strategy 51 UNEP/WBRS.18/INF8 Regional Seas Strategic Directions (2017-2020) 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 79 of 103 Marine pollution Various aspects of marine pollution (pollution from ships, by dumping, sea-bed activities, land-based sources and airborne) fall within the focus of the Cartagena Convention for the Wider Caribbean region. SDG 14.1, with its emphasis on land-based activities including marine debris and nutrient pollution, presents a new opportunity for the strengthening the implementation of the Protocol Concerning Pollutionfrom Land-Based Sources and Activities (LBS Protocol) which entered into force in August 2010. It includes regional effluent limitations for domestic wastewater (sewage) and requires the development of plans to address agricultural non-point sources of pollution. At the regional level, two Regional Activity Centers (RACs) are established for supporting the implementation of the LBS Protocol: the Center of Engineering and Environmental Management of Coasts and Bays (CIMAB) in Cuba and the Institute of Marine Affairs in Trinidad and Tobago 52 . These institutes provide and facilitate scientific and technical assistance on the implementation of practices for the prevention, reduction, and control of the sources and activities. Land-based sources of pollution, including the more traditional sources of pollution such as nutrients and untreated sewage are addressed in a number of RSPs (see Appendix). Other RSPs, e.g. North-West Pacific Region and Mediterranean Sea now also extend their focus on other significant forms of pollution, namely marine litter, through the preparation and implementation of a regional action plan with the guidance of UN GPA. Marine litter is one of the 8 contaminants of the UN GPA for the protection of marine environment from land based sources and activities. This follows the steps taken recently by regional seas elsewhere such as North-East Atlantic region (OSPAR) and Baltic Sea (HELCOM) that have defined a number of actions aimed at both land-based and sea-based sources, as well as education and outreach and removal actions to tackle the issue of marine litter. Climate change and its impacts Climate and human-induced changes will pose a significant threat of structural coastal erosion and extensive and/or frequent flooding in deltaic, estuarine, and other low-lying coastal regions such as the Netherlands in the twenty-first century and beyond (Nicholls et al., 2011). 52 A third RAC, RAC REMPEITC Caribe (Regional Marine Pollution Emergency Information and Training Centre for the Wider Caribbean) is established in Curacao for the Oil Spills Protocol. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 80 of 103 The coast in the West and Central Africa Region mainly consists of a narrow low-lying coastal strip, over a distance of several thousand kilometres. The coastal barrier is maintained by a strong wave-driven longshore transport of sand. This sand originates from rivers and from large coastal sand deposits. Today however, much of the fluvial sand is retained behind river dams and/or interrupted at several locations by port jetties. For these reasons the sandy coastal barrier is eroding at several locations. Sea-level rise enhances coastal retreat; it may be the major factor for coastal retreat by the end of the century. Coastal erosion is identified one of the major environmental threats in the West and Central Africa Region, addressed specifically in Article 10 of the Abidjan Convention (Contracting Parties shall take all appropriate measures to prevent, reduce, combat and control coastal erosion in the Convention area resulting from man's activities, such as land reclamation and coastal engineering). The problem of coastal erosion started to be investigated by UNDP for West Africa in 1985. Since that time, numerous regional studies have been completed (e.g. Tilmans et al., 1991; Degbe, 2009). More recently, UEMOA has undertaken a regional study for shoreline monitoring with the aim of developing a management plan for the West African coastal area (UEMOA, 2011). Since 2016, the West Africa Coastal Areas Management Program (WACA) is a convening platform initiated by the World Bank where technical and financial partners support sustainable development in the coastal zone, using management of the coastal erosion and hazardous flooding as the entry point. On a more general note, the Abidjan Convention hopes to learn and benefit from the family of Regional Seas programmes such as the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR) region 53 . This may include transfer of experience and expertise on issues related to pollution from ships (Article 5), including dumping from ships and aircraft (Article 6), from land-based sources (Article 7), from activities relating to the exploration and exploitation of the seabed (Article 10) 54 . 53 http://abidjanconvention.org/?option=com_content&view=article&id=90&Itemid=189&lang=en 54 http://abidjanconvention.org/?option=com_content&view=article&id=100&Itemid=200&lang=en Box 6.2 - Coastline maintenance in the Netherlands In the Netherlands, the objective of coastline maintenance is the sustainable preservation of coastal flood defence and values and functions in the dune area (Ministerie van V&W, 1990). The Ministry of Infrastructure and Environment has a central position being responsible to execute the coastline maintenance policy and being responsible for water policy. Decisions on nourishments in coastline management are governed by the requirement of keeping the coastline at its 1990 position. This implied a total nourishment volume of 6 million m3 of sand per annum, from 1990 until 2001. Since then, the total volume has increased to 12 million m3 of sand per annum. More recently, a paradigm shift, from conventional hard approaches towards a nature-based response, has been advocated to mitigate the increased flood risk (Stive et al., 2013). Whereas the traditional approach is formulated as fighting the forces of nature, a more recent approach of water and coastal management recognizes the multiple ecological forces that have to be accommodated and can help the processes of coastal protection. Moreover, this so-called “Building with Nature” or nature-based approach (De Vriend and Van Koningsveld, 2012) does not only imply the use of methods from natural sciences, but also involves a range of different disciplines (governance, socio-economics, etc.). This implies that water and coastal management have become interdisciplinary as well as trans-disciplinary (Waterman, 2008). http://abidjanconvention.org/?option=com_content&view=article&id=90&Itemid=189&lang=en http://abidjanconvention.org/?option=com_content&view=article&id=100&Itemid=200&lang=en 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 81 of 103 Blue growth One of the policy frameworks developed under the umbrella of the Barcelona Convention in the Mediterranean region is the Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable Development (2016- 2025). The MSSD, initially adopted in 2005, was reviewed by the COP 19 of the Barcelona Convention in 2016 to take into account the UN SDGs. Objective 1 (Ensuring sustainable development in marine and coastal areas) and Objective 5 (Transition towards a green and blue economy) of the MSSD aim at fostering blue economy and blue growth 55 in the region by focusing on the following sectors: offshore energy; fisheries and aquaculture; coastal and marine tourism; maritime economy; bioprospecting and sea mining (Blue Economy project 56 ). Although Europe is the global forerunner in the commercial operationalization of offshore wind farms driven by favourable policy and investment frameworks (UNEP et al., 2012), the majority of offshore wind farms are located in the North Sea and Baltic Sea (Figure 6.1). Some important offshore wind farm projects are planned in the Mediterranean, yet only a few have reached consent stage and there are currently no operational offshore wind farms in the region. The development of offshore wind farms in the Black Sea is even farther behind. One factor influencing the lack of advancement in this sector in the Mediterranean region is its deep waters that areunsuitable for construction of traditional turbine foundations. The further development of floating wind turbine technology, more suitable for deep waters, is expected to increase the feasibility of offshore wind energy generation in the Mediterranean Sea. As such, there has been progress in developing floating wind farms, which have resulted in approval of the world’s first floating wind farm off the coast of Scotland to be completed at the end of 2017 (Siemens, 2016). This is expected to decrease the costs further and promote deployment, as witnessed by the recent tenders for offshore wind in the North Sea. Offshore wind farms could be considered as one specific example for creating transnational/trans-regional cooperation platforms for blue growth. Figure 6.1: Approved projects and installed renewable energy (1,000 kW - Bähr, 2017) In terms of blue growth, the North Sea shares other similarities with the Baltic Sea. According to a blue growth study for the Baltic Sea (EUNETMAR, 2013), the major sectors (in terms of size: highest employment and the largest gross value added (GVA)) are coastal tourism, fish for human consumption, shipbuilding, short sea shipping and passenger ferry services. The Baltic Sea is one of the busiest seas in the world for shipping, especially oil transport. Similarly, the Greater North Sea is one of the most important fishing grounds in the world; it is rich in oil and gas, making offshore industries and intense shipping major maritime activities. 55 Blue growth refers to the sustainable growth of marine and maritime sectors. In this report the concept of blue growth does not explicitly refer to the European Commission’s strategy 56 “A blue economy for a healthy Mediterranean – Measuring, monitoring and promoting an environmentally sustainable economy in the Mediterranean region” funded by MAVA Foundation. http://mava-blue-economy.com/ http://mava-blue-economy.com/ 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 82 of 103 The most promising maritime sectors share a common characteristic in that their most successful actors are highly innovative, compete on European or world markets, have sustainability high on their agenda and already generate or will in the future generate a significant number of jobs (EC, 2014). Within Europe, the Baltic Sea is considered as the hotspot for innovation and competitiveness in relation to blue growth. However, as outlined in the Sustainable Blue Growth Agenda for the Baltic Sea Region (EC, 2014), there is potential for further development of specific activities, such as aquaculture and marine biotechnology that would require a stronger link between research and market. Integrated ocean policies and management In Europe, the Integrated Maritime Policy (IMP), launched in 2007 by the European Commission, provides a framework for a more coherent approach to maritime issues. It aims at achieving increased coordination between different policy areas and at avoiding policy contradictions, taking advantage of mutually favourable policy opportunities while sustaining marine resources. The IMP incorporates the MSFD as the environment pillar and the EU Strategy for Marine and Maritime Research as the science pillar. It is considered as an overarching framework for achieving better integration of ocean policies and management both at the national and regional level. Although the EU IMP lays the foundations for a more coherent and coordinated approach to maritime issues in Europe, the concept of integrated maritime policy remains relatively new in certain regions, notably the Black Sea. Despite being a maritime region, the different actors involved in the maritime economy still follow a highly sectorial approach. Cross-national and - regional exchange of experience in the areas covered by IMP, namely blue growth; marine data and knowledge; maritime spatial planning; maritime surveillance and sea basin strategies could provide a starting point for enhanced cooperation and coordination. Position of the Netherlands The Government of the Netherlands regards Regional Seas Conventions as essential for effective ocean governance. The government expects maritime countries to take responsibility to implement the Conventions. It is important that Regional Seas Conventions are aligned with UNCLOS as countries cannot make any claims over a maritime area under the Conventions. The experience gained by policy makers from the Netherlands in OSPAR can be of added value in other Regions (MinBuZa, 2017). 6.2 World Ocean Council The World Ocean Council (WOC) was launched in 2008 by Paul Holthus as a non-profit organisation. The WOC is a platform for the maritime industry to address cross-cutting sustainable development challenges. It aims to bring together the maritime industry to stimulate global leadership and cooperation with respect to sustainability and responsibility. Activities of the WOC focus on four main themes, including ocean policy and governance, marine spatial planning, operational environmental issues and smart ocean – smart industries. The organisation is well integrated in various important platforms such as the sustainable oceans summit, ocean investment platform, regional ocean councils, young ocean professionals and the SDGs (WOC, 2017a). As of 2017 the WOC has 68 members from the maritime industry, but also several research institutes and universities. The list of members has changed over time; several years ago the oil and gas industry was well represented with most major companies represented. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 83 of 103 Nowadays these companies are not a member anymore 57 . Members from the Netherlands include IHC Merwede and NIOZ (WOC, 2017b). As mentioned above, the WOC has been active on the SDGs by evaluating the potential risks for the global maritime industry. In a report the WOC advices the industry to weigh “whether future costs of addressing societal challenges is greater than current costs as well as comparing the opportunities gained from the SDGs against the risks posed by engagement or non-engagement”. The report focuses on risks rather than opportunities. Risks of engagement include a) financial costs of implementing changes; b) governments introducing new policies and regulations and c) the necessity to involve SMEs and to provide additional support. Risks of non-engagement include a) impacts on the industry of environmental degradation; b) lost partnership opportunities and missed opportunities to contribute to the formulation of regulations and c) reputation risk such as harm to a company’s social license to operate. By weighing these two risk categories the report concludes that the risks of non- engagement are higher; thus it is recommended to maritime industries to be engaged in the SDGs. Finally the report ends with a list of strategic actions to cope with the SDGs. A selection of these actions include the better understanding of environmental impacts, increased engagement in dialogues, support of and contribute to scientific data collection, investing in product and process innovation and support of coastal and marine restoration efforts (WOC, 2015). 6.3 Other relevant institutions and conferences 58 International Water Association The International Water Association (IWA) was founded in 1999; the organisation has merged from the International Water Supply Association (IWSA) and International Association on Water Quality (IAWQ). The main office is located in London but the organisation also has a regional office in The Hague (IWA, 2017). The regional office opened in 2007 after a strong lobby of the local authorities, MinVenWand MinEZ. The Hague offers the opportunity to cooperate with science, public and private organisations active in solving problems in the domain of water, sanitation and health (Vewin, 2007). IWA’s mission is to serve as a worldwide network for water professionals and to advance standards and best practices in sustainable water management. The work at IWA is divided into four programmes: 1) basins of the future (water security), 2) cities of the future (urban metabolism, sustainable cities), 3) water and sanitation services (wastewater management) and 4) water policy and regulation. IWA, together with Wetsus, Provincie Zuid-Holland, MinIenW, Union of Water Boards, Vewin, Water Recycle Institute and UNESCO-IHE have recently joined forces on the EU level, by participating in the high level steering group of the European Innovation Partnership (EIP) on Water. The steering group is chaired by European Commissioner for Maritime Affairs and Fisheries Karmenu Vella. The steering group provides strategic advice to the EIP and identifies important subjects and challenges for water innovation (NWP, 2016). International Maritime Organisation The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) was created in 1948 with the aim to develop and maintain a comprehensive regulatory framework for shipping. Examples of topics covered under IMO include safety, environmental concerns, legal matters, technical co- operation, maritime security and the efficiency of shipping. As illustrated in paragraph 3.1, harbours, shipyards and shipping are by far the most important sectors in the maritime domain in terms of total production value and employment. Therefore the IMO is of crucial 57 It is not known why oil & gas companies are not a member anymore. 58 The list of conferences can be found in Appendix E 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 84 of 103 strategic importance to the Government of the Netherlands. Important milestones of IMO include the Convention on the Prevention of Maritime Pollution (MARPOL), requiring double hulls on all tankers. Under MARPOL measures have been established to reduce gaseous emissions. In Emission Control Areas (ECAs) the sulphur limits for fuel are 0.10% since January 2015. In other areas the sulphur limit is set at a maximum of 0.50% from January 2020. The North Sea has been an ECA since 2011 (IMO, 2011). Between 2015 and 2016 the Inspection for Environment and Transport (MinIenW) has inspected 305 ships; 11 of them did not comply with IMO regulations in the North Sea. New inspection methods and techniques are under development (MinIenM, 2016). MinIenW participates in international discussions on emissions, e.g. by being a member of the steering group on fuel availability. Another important topic is The Ballast Water Management Convention, established in 2004. All international going ships under the Convention must implement a ‘Ballast water management plan’ that enables the ship to manage their ballast water and sediment discharge to a certain standard. In 2017 the Convention entered into force (IMO, 2017). International Seabed Authority The International Seabed Authority (ISA) was established in 1994 with the purpose to organize and control all mineral-related activities in the international seabed area beyond the limits of national jurisdiction 59 (ISA, 2017). ISA is currently in the process of creating regulations for the exploration of minerals in the seabed belonging to the high seas. This process is an opportunity for the Netherlands to have international influence on the highly important topic of deep sea mining. Potentially this activity could transform into a major industry, offering opportunities for Dutch marine contractors. On the other hand little is known about deep sea ecosystems (Jak & Groenendijk, 2013). In the Oceans Brief the Government of the Netherlands states that current and future deep sea mining should take place in a responsible manner following the precautionary principle, strict conditions and continuous monitoring to prevent the activity of affecting the resilience and health of ecosystems and marine biodiversity in the oceans. At the same time the Government is aware of the lack of knowledge on the ecological effects of deep sea mining. In the Oceans Brief a study is quoted, stating that effects may be visible for decades. The deep sea benthos will be severely disturbed by the activity; also sediment plumes may impact the local environment (MinBuZa, 2017). Arctic Council The Arctic Council was established in 1996 with the objective to promote cooperation, coordination and interaction among the Arctic States, Arctic indigenous communities and other Arctic inhabitants on common Arctic issues, in particular on issues of sustainable development and environmental protection in the Arctic. The permanent members of the Council are Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, the Russian Federation, Sweden and the United States. There are currently 13 observer members, including the Netherlands. For the Netherlands, several working groups are relevant, such as Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME), Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP), Sustainable Development Working Group (SDWG) and Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF) (Arctic Council, 2017). MinBuZa represents the Government of the Netherlands, sometimes assisted by researchers from the Arctic Centre (RuG). MinBuZa is interested in the Arctic Council due to a variety of reasons, i.e. strategic importance for the Netherlands such as oil and gas, shipping and marine infrastructure. It is also interested in the Arctic Council due to the impacts of climate change. 59 See paragraph 2.1 and Figure 2.1 for more information on UNCLOS and maritime zones 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 85 of 103 Dutch Arctic Circle The Dutch Arctic Circle (DAC) was established in 2013 with the aim to exchange Arctic knowledge and experience between industries, research institutes, NGOs and governmental organisations in the Netherlands. The platform was established due to the fact that stakeholders where meeting often bilaterally but not as a group. As of 2017 this platform is an excellent example of cooperation within the Dutch Diamond. DAC also serves to coordinate international events such as Arctic Frontiers in Norway. Private parties regularly visiting the platform events include Shell, Van Oord, Boskalis and RoyalHaskoning DHV. Represented research institutes include Wageningen Research, NIOZ, MARIN, TU Delft, Arctic Centre RuG and Deltares. Invited NGOs include WWF, but NGOs are certainly underrepresented. MinBuZa is actively engaged in the DAC and supports the platform both content wise as well as financially. 6.4 Highlights 1. Prioritise Regional Seas Conventions and enrich them with OSPAR experience There are multiple Regional Seas Conventions; however it is not relevant to participate in all of them. Of strategic importance to the Netherlands are the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) and the Arctic Region (Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy – AEPS). The broad experience of policy makers from the Netherlands in the North-East Atlantic Region (OSPAR) and the commitment towards SDG14 can be used to enrich these conventions. SDG14.1, with its emphasis on land-based activities including marine debris and nutrient pollution, can be used to strengthen the implementation of the Protocol Concerning Pollution from Land-Based Sources and Activities (LBS Protocol) for the Wider Caribbean Region. This also creates an international podium to profile the Netherlands on the Oceans agenda. Re-establish a strong relationship with theGlobal Programme of Action on the Protection of the Marine Environment from land-based Activities (GPA, administered by UN Environment), following their Intergovernmental Review Meeting outcome (November/December 2017). 2. Stay in close contact with the WOC; do not become a member The WOC is an interesting platform for networking and engagement with the international industry. The WOC also “translates and evaluates” complex ocean developments such as the SDGs into the language of industries, which is certainly valuable for its members. At the same time the WOC misses a clear roadmap to actually contribute to a more sustainable use of seas and oceans. It seems that the organisation is involved in a vast number of conferences and events, but the outcomes are not used as building blocks for a long term roadmap, e.g. to develop a set of guidelines, principles or a code of conduct. The WOC is interesting to follow due to the network of maritime industries; however it is recommended to not become a member of the platform. 3. Deep sea mining: ending the paradox? The Government of the Netherlands acknowledges the lack of knowledge on the ecological effects of deep sea mining. In the Oceans Brief a study is quoted, stating that effects may be visible for decades. The deep sea benthos will be severely disturbed by the activity; also sediment plumes may impact the local environment. Yet in the same brief the Government states that current and future deep sea mining should take place in a responsible manner following the precautionary principle, strict conditions and continuous monitoring to prevent the activity of affecting the resilience and health of ecosystems and marine biodiversity in the oceans. The position of the Government of the Netherlands regarding deep sea mining is a 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 86 of 103 paradox indeed; on hand it is stated that effects are severe and that there is a lack of knowledge; on the other hand it is stated that the activities should follow the precautionary principle and should be sustainable. 4. Continue investing in the Dutch Arctic Circle but also involve other ministries The Dutch Arctic Circle (DAC) aims to exchange Arctic knowledge and experience between industries, research institutes, NGOs and governmental organisations. This platform is an excellent example of cooperation within the Dutch Diamond. MinBuZa is actively engaged in the DAC and supports the platform both content wise as well as financially. To strengthen the platform and ensure its long term usefulness such support is of crucial importance. At the same time other ministries such as MinIenW, MinEZK and MinLNV could be stimulated to engage in the DAC. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 87 of 103 7 Conclusions 7.1 Answers to policy questions The objective of this report is to address identified SDG14 issues with factual data and state of the art knowledge and experiences. This main objective is divided into four policy questions: a. Why should the Government of the Netherlands be active on the Oceans agenda? b. What are the relevant issues? c. What is the importance of new technologies in support of monitoring SDG14? d. What is the role of relevant institutions in the context of policy development on oceans? The answers to these questions can be found below. a. Why should the Government of the Netherlands be active on the oceans agenda? The Government of the Netherlands should be active on the oceans agenda due to the consequences of climate change, the production of sustainable proteins for food production, the provision of growth and employment, maintaining world leadership in coastal protection and water management; water innovation; circular economy and dealing with the problem of marine pollution. Water and the Netherlands are inseparable already for thousands of years. Oceans and seas are crucial for the existence of the Netherlands; in the past, the present and the future. Marine waters play an important role regarding the absorption of CO2. Developments in climate change, especially regarding sea level rise and storm surges, are relevant for the Government of the Netherlands in order to formulate adaptation measures to protect the country against flooding. Oceans and seas are increasingly important as a source of sustainable proteins. But delivering ingredients for human consumption is not the only function of oceans and seas. The blue economy represents app. 3.3% of the GDP in the Netherlands, with a total production value of app. EUR 60,000 million and a total employment of app. 275,000 persons. Within this blue economy, the Dutch water sector is well renowned in the world for its water management skills, i.e. at the forefront of innovative water management, such as the famous Delta Works and smart solutions in solving global water issues. In addition, the Netherlands is an acknowledged front runner in circular economy. This strong position also relates to the excellent research environment; institutes cover all aspects in the maritime and marine domain, from engineering to environmental impact assessments. Governmental organisations, industries, research institutes and NGOs have combined forces in innovative programmes such as Ecoshape, focussing on Nature Based Flood Defence and Building with Nature in order to bring coastal protection to the next innovative level. This is illustrated by their global activities to enable stakeholders to deal with the challenges of oceans and seas. The cooperation between these stakeholders is also referred to as the Dutch Diamond; a unique form of public-private partnership that is exemplary for many other maritime countries. The public-private projects of the Top Sector Water & Maritime and the Green Deals are examples where the Dutch Diamond is further shaped and where new innovative solutions for improved environmental performances of maritime industries occur. The projects of the Top Sector Water & Maritime and the Green Deals illustrate that all sectors are engaged in SDG14, specifically in SDG 14.3 on marine pollution. As illustrated in this report, there are also multiple issues such as plastics, pollution, overfishing and climate 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 88 of 103 change that threaten the health of oceans’ ecosystems and the many functions they have for humans. The Netherlands has always been a front runner in global sustainability debate. To maintain the strong position of the Netherlands in the domain of oceans and seas active involvement of the Government is required. b. What are the relevant issues? The relevant issues selected from an SDG14 perspective are plastic marine litter, contaminants, nutrients and organic matter, acidification and coastal protection. These issues are summarised below. Indonesia has been used as an example where multiple issues come together 60 . Plastic marine litter App. 8.3 billion tonnes of plastic has been produced since the 1950s; most has ended up in landfills or the environment. It is estimated that each year, 8 million tonnes of plastic enter the oceans. In the EU, 40% of post-consumer plastic waste is incinerated with energy recovery and the rest is either landfilled or recycled. About half of the plastic waste collected and recycled is treated in the EU; the other half is exported, mainly to China. All the species of marine turtles and almost half of the world’s seabird and marine mammal species are known to have ingested plastic marine litter (Werner et al., 2016). From the perspective of the Netherlands, 50% of plastic is used in packaging of which 50% is recycled. Beach clean-up costs to Dutch municipalitiesare estimated at EUR 3.9 – 5.3 million per year. During these clean ups an average of 364 items are found per 100 meter beach but with decreasing trends for plastic and polystyrene. Rough estimations indicate that 50% of the floating plastic in the North Sea is transported by rivers such as the Rhine. Meuse and Scheldt contribute to about 15%. Contaminants Almost every marine organism, from plankton to whales and polar bears, is contaminated with synthetic chemicals. Appropriate waste water treatment has a great impact on the amounts of pharmaceuticals found in coastal waters but it depends on the biodegradability of these substances, which varies considerably. Diclofenac, for example, is hardy degraded in Sewage Treatment Plants. Diuron and terbutylazine are of particular concern. In the Netherlands many different pesticides are detected in surface waters, and many of these also exceed the water quality standards in fresh waters. New legislation and actions are needed to ensure sufficient protection for marine plants. Nutrients and organic matter Enrichment of waters is caused by human activities such as waste water treatment, industry, agriculture and aquaculture. Eutrophication reduces the quality of ecosystem services related to fisheries, aquaculture and recreation. It leads to changes in biogeochemical cycling of elements, changes in food webs and oxygen depletion. Policy measures to control eutrophication are addressed via the Nitrates Directive, Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive, Water Framework Directive, Marine Strategy Directive and by OSPAR’s Eutrophication Strategy. As a result, riverine loads of nitrogen and phosphorus have reduced since the 1990s. However, in the Dutch Caribbean eutrophication is a major stressor for coral reefs and seagrass meadows. 60 In order to improve the readability of this section the references have been removed. They can be found in the appropriate sections of chapter four. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 89 of 103 Acidification App. 26% of the anthropogenic CO2 emitted to the atmosphere is absorbed by the ocean, at a rate of 22 million tonnes per day. Compared to the beginning of the industrial revolution, oceans are now 30% more acidic with a decrease of pH by more than 0.1 units. If continued, the rapid rate of ocean acidification is likely to be unprecedented in relation to the past 300 million years. It is estimated that business as usual scenarios for CO2 emissions could make the ocean 150% more acidic by 2100. The impacts of this rapid rate of acidification can be huge. It is estimated that impacts on molluscs and tropical coral reefs will cost over USD 1,000 billion annually by the end of the century. From the perspective of the North Sea, acidification seems to be 10 times faster than global ocean model predictions, with reductions of 0.02 pH units per year. Coastal protection The IPCC estimates that the frequency and impact of coastal flooding events are likely to increase in the future due to climate change and sea level rise. Specifically Small Island Developing States are less able to maintain coastal protection. Contrary to many non-EU countries, the Netherlands has established embedded coastal protection policies. The philosophy behind coastal protection is slowly changing from “fighting against nature” to “Building with Nature” and Nature-Based Flood Defence. This is an opportunity to further profile the Netherlands as a leader in traditional and new forms of coastal protection. Indonesia as an international case of multiple issues The Government of Indonesia aims to reduce 70% of marine plastic litter by 2025. Solutions to tackle this problem focus on the symptoms rather than the source and therefore little progress is made. On the larger islands, increased flood risk arises due to land subsidence as a consequence of large scale ground water extraction, deforestation and drainage of lowlands. Mangroves are an important measure to counteract subsidence and they are key as a nursery for fish and other marine and brackish species. It is estimated that 23% of the world’s mangrove ecosystems can be found in Indonesia. However, mangroves in Indonesia are under threat. The main threat to mangroves in Indonesia comes from the expanding aquaculture industry. Next to mangroves, coral reefs are another important nursery and biodiversity hotspot. App. 18% of the world’s coral reefs are found in Indonesia. The largest threat to coral reefs is cyanide and blast fishing; these are common practice everywhere, even in protected areas. Economically coral reefs are important for Indonesia, as many fish reproduce near the reefs. Indonesia is one of the main fish producers in Southeast Asia, with 5.4 million tonnes of fish produced in 2012. The most important species are tuna, bonitas, herring, sardines and anchovies. c. What is the importance of new technologies in support of monitoring SDG14? The importance of new technologies to monitor SDG14 is to enable policy makers to increase awareness of the status of the marine environment and to develop appropriate policy measures to combat marine pollution (SDG14.1) and acidification (SDG14.3). Awareness of the status of the marine environment is crucial for ecosystem based management and thus the sustainable use of oceans and seas. Without effective policy measures there is a direct risk of degradation of marine ecosystems, which is directly affecting the wellbeing of humans. Awareness of the status of marine environment is only possible via measuring the degree of marine pollution and the degree of acidification. Only if long term datasets on pollution and acidification are available it is possible to actively establish policy measures to effectively target the sources causing these pressures, via frameworks such as the SDGs but also via instruments such as MSFD and WFD. New monitoring techniques include the Sentinel-2 and Sentinel-3 satellites, making images of the entire North Sea several times per week. These high resolution images can be processed for several water quality parameters, including chlorophyll-a, turbidity, and suspended sediment concentration. The monitoring of marine 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 90 of 103 plastics is still a new area; ESA is sponsoring new projects to detect plastics in the marine environment via satellite observations. The European Union and OSPAR are assessing the possibilities of satellite remote sensing for MSFD eutrophication assessments of the North Sea. In HELCOM, the use of satellite remote sensing for chlorophyll-a concentrations (eutrophication indicator) is already established practice. Aquatic drones or autonomous ships also offer new possibilities to monitor marine pollution and acidification; these have been tested in fresh water systems to measure water depth, to inspect structures, and to collect samples for water quality measurements. The application in marine systems is not common practice yet. Like aquatic drones, airborne drones are not yet widely used. However this technology offers a new potential to collect water samples, or if equipped with special cameras or sensors, can make images of the water surface to provide relevant monitoring information. Drones based sensors could be used to identify floating (plastic) litter, though development of standardized procedures for this are still in the research phase. d. What is the role of relevant institutions in the context of policy development on oceans? The role of the Regional Seas Programmes is to implement the international agenda on marine and coastal issues. The key thematic strategies of RSPs consist of reducing pollution, resilience for people and ecosystems, integrated ecosystem-basedpolicies and enhancing effectiveness. Regional Seas Conventions are the instrument to implement RSPs. The Government of the Netherlands regards Regional Seas Conventions as essential for effective ocean governance. There are multiple Regional Seas Conventions; however it is not relevant to participate in all of them. Of strategic importance to the Netherlands are the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) and the Arctic Region (Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy – AEPS). The broad experience of policy makers from the Netherlands in the North-East Atlantic Region (OSPAR) and the commitment towards SDG14 can be used to enrich these conventions. Other institutions analysed in this report include the International Water Association (IWA), the International Maritime Organisation (IMO), the International Seabed Authority (ISA), the Arctic Council and the Dutch Arctic Circle (DAC). The roles of these organisations vary considerably. The DAC is a stakeholder platform to exchange Arctic knowledge and ideas between industries, research institutes, NGOs and governmental organisations. The reason behind the creation of the platform was that stakeholders only met bilaterally and not as a group. IWA is organised like DAC, it is also a platform to exchange knowledge between water professionals. The role of the other international institutions is very different. IMO and ISA are branches of the United Nations developing regulations for shipping and (deep) sea mining (in the seabed of the high seas). These regulations are legally binding after ratification by member states. The specific role of IMO is to develop and maintain a comprehensive regulatory framework for shipping. Examples of topics covered under IMO include safety, environmental concerns, legal matters, technical co-operation, maritime security and the efficiency of shipping. The specific role of ISA is to organize and control all mineral-related activities in the international seabed area beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. 7.2 Opportunities and building blocks for policy development The implementation of SDG14 and other SDGs is highly fragmented; this means that there is an opportunity to develop an integral national vision on the SDGs including an action plan that takes into account the complexity and interconnectedness of all SDGs. An action plan would be an important building block in marine policy ensuring that public and private parties are not simply linking existing initiatives to the SDGs – i.e. window dressing – but actually develop new actions and initiatives to implement the SDGs. Thus, parties should be stimulated and committed to improve their environmental performance regarding the reduction of marine 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 91 of 103 pollution and gaseous emissions; not just for the period of a single project but continuously as a standard practice. Realising the SDGs means that sustainability can no longer be regarded as a linear process, starting at A and ending at B. It is a continuous effort in an iterative process. For sure this action plan needs to be interlinked with existing policies such as the Top Sector Water & Maritime, Green Deals, Transition Agenda and Climate Agenda; on an EU level SDG linkages with the Water Framework Directive and Marine Strategy Framework would be relevant. Another opportunity is the operationalisation of the Oceans Brief. In fact this can be regarded as an action plan specifically for SDG14. A concrete plan, formulating how the current ambitions and targets of the Oceans Brief can be implemented, can be an important connecting building block for marine policy in the Netherlands. To create legitimacy and acceptance for the overall SDG action plan and the specific action plan for SDG14 it is important to reinvent the Dutch tradition of “poldering”. This not only implies the active engagement of maritime industries and research institutes such as currently occurs within the Top Sector Water & Maritime; it also implies the active engagement of NGOs as representatives of civil society. The Green Deals are a good example of a first step towards the involvement of NGOs. As such the Dutch Diamond is an opportunity to illustrate the societal relevance of SDG14. Illustrating societal relevance of maritime activities, research and policy is highly necessary to bridge the gap between society one hand and industries, research institutes and governmental organisations on the other hand. With respect to marine pollution issues, there is a momentum for the Government of the Netherlands to take the leadership and profile itself on the topic of plastic pollution and circular economy. The Dutch water sector is well renowned for its water management skills, i.e. at the forefront of innovative water management, such as the famous Delta Works and smart solutions in solving global water issues. In addition, the Netherlands is an acknowledged front runner in circular economy. The leadership of the Netherlands can be further strengthened regarding the monitoring of marine plastic pollution. This can be done by continuing to sustain the Dutch beach litter monitoring programme, possibly extending it to major transport pathways of litter such as rivers and possibly effluents (microplastics). There is also an opportunity to increase synergies between MinIenW and MinEZK, for example by developing joint policy to boost the transitioning from 'take-make-consume-throw away' to more circular economies. As for the topic of new monitoring techniques, the Government of the Netherlands has the opportunity to better participate in European research and monitoring programmes. By actively participating it is possible to optimally access this information and steer future developments. Governmental support also ensures sufficient mandate for relevant research institutes to be important players in programmes such as Copernicus. Active participation directly benefits policy making as these monitoring programmes provide access to information and data, offering new building blocks for effective policy measures. The last topic of this report is the role of relevant institutions. Within the Regional Seas Conventions there is an opportunity to firstly focus on strategic regions such as the Caribbean and the Arctic. The broad experience of policy makers from the Netherlands in the North-East Atlantic Region (OSPAR) and the commitment towards SDG14 can be used to enrich these conventions. SDG14.1, with its emphasis on land-based activities including marine debris and nutrient pollution, can be used to strengthen the implementation of the Protocol Concerning Pollution from Land-Based Sources and Activities (LBS Protocol) for the Wider Caribbean Region. This also creates an international podium to profile the Netherlands on the Oceans agenda. Re-establish a strong relationship with the Global Programme of Action on the Protection of the Marine Environment from land-based Activities (GPA, administered by UN 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report 92 of 103 Environment), following their Intergovernmental Review Meeting outcome (November/December 2017). 7.3 A glance at the future? This report has been focussing on current policies, issues and developments in the maritime domain. The future of maritime and marine sectors has not been addressed. In this last paragraph of the report we will turn our eyes to the future. The National Institute for Shipbuilding and Shipping (NISS) has developed four scenarios describing what the maritime industry looks like in 2050. It also briefly mentions some first policy implications. The first scenario is business as usual. It assumes the continuation of the current paradigm, based on classic economic growth and globaltrade. The use of fossil fuels continues; welfare increases as well as tourism. A significant sea level rise would be the consequence. The consequences for policy makers consist of enormous investments to tackle the consequences of sea level rise as coastal cities had to be replaced by floating villages and metropoles (NISS, 2016). The second scenario is distrust and fear. This scenario is based on a defensive and protectionist approach. Also in this scenario the world cannot be cured from its fossil fuel addiction and opportunities for renewable energy are not being followed up. The world has fallen apart into several powerful regions. Global trade will collapse and investments in the military significantly increase. The consequences for policy makers are huge while investments need to be done in self-sufficiency. 3D printers are used to realise local production as an alternative to imports (NISS, 2016). The third scenario is sustainable growth. This scenario assumes cooperation and a shared responsibility. There will be an increase in technical development and the use of fossil fuels occurs only in a few industries. The use of renewable energy is dominant in this scenario. At the same time growth in welfare is very limited; the same applies to population growth. The consequences for policy makers are enormous spatial claims for wind parks. Policy makers actively stimulate the shipping sector to make the transition to LNG, hydrogen, bio fuels and even sailing (NISS, 2016). The fourth scenario is isolation. This scenario assumes a high degree of self-sufficiency but also a focus on renewable energy. 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Wageningen University and Research Centre, Aquatic Ecology and Water Quality 41 Professor in water and sediment quality. Focuses on microplastics, nanomaterials, fate and effects of contaminants, effects of oil and black carbon in the environment. Vethaak A.D. Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Environment and Health, Amsterdam 37 Professor with over 30 years of experience in marine ecotoxicology, with current focus on risk assessment, hazardous compounds, endocrine disruptors, micro and nanoplastics and their human health effects. Member of the editorial board of 2 scientific journals and author or co-author of around 90 peer-reviewed articles. Member of the Scientific Committee of ICES and member of UN's GESAMP Working Group on Global assessment of microplastics in the marine environment. Van Franeker J.A. Wageningen University and Research Centre, Wageningen Marine Research 23 Senior Scientist conducting research on ecology and marine biology and a key expert on ingestion of litter by marine animals, in particular birds. Contributed to the establishment of an indicator on ingestion by fulmars within OSPAR, used for monitoring of this type of pollution. He integrates the MSFD Technical Group on Marine Litter. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report A-2 Gerritse J. Deltares, Subsurface and Groundwater Systems, Delft, Netherlands 23 Specialist on environmental microbiology, bio- remediation, biodegradation of organic compounds, including research on degradation of marine plastic debris. Author or co-author of more than 150 scientific publications and 5 patent applications. Van Sebille E. Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research, Utrecht University, Netherlands 20 Associate Professor in oceanography and climate change. Expert on ocean circulation and tracking particles, including plastic litter; Vice-chair of FLOTSAM - Scientific Committee on Ocean Research Leslie H.A. Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Environment and Health, Amsterdam 17 Environmental scientist, expertise on ecotoxicology, analytical chemistry, focusing on complex environmental pollution problems such as marine litter. Led the large EU project CleanSea. Co- chaired UN's GESAMP WG40 - Global assessment of microplastics in the marine environment. Foekema E.M. Wageningen University and Research Centre, Marine Animal Ecology Group, 13 Senior Researcher, expertise on ecotoxicology, interaction between species and disturbances, chemical monitorinig in biota. Contaminants Author name Initials Affiliation H index International role de Boer J. Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands 51 Professor in environmental chemistry and toxicology, with a focus on persistent organic pollutants such as such as polychlorinated biphenyls. Advisor for UNEP and various other international organizations. He was involved in the organisation of international interlaboratory studies on contaminants. Currently coordinating the Interlaboratory Assessment of POPs project from 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report A-3 UNEP, which provides technical assistance to countries to monitor this type of pollutants under the Stockholm Convention. Murk A.J. Wageningen University and Research Centre, Marine Animal Ecology Group 43 Professor of marine ecology and ecotoxicology. Involved in the C-IMAGE consortium, an international project focused on effects of oil spills on marine environments, in particular related to the Deepwater Horizon blowout of 2010 in the Gulf of Mexico. Koelmans A.A. Wageningen University and Research Centre, Aquatic Ecology and Water Quality Management Group, Wageningen, Netherlands 41 Professor in water and sediment quality. Focuses on microplastics, nanomaterials, fate and effects of contaminants, effects of oil and black carbon in the environment Leonards P.E.G. Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands 40 Professor in Environmental Bioanalytical Chemistry, with expertise on bioaccumulation, exposure assessment. Current focus on emerging chemicals. He has coordinated and participated in several EU research projects but also projects for the Dutch Government and Industry. Huijbregts M.A.J. Radboud University Nijmegen, Department of Environmental Sciences, Nijmegen, Netherlands 39 Professor Integrated Environmental Assessment. Development of mechanistic models for fate, accumulation and toxicity of chemicals. Vethaak A.D. Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Environment and Health, Amsterdam 37 Professor with over 30 years of experience in marine ecotoxicology, with current focus on risk assessment, hazardous compounds, endocrine disruptors, micro and nanoplastics and their human health effects. Member of the Scientific Committee of ICES and highly involved in the integrated assessments and monitoring in OSPAR and ICES; invited expert for JPI Oceans work on monitoring assessment of marine chemicals. Has a vast advisor role internationally. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report A-4 Booij K. Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research - NIOZ, 't Horntje, Netherlands 26 Passive sampling of contaminants; integrates ICES Marine Chemistry Working Group van Leeuwen S.P.J. Wageningen University and Research Centre, RIKILT 24 Expertise in food safety and environmental contaminants , in particular perfluoroalkyl substances, dioxines and PCBs, brominated flame retardants and bisphenol A and related substances. Integrates ICES Marine Chemistry WG. Vink J.P.M. Deltares, Delft, Netherlands 16 Senior Specialist on soil and water quality, with expertise on environmental chemistry, ecotoxicology and risk assessment. He is involved in writing guidance for EU policy makers and has integrated several scientific committes, including OECD. He is memberof the Working Group on Chemicals and Policies of EU's Environmental Bureau (EEB), a Dutch delegate for the European Association for Chemical and Molecular Sciences. Linders J. National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM) 15 Principal Risk Assessor. Risk Assessment of chemicals, decision support systems, modelling, environmental exposure and effects. Member of UN's GESAMP - Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection and other Scientific Advisory Committees. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report A-5 Nutrients and organic matter Author name Initials Affiliation H index International role Sinninghe Damsté J.S. Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research - NIOZ, 't Horntje, Netherlands 104 Professor in fossil molecules in sediments; chemical fossils. Published in Nature, Science and PNAS. Involved as (associate) editor in four scientific journals. Won many prizes and grants. Jetten M.S.M. Radboud University Nijmegen, Department of Microbiology, Nijmegen, Netherlands 89 Professor in ecological microbiology. Studies the ecology, physiology, biochemistry, metagenome and application of anaerobic micro-organisms. He has won prizes and awards. Active at other university Schouten S. Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research - NIOZ, 't Horntje, Netherlands 86 Professor in molecular paleontology. Focuses on the development of organic proxies for climate reconstruction. Won 5 awards. Middelburg J.J. Utrecht University, Department of Earth Sciences, Utrecht, Netherlands 75 Professor in (bio)geochemistry. Published in reknown journals such as Science. Won 6 awards. Associate editor of 5 scientific journals. Hopmans E.C. Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research - NIOZ, Department of Ocean Systems, 't Horntje, Netherlands 54 Advancing analytical techniques for lipid biomarkers for use in paleoproxies and studies of the origin and fate of organic material in the marine realm. Soetaert K. Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research - NIOZ, Department of Ocean Systems, 't Horntje, Netherlands 46 Specialised in interplay between physics, ecology, and biogeochemistry in the marine environment Veldhuis M.J.W. Marine Eco-Analytics, Netherlands 41 Ecology of phytoplankton in seas and oceans; sustainability of marine ecosystems 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report A-6 Slomp C.P. Utrecht University, Department of Earth Sciences- Geochemistry, Utrecht, Netherlands 38 Professor in marine biogeochemistry. Research on Improving the quantitative understanding of the cycling of elements that are important to life in marine environments Reichart G.J. Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research - NIOZ, Department of Ocean Systems, 't Horntje, Netherlands 36 Professor in marine geology. Development of proxies for reconstruction of past ocean carbon speciation, salinity and temperature. Timmermans K.R. Utrecht University, Department of Estuarine and Delta Systems, Utrecht, Netherlands 36 Professor marine plant biomass. Studies changes in the biotic and abiotic environment, e.g. global warming, ocean acidification, sea level rise and its effects on physiology, ecology and diversity of marine photo-autotrophes Duineveld G.C.A. Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research - NIOZ, Department of Ocean Systems, 't Horntje, Netherlands 35 Specialised in ecology subtidal benthic ecosystems; Cold-water coral ecology; North Sea benthos Laan P. Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands 31 Remote Sensing, Climatology and Hydrology Dekker R. Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research - NIOZ, 't Horntje, Netherlands 22 Marine ecologist Rijkenberg M.J.A. Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research - NIOZ, 't Horntje, Netherlands 20 Oceanographic Researcher Philippart C.J.M. Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands 18 Senior expert in coastal ecology. She studies long- term changes of the Wadden Sea food web, including pelagic and benthic microalgae and bivalves (larvae). She also conducts comperative analyses of Wadden systems, such as impacts of climate change & eutrophication. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report A-7 Underwater sound Author name Initial s Affiliation H index International role Slabbekoorn H. Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden, Netherlands 32 Ass. Professor Leiden University. Focuses on evolution of acoustic signals and explaining causes. Lam F.P.A. Nederlandse Organisatie voor toegepast natuurwetenschappelijk onderzoek- TNO, Acoustics and Sonar Research Group, Den Haag, 14 Internationally reknown for research on effects of sonar and underwater noise on marine mammals De Haan D. Wageningen University and Research Centre, Wageningen IMARES, Wageningen, Netherlands 13 Higgly experienced in measuring effects on fish and marine mammals of underwater noise, e.g. due to pile driving. Ainslie M.A. Nederlandse Organisatie voor toegepast natuurwetenschappelijk onderzoek- TNO, Den Haag, Netherlands 12 Professor at TNO. Effects of underwater noise on fish and marine mammals. Also focuses on standardization of underwater acoustical terminology De Jong C.A.F. Nederlandse Organisatie voor toegepast natuurwetenschappelijk onderzoek- TNO, Den Haag, Netherlands 10 Senior scientist at TNO. Focus on noise control, ship acoustics, naval ship signature management, underwater acoustics and effects of noise on marine life. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report A-8 Acidification Author name Initials Affiliation H index International role Middelburg J.J. Utrecht University, Department of Earth Sciences, Utrecht 75 Professor in (bio)geochemistry. Published in reknown journals such as Science. Won 6 awards. Associate editor of 5 scientific journals. Sluijs A. Utrecht University, Department of Earth Sciences, Utrecht, Netherlands 37 Professor at Utrecht University. Holds the chair in Paleoceanography. Specialise in climate and ecological change in the geological past. Won scientific prizes and awards. Reichart G.J. Utrecht University, Department of Earth Sciences, Utrecht, Netherlands 35 Professor in marine geology. Development of proxies for reconstruction of past ocean carbon speciation, salinity and temperature. Van De Waal D.B. Netherlands Institute of Ecology, Department of Aquatic Ecology, Wageningen, Netherlands 15 Member of the acidification working group of NKWK. He is known for his research on the implications of ocean acidification on toxic and calcareous dinoflagellates. Peijnenburg K.T.C.A . Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, Netherlands 11 Senior researcher. Specialised in planktonic snails as these are proposed as indicators of the effects of ocean acidification. Kluijver Anna Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands 11 Member of the acidification working group of NKWK. She is well known for acidification research. She is also an aquatic ecologist (marine and fresh water) and biogeochemist. Her research focus is on carbon cycling in plankton food webs. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report A-9 Hagens M. Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands 4 Biogeochemist focussing on carbon and nutrient cycling in natural environments. Coastal protection Author name Initials Affiliation H index International role Herman P.M.J. Deltares, Marine and Coastal Systems, Delft, Netherlands 59 Estuarine ecologist; linking marine ecology with morphology. Quantitative analysis ofbiogeochemical cycles, food webs, physical structures Tol R.S.J. Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Institute for Environmental Studies, Amsterdam, Netherlands 55 Ranked among top 100 economists in the world. Specialised in economics of climate change. Editor of Energy Economics. Active, amongst others, in IPCC Bouma T.J. Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research - NIOZ, Department of Ocean Systems, 't Horntje, Netherlands 43 Coastal ecologist, specialised in Building with Nature, Nature based flood defense. Focus on bio- physical interactions between forces from tidal currents and waves, and species that alter these forces and thereby the environment Stive M.J.F. TU Delft 37 Professor in coastal engineering. Was a consultant for IPCC and the Dutch Delta Committee. Was the inventor of the Sand Motor. Received awards such as Knight in the order of the Netherlands Lion Aerts J.C.J.H . Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Global Change Institute (AGCI), Amsterdam, Netherlands 36 Director at Institute for Environmental Studies (VU). Professor in water, risk management and insurance. Key publications in Nature, Science and PNAS. Roelvink J.A. IHE Delft, TU Delft, Deltares 33 Professor Roelvink has over 20 years of experience in coastal engineering and morphology. He is the driving force behind the development of the XBeach model, which is globally used to 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report A-10 calculate storm impacts and coastal protection. Ysebaert T. Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands 27 Focussing on benthic ecosystems in estuarine and coastal environments. Studies the diversity of benthic macrofauna, and how their distribution is influenced by the environment. Involved in Building with Nature. Ranasinghe R. IHE Delft Institute for Water Education, Delft, Netherlands 26 Professor of climate change impacts & coastal risk. Also holds positions at university of Twente & Australia. He is regularly invited to provide expert advice on adaptation to climate change and coastal zone management by national and local governments and international agencies. Wang Z.B. Deltares, Marine and Coastal Systems, Delft, Netherlands 24 Professor, playing an international key role in the development of models for sediment transport and morphological development in estuarine environment. Van Dongeren Deltares, Marine and Coastal Systems, Delft, Netherlands 21 Senior scientist, specialised in coastal morphology. Well known in the USA. Has been invited for the U.S. National Academies’ Committee on Coastal Risk Reduction for the U.S. Corps of Engineers. van der Meer J.W. IHE Delft Institute for Water Education, Delft, Netherlands 20 Professor of coastal structures and ports. World famous expert in appraisal, design and testing of breakwaters and coastal structures, including levees, dikes, embankments, seawalls, breakwaters, groins, revetments, shingle beaches and river dikes. Walstra D.J.R. Deltares, Marine and Coastal Systems, Delft, Netherlands 19 Well known for his expertise on coastal engineering, coastal zone management and sand nourishments. Vrijling J.K. Delft University of Technology, Department of Hydraulic Engineering, Delft, Netherlands 19 Professor in probabilistic design and hydraulic structures. Was involved in Eastern Scheldt barrier to develop the probabilistic approach to the design 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report A-11 of the barrier. Jonkman S.N. Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering & Geosciences, Delft, Netherlands 18 PhD degrees in civil engineering. He is often involved in engineering and flood risk studies in several areas around the world. He is an advisor for Rijkswaterstaat, a member of the Dutch Expertise Network on Flood Protection (ENW), the Advisory Committee on Water (AcW) and is involved in the Dutch association of engineers (KIVI). 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report B-1 B Appendix – List of FP7 and Horizon 2020 projects Source: http://cordis.europa.eu/ Advanced Coatings for Offshore Renewable Energy ACORN FP7 http://www.acorn-project.eu Autonomous maritime surveillance system AMASS FP7 http://www.amass-project.eu Alage and aquatic biomass for a sustainable production of 2nd generation biofuels AQUAFUELS FP7 Development of cost-effective, water based power take-off system for marine energy applications AQUAGEN FP7 https://sites.google.com/site/aquageneu/ The future of research on aquaculture in the Mediteranean Region AQUAMED FP7 http://www.aquamedproject.net/ Architecture and roadmap to manage multiple pressures on lagoons ARCH FP7 https://www.ngi.no/eng/Projects/ARCH Automatic Oil-Spill Recognition and Geopositioning integrated in a Marine Monitoring Network ARGOMARINE FP7 http://www.argomarine.eu Maritime-assisted volumetric navigation system ARIADNA FP7 http://www.ariadna-fp7.eu/ Advanced Research Initiatives for Nutrition & Aquaculture ARRAINA FP7 http://www.arraina.eu/ ASEM Aquaculture Platform ASEM- AQUACULTURE09 FP7 http://www.asemaquaculture.org/ Applied simulations and Integrated modeling for the understanding of toxic and harmful algal blooms ASIMUTH FP7 ADVANCED TEXTILES FOR OPEN SEA BIOMASS CULTIVATION AT~SEA FP7 http://www.atsea-project.eu/ Towards an Atlantic area? Mapping trends, perspectives and interregional dynamics between Europe, Africa and the Americas ATLANTIC FUTURE FP7 http://www.atlanticfuture.eu/ Development of a novel autonomous vehicle significantly reducing costs related to subsea sensors deployment and recovery AUTODROP FP7 Sustainable production of biologically active molecules of marine based origin BAMMBO FP7 Biowaste and Algae Knowledge for the Production of 2nd Generation Biofuels BIOWALK4BIOFUE LS FP7 Controlling infectious diseases in oysters and mussels in Europe BIVALIFE FP7 http://www.bivalife.eu/ http://cordis.europa.eu/ http://www.acorn-project.eu/ http://www.amass-project.eu/ http://www.atsea-project.eu/ 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report B-2 Breakthrough Solutions for the Sustainable Exploration and Extraction of Deep Sea Mineral Resources BLUE MINING FP7 http://www.bluemining.eu Breakthrough Solutions for the Sustainable Harvesting and Processing of Deep Sea Polymetallic Nodules Blue Nodules H2020 http://www.blue-nodules.eu/ From gene to bioactive product: Exploiting marine genomics for an innovative and sustainable European blue biotechnology industry BlueGenics FP7 http://www.bluegenics.eu/cms/ Biosensors, Reporters and Algal Autonomous Vessels for Ocean Operation BRAAVOO FP7 http://www.braavoo.org Capacitive mixing as a novel principle for generation of clean renewable energy from salinity differences CAPMIX FP7 http://www.capmix.eu/ Changes in carbon uptake and emissions by oceans in a changing climate CARBOCHANGE FP7 http://carbochange.b.uib.no/ Cargo handling by Automated Next generation Transportation Systems for ports and terminals CARGO-ANTS FP7 http://www.cargo-ants.eu/ Coordination action to maintain and further develop a sustainable maritime research in Europe CASMARE FP7 Citizens' observatory for coast and ocean optical monitoring CITCLOPS FP7 http://www.citclops.eu/ Climate change and marine ecosystem research results CLAMER FP7 http://www.vliz.be/projects/clamer/ Climate Induced Changes on the Hydrology of Mediterranean Basins: Reducing Uncertainty and Quantifying Risk through an Integrated Monitoring and Modeling System CLIMB FP7 http://www.climb-fp7.eu Towards a transport infrastructure for large-scale CCS in Europe CO2EUROPIPE FP7 http://www.co2europipe.eu/A new integrative framework for the study of fish welfare based on the concepts of allostasis, appraisal and coping styles COPEWELL FP7 http://www.imr.no/copewell Coastal Research Network On Environmental Changes CREC FP7 http://www.forst.tu-dresden.de/CREC CSA Healthy and Productive Seas and Oceans CSA OCEANS FP7 http://www.jpi-oceans.eu/csa-oceans Connectivity of deep-sea ecosystems under increasing human stressors: an integrative approach addressing vulnerability and ecological risk assessment DEEPCO FP7 Management and monitoring of deep-sea fisheries and stocks DEEPFISHMAN FP7 http://deepfishman.hafro.is Designation and Management of Marine Reserve Networks DEMARN FP7 http://demarn.net.technion.ac.il/ Development of automated combined berthing aid and drift monitoring system for large ships, particularly oil and LNG gas tankers DOCKINGMONITO R FP7 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report B-3 Dynamic Response and Instability of Seabed-Coastal Structure Systems under Waves DRISCS FP7 The deep sea and sub-seafloor frontier DS3F FP7 http://www.deep-sea-frontier.eu/ European Clusters for Offshore Wind Servicing ECOWINDS FP7 http://ecowinds.eu/ Land-Ocean Connectivity - from Hydrological to Ecological Understanding of Groundwater in the Coastal Zone EGOMARS FP7 Support action to initiate cooperation between the communities of European marine and maritime research and science EMAR2RES FP7 Convenience Food Enriched with Marine based Raw Materials ENRICHMAR FP7 http://enrichmar.eu/ European North Sea Energy Alliance ENSEA FP7 http://www.ensea.biz/ Equitable Testing and Evaluation of Marine Energy Extraction Devices in terms of Performance, Cost and Environmental Impact EQUIMAR FP7 https://www.wiki.ed.ac.uk/display/EquiMarwik i/EquiMar Greening of surface transport through an innovative and competitive CARGO- VESSEL Concept connecting marine and fluvial intermodal ports EU- CARGOXPRESS FP7 European Union Basin-scale Analysis, Synthesis and Integration EURO-BASIN FP7 http://www.euro-basin.eu/ Forage Fish Interactions FACTS FP7 Fish population structure and traceability FISHPOPTRACE FP7 https://fishpoptrace.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ Development of novel system for continuous remote monitoring of weight, growth, and size distribution of fish in aquaculture enclosures FISHSCAN FP7 http://www.fishscanproject.com/ Environmentally Friendly Antifouling Technology to Optimise the Energy Efficiency of Ships FOUL-X-SPEL FP7 http://www.foulxspel-antifouling.com/ Geotechnical design solutions for the offshore renewable wave energy industry GEOWAVE FP7 http://www.geowave-r4sme.eu/ Heavy Payload Helicoper for Last Mile Rescue HELI4RESCUE FP7 HIGHER-EFFICIENCY ENGINE WITH ULTRA - LOW EMISSIONS FOR SHIPS HERCULES-B FP7 http://www.hercules-b.com High Power, high Reliability offshore wind technology HIPRWIND FP7 http://hiprwind.eu/ In situ monitoring of oxygen depletion in hypoxic ecosystems of coastal and open seas, and land-locked water bodies HYPOX FP7 http://hypox.pangaea.de/ Development of an innovative, completely automated antifouling test system for professional examinations of marine coatings IATS FP7 Coupled fluid-solid numerical modelling for deep-water and far-offshore floating wind turbines using an adaptive finite element method ICFLOAT FP7 http://hiprwind.eu/ 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report B-4 Data e-Infrastructure Initiative for Fisheries Management and Conservation of Marine Living Resources iMarine FP7 http://www.i-marine.eu INOvative Energy MANagement System for Cargo SHIP INOMANS²HIP FP7 http://inomanship.eu/ Interdisciplinary Ocean Wave for Geophysical and other applications IOWAGA FP7 Innovation Technologies and Applications for Coastal Archaeological sites ITACA FP7 http://www.itaca-fp7.eu/ Knowledge-based Sustainable Management for Europe's Seas KNOWSEAS FP7 http://www.knowseas.com/ Integrated water resources and coastal zone management in European lagoons in the context of climate change LAGOONS FP7 http://lagoons.biologiaatua.net/ Building a biological knowledge-base on fish lifecycles for competitive, sustainable European aquaculture LIFECYCLE FP7 http://lifecycle.gu.se/ Improved magnets for energy generation through advanced tidal technology MAGNETIDE FP7 http://www.magnetide.eu/ Supporting research potential for MARine BIodiversity and GENomics in the Eastern Mediterranean MARBIGEN FP7 http://www.marbigen.org/ Towards an integrated marine and maritime science community MARCOM+ FP7 Exploring Marine Resources for Bioactive Compounds: From Discovery to Sustainable Production and Industrial Applications MAREX FP7 http://www.marex.fi/ Marine Renewable Integrated Application Platform MARINA PLATFORM FP7 Natural products from marine fungi for the treatment of cancer MARINE FUNGI FP7 https://www.marinefungi.eu/ Marine Renewable Energy Research Infrastructure MARINERGI H2020 http://www.marinerg-i.eu/ Marine Renewables Infrastructure Network for Emerging Energy Technologies MARINET FP7 http://www.fp7-marinet.eu/ The role of phylogenetic relatedness in invasion success: A multidisciplinary study of marine biological invasions MARINVASPHYLO GEN FP7 MARitime POlicy Support MARPOS FP7 INNOVATIVE REARING AND STUNNING OF FARMED TURBOT AND SOLE TO MEET FUTURE CHALLENGES REGARDING QUALITY OF PRODUCTION AND ANIMAL WELFARE MAXIMUS FP7 http://maximusproject.com Prospective Analysis for the Mediterranean Region MEDPRO FP7 http://www.medpro-foresight.eu MEDiterranean Sea Acidification in a changing climate MEDSEA FP7 http://medsea-project.eu/ Marine Ecosystem Evolution in a Changing Environment MEECE FP7 http://www.meece.eu/ Making the European Fisheries Ecosystem Operational MEFEPO FP7 https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/mefepo/ http://www.i-marine.eu/ http://maximusproject.com/ 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report B-5 Marine Energy Research Innovation and Knowledge Accelerator MERIKA FP7 http://www.uhi.ac.uk/en/merika/ Innovative Multi-purpose off-shore platforms: planning, Design and operation MERMAID FP7 http://www.vliz.be/projects/mermaidproject/ Miniaturised Robotic systems for holistic in-situ Repair and maintenance works in restrained and hazardous environments MIROR FP7 http://www.miror.eu/ Autonomous Monitoring Unit for Offshore Applications MONOFFSHORE H2020 DEVELOPMENT OF AN ADVANCED MEDIUM RANGE ULTRASONIC TECHNIQUE FOR MOORING CHAINS INSPECTION IN WATER MOORINSPECT FP7 http://www.moorinspect.eu/ Maritime Unmanned Navigation through Intelligence in Networks MUNIN FP7 http://www.unmanned-ship.org/munin/ Development and pre-operational validation of upgraded GMES Marine Core Services and capabilities MYOCEAN FP7 Navigational system for efficient maritime transport NAVTRONIC FP7 http://www.navtronic-project.eu/ Next generation, Cost-effective, Compact, Multifunctional Web Enabled Ocean Sensor Systems Empowering Marine, Maritime and Fisheries Management NEXOS FP7 http://www.nexosproject.eu/ Ocean Food-web Patrol – Climate Effects: Reducing Targeted Uncertainties with an Interactive Network OCEAN-CERTAIN FP7 http://oceancertain.eu/ OCEANET FP7 http://www.oceanet-itn.eu/ Options for Delivering Ecosystem-Based Marine Management ODEMM FP7 http://odemm.com/ OPerational ECology: Ecosystem forecast products to enhance marine GMES applications OPEC FP7 http://marine-opec.eu/ Establishing the scientific bases and technical procedures and standards to recover the European flat oyster production through strategies to tackle the main constraint, bonamiosis OYSTERECOVER FP7 http://oysterecover.cetmar.org/ Parasite risk assesment with integrated tools in EU fish production value chains PARASITEFP7 http://parasite-project.eu/ LARGE MULTIPURPOSE PLATFORMS FOR EXPLOITING RENEWABLE ENERGY IN OPEN SEAS PLENOSE FP7 http://www.plenose.unirc.it/ Enhancing prediction of tropical Atlantic climate and its impacts PREFACE FP7 http://preface.b.uib.no/ Assessing the causes and developing measures to prevent the escape of fish from sea-cage aquaculture Prevent Escape FP7 Reproduction of European Eel: Towards a Self-sustained Aquaculture PRO-EEL FP7 http://www.pro-eel.eu/ Microbes as positive actors for more sustainable aquaculture PROMICROBE FP7 http://www.promicrobe.ugent.be/ Productivity tools: Automated tools to measure primary productivity in European seas PROTOOL FP7 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report B-6 RANGER: RAdars for loNG distance maritime surveillancE and SaR opeRations RANGER H2020 http://ranger-project.eu/ Development of sustainable and cost effective water quality management technology for the aquaculture industry RAZONE FP7 http://www.razone.no/ Resource Efficient Maritime Capacity REMCAP FP7 http://www.remcap.eu/ Online Remote Condition Monitoring of Tidal Stream Generators REMO FP7 http://remo-project.eu/ REsearch to improve PROduction of SEED of established and emerging bivalve species in European hatcheries REPROSEED FP7 http://www.reproseed.eu/ RETROFITting ships with new technologies for improved overall environmental footprint RETROFIT FP7 http://retrofit-project.eu/ Responses to coastal climate change: Innovative Strategies for high End Scenarios -Adaptation and Mitigation RISES-AM FP7 http://www.risesam.eu/ Robotic subsea exploration technologies ROBUST H2020 http://www.robust-project.eu/ A compact, unmanned, renewables-powered and self-sufficient vessel able to pick up marine litter and to treat it on board for volume reduction and energy recovery Sea Litter Critters FP7 Sea Border Surveillance SEABILLA FP7 SEAWEEDS FROM SUSTAINABLE AQUACULTURE AS FEEDSTOCK FOR BIODEGRADABLE BIOPLASTICS SEABIOPLAS FP7 Safety Enhancements in transport by Achieving Human Orientated Resilient Shipping Environment SEAHORSE FP7 http://www.seahorseproject.eu/ Sea-More-Yield: A Blue Biotechnology Solution for the Reduction of Pod Shatter in Bio-Oil Producing Crops SEA-MORE-YIELD H2020 Meso and Sub-mesoscale Physico-biogeochemical Dynamics in a Coastal NW Mediterranean Sea: Quantifying and Understanding Ecosystem Structure and Transport SeaQUEST FP7 Towards integrated European marine research strategy and programmes SEAS ERA FP7 http://www.seas-era.eu Anaerobic Digestion of Seaweed for Biofuels SEAWEED AD FP7 Security System for Maritime Infrastructures, Ports and Coastal zones SECTRONIC FP7 http://www.sectronic.eu/ From capture based to SELF-sustained aquaculture and Domestication Of bluefin tuna, Thunnus thynnus SELFDOTT FP7 SenseOCEAN: Marine sensors for the 21st Century SENSEOCEAN FP7 http://www.senseocean.eu/ Energy Efficient Safe SHip OPERAtion SHOPERA FP7 http://shopera.org/ 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report B-7 Development of a passive location and identification sonar tag for assisting in the laying, installation and long term monitoring of subsea cables and pipelines SONATAG FP7 Sponge Enzymes and Cells for Innovative AppLications SPECIAL FP7 A collaborative project aimed at developing a GMES-service for monitoring and forecasting subsidence hazards in coastal areas around Europe SUBCOAST FP7 http://www.subcoast.eu/ Development of novel Non Destructive Testing (NDT) techniques and autonomous robots to be deployed by Remote Operating Vehicles (ROVs) for the sub-sea inspection of off SUBCTEST FP7 http://www.subctest.com/ Security UPgrade for PORTs SUPPORT FP7 http://www.supportproject.info/ Accommodating New Interests at Sea: Legal Tools for Sustainable Ocean Governance SUSTAINABLEOC EAN H2020 https://www.uu.nl/en/research/sustainable- ocean Seaweed derived anti-inflammatory agents and antioxidants SWAFAX FP7 The Application of Edible Seaweed for Taste Enhancement and Salt Replacement TASTE FP7 TEchnologies and scenarios For Low Emissions Shipping TEFLES FP7 Demonstration of a Condition Monitoring System for Tidal Stream Generators TIDALSENSE DEMO FP7 Tidal Turbine Power Take-Off Accelerator TIPA H2020 http://www.tipa-h2020.eu/ Transboundary Maritime Spatial Planning TransMasp FP7 Modular Multi-use Deep Water Offshore Platform Harnessing and Servicing Mediterranean, Subtropical and Tropical Marine and Maritime Resources TROPOS FP7 http://www.troposplatform.eu/ Unravelling and exploiting Mediterranean Sea microbial diversity and ecology for Xenobiotics’ and pollutants’ clean up ULIXES FP7 http://www.ulixes.unimi.it/ ¡Viable and Alternative Mine Operating System! VAMOS H2020 http://vamos-project.eu/ Vectors of Change in Oceans and Seas Marine Life, Impact on Economic Sectors VECTORS FP7 http://www.marine-vectors.eu/ Eco-friendly and scalable seawater desalination container to secure water supply for agriculture and food production in the Mediterranean area Water4Food H2020 a 33kV Subsea Wet-MateableConnector for Offshore Renewable Energy WETMATE FP7 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report C-1 C Appendix – Overview of Regional Seas Programmes Source: UNEP, 2017 Regional Seas Programmes (RSPs) Regional Sea Convention/ Action Plan Geographical coverage Focus of Convention & regional environmental issues UNEP-administered i. Wider Caribbean Region Cartagena Convention: the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region Insular and coastal States and Territories with coasts on the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico as well as waters of the Atlantic Ocean adjacent to these States and Territories. It includes 28 island and continental countries (Convention ratified by 25 countries) The Convention covers several aspects of marine pollution for which the Contracting Parties must adopt specific measures. These measures include to prevent, reduce and control: pollution from ships pollution caused by dumping pollution from sea-bed activities airborne pollution pollution from land-based sources Countries who are Contracting Parties to the Convention are also required to: protect and preserve rare or fragile ecosystems and habitats of depleted, threatened or endangered species; and develop technical and other guidelines for the planning and environmental impact assessments of important development projects. ii. East Asian Seas Action Plan for the Protection and development of the Marine and coastal areas of the East Asian Region 9 member countries (Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Korea, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam) of COBSEA Seven areas of focus were identified for the region: Develop and maintain a regional (meta)database Promote, improve, network and maintain marine protected areas in the region. Implement activities to restore marine http://www.cep.unep.org/ http://www.cep.unep.org/ http://www.cobsea.org/ 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report C-2 (Coordinating Body on the Seas of East Asia) habitats Assist with State of Environment reporting for agencies preparing such reports and marine and coastal assessment Implement activities to reduce land-based sources of pollution Encourage monitoring and environmental assessment including mapping in the region Encourage and implement projects to build capacity in the member countries to counter environmental degradation and to educate all members of the community in caring for the marine resourcesof the region iii. Eastern Africa Region Nairobi Convention for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Eastern African Region Western Indian Ocean (WIO) region from Somalia to the Republic of South Africa, covering 10 States: Comoros, France, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mozambique, Seychelles, Somalia, Tanzania and the Republic of South Africa Assessments & State of Coasts Coastal Management Ocean Governance Information & Awareness iv. Mediterranean Region Barcelona Convention and its Protocols: the Convention for the protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution, and the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) 21 coastal states surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, in addition to the European Union Activities that cause pollution to the marine environment, 80 % of which come from land-based sources of pollution Excessive volume of international sea- borne trade, posing significant pressures to the marine environment of the region, such as water borne diseases, the introduction of opportunistic exotic species, and maritime pollution caused by the transportation of oil and other 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report C-3 hazardous substances. Impact of unrestrained development. Achieving Good Environmental Status (GES) in synergy with relevant global and regional initiatives including the European Union Marine Strategy Directive. Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable Development ICZM Protocol v. North-West Pacific Region Action Plan for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Northwest Pacific Region (NOWPAP) China, Japan, Korea, Russia NOWPAP priorities are: to set up a regional monitoring and assessment system; to develop a regional data and information network; to put in place a contingency plan for oil and chemical spills; to prepare and implement regional action plan to deal with marine litter vi. West and Central Africa Region Abidjan Convention: the Convention for Cooperation in the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Atlantic Coast of the West, Central and Southern Africa Region, and West and Central Africa Region (WACAF) Action Plan Countries in the Abidjan Convention area: are Angola, Benin, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Congo (Democratic Republic of), Congo (Republic of), Côte d’Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, Namibia, Nigeria, Sao Tome e Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa and Togo. Of these, 17 are The Convention lists the sources of pollution that require control as: ships, dumping, land-based activities, exploration and exploitation of the seabed, and atmospheric pollution. Other challenges for the region include the rapid development, improper use of resources and extensive pollution impacting negatively on the coastal ecosystems. Coastal erosion and floods are key problems, likely to be exacerbated by climate change. Destruction of critical habitats is wide spread in the convention area http://www.nowpap.org/ http://www.nowpap.org/ 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report C-4 currently parties to the Convention vii. Caspian Sea Tehran Convention: Framework Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Caspian Sea Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia and Turkmenistan Pollution from oil extraction and refining, offshore oil fields, radioactive wastes from nuclear power plants and untreated sewage and industrial waste introduced mainly by the Volga River. Non-UNEP administered i. Black Sea Region Bucharest Convention: Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea against Pollution, and the Black Sea Strategic Action Plan Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russian Federation, Turkey and Ukraine Main issues are: pollution by land-based sources; loss of biodiversity as a consequence of pollution, invasive species and the destruction of habitats; overexploitation of marine living resources leading to a collapse of fisheries, etc, having a significant impact on the ecosystem health. Other issues include coastal degradation, water borne diseases, the introduction of opportunistic exotic species, and maritime pollution caused by the transportation of oil and other hazardous substances ii. North-East Pacific Region Antigua Convention: Convention for Cooperation in the Protection and Sustainable Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the North-East Pacific Central American coastline (Guatemala and Panama ratified Convention; Convention not yet entered into force) Key parts of the action plan included: addressing issues of sewage and other pollutants; physical alteration and destruction of coastal ecosystems and habitats; overexploitation of fishery resources; effects of eutrophication iii. Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Jeddah Convention: Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Somalia, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Yemen Major issues include: habitat destruction; non-sustainable use of living marine http://www.caspianenvironment.org/newsite/index.htm http://www.blacksea-commission.org/ http://www.persga.org/ http://www.persga.org/ 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report C-5 Environment and Action Plan for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden resources; navigation risks and risks from petroleum production and transport; urban and industrial hotspots; rapid expansion of coastal tourism other concerns may include the illegal disposal of pollutants by transiting vessels. Programmes under PERSGA (Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden) include: Biodiversity and Marine Protected Areas; Environmental Monitoring Programme; Living marine Resources Programme; Adaptation to the Impact of Climate Change; Monitoring for Habitats and Biodiversity; Environmental Education and Communication Programme and Capacity Building iv. ROPME Sea Area Kuwait Convention: Kuwait Regional Convention for Cooperation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution, and Kuwait Action Plan Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates The Kuwait Action Plan implemented by ROPME (Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment) mainly covers programme activities relating to: oil pollution industrial wastes sewage marine resources Projects range over coastal area management, fisheries, public health, land-based activities, sea- based pollution, biodiversity, oceanography, marine emergencies, GIS and remote sensing, environmental awareness and capacity building. v. South Asian Seas South Asian Seas Action Plan (SASAP) Maldives, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, India and Pakistan SASAP focuses on: Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) oil-spill contingency planning, http://ropme.org/home.clx http://www.sacep.org/ 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report C-6 human resource development environmental effects of land-based activities The region faces the risk of losing a member country, namely the Maldives, due to changing climate and sealevel rise vi. South-East Pacific Region Lima Convention: Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Zones of the South-East Pacific, and the South-East Pacific Action Plan Chile,Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and Panama The Protocols focus on: Hydrocarbons and other Harmful Substances in cases of Emergency; Pollution from Land- Based Sources; Conservation and Management of Protected Marine and Coastal Radioactive Pollution Future regional priorities include: full implementation of existing legal instruments, developing transboundary pollution monitoring and control programmes; protection of threatened species, including marine mammals and turtles; prevention of the introduction of alien invasive species; public education and awareness The region is regularly disrupted by the El Niño- Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon influences the weather but also marine ecosystems, human livelihoods vii. Pacific Region Noumea Convention: Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific region Australia, Cook Islands, FSM, Fiji, France, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Niue, Palau, PNG, Samoa, Solomon Islands, The strategic priorities of SPREP (Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme) are: Biodiversity & Ecosystems Management Climate Change Environmental Monitoring & Governance Waste Management & Pollution Control http://www.cpps-int.org/ http://www.cpps-int.org/ http://www.sprep.org/ 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report C-7 Tonga, Tuvalu, UK (for Pitcairn Is.), United States, Vanuatu (Convention not ratified by Kiribati, Niue, Palau, Tonga, Tuvalu, UK (for Pitcairn Is.), Vanuatu Independent i. Arctic Region (Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy - AEPS) 8 Arctic Council States: Canada; Kingdom of Denmark; Finland; Iceland; Norway; Russian Federation; Sweden; United States Main regional concerns are: the effects from long-range air and sea transport of contaminants certain human activities such as interference with ancient animal migration routes, oil and chemical spills into the sea, the unforeseen impacts from the climate change causing the melting of the ice cover. ii. Antarctic Region Convention on the conservation of Antarctic Marine living Resources (CCAMLR) Members of the Commission currently include 24 States and the European Union CCAMLR was triggered by the increase in krill catches in the Southern Ocean that impact the populations of krill themselves but also other marine life; particularly on birds, seals and fish. It concerns not only with the regulation of fishing, but also has a mandate to conserve the ecosystem. iii. Baltic Sea In 1974 the Baltic Sea States signed the Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area, also known as the Helsinki Convention, which was later replaced by the new Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea The Helsinki Convention has ten Contracting Parties (Denmark; Estonia; Finland; Germany; Latvia; Lithuania; Poland; Russia; Sweden European Union) which are also the members of HELCOM (Helsinki The main issues include: eutrophication caused primarily by excess nitrogen and phosphorus in the water pollution by hazardous substances e.g. pesticides, heavy metals & industrial wastes habitat destruction the use of harmful fishing equipment and the introduction of alien invasive species. http://www.pame.is/ http://www.ccamlr.org/ http://www.helcom.fi/ 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report C-8 Commission) iv. North-East Atlantic Region Oslo Convention (dumping of hazardous substances at sea) and Paris Convention (land- based sources of pollution) merged and modernised into the present day OSPAR Convention: Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic Contracting Parties include The Netherlands as well as Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Luxembourg, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and United Kingdom, together with the European Union The region faces threats from: pollution, from the land, shipping and offshore installations pressures on fish stocks from over fishing coastal development exploitation of the seabed for sand and gravel http://www.ospar.org/ http://www.ospar.org/ 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report D-1 D Appendix – Overview of TKI Maritime projects Source: TKI Maritiem, 2017 Project title Theme JIP Wageningen CD Series Extension Clean ships JIP DeFoS Clean ships CRS programma: Clean ships CRS SHARCS Clean ships Hybrid 111 Clean ships JP Refit2Save Clean ships Validation of URN measurements Clean ships ROPES Efficient infrastructure CFD ontwikkeling Smart and safe shipping Programma Marine en Offshore-Safety Smart and safe shipping VIM JIP Smart and safe shipping JIP Obelics Smart and safe shipping JIP STA User Group Smart and safe shipping Safetrans UG Smart and safe shipping FS-ART- JIP Smart and safe shipping Edison DC Grid Smart and safe shipping Monitas UG Smart and safe shipping Safetrans UG Smart and safe shipping STA Group II JIP Smart and safe shipping JIP Offloading Operations Smart and safe shipping Contact-less propeller shaft bearing-seal combination Smart and safe shipping 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report D-2 DISCO JIP Mining at sea Wind Load JIP Mining at sea MOONPOOL JIP Mining at sea BreaKin JIP Mining at sea 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report E-1 E Appendix – Overview of conferences and events Conference/event Date Location Description Fourth Intergovernmental Review Meeting on the Implementation of the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities 2018 Bali, Indonesia Review the status of the implementation of the GPA and decide on action to be taken to strengthen its implementation. International Water Summit 2018 (IWS 2018) 15 - 18 January 2018 Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates Extensive exhibition, a high-level conference and an exclusive matchmaking platform enabling attendees to successfully connect to the market and generate business opportunities. 25th Coastal Futures Conference 2018 17 – 18 January 2018 London, UK UK Government marine vision, Brexit, climate change Arctic Frontiers 21 - 26 January 2018 Tromsø, Norway Most important Arctic conference for policy makers, scientists, NGOs and industries 6 th International Marine Debris Conference 12 – 16 March 2018 San Diego, CA, USA Highlight the complexity of the marine debris challenge facing the international community. World Symposium on Climate Change and Biodiversity 3 – 5 April 2018 Manchester, UK Address the need to not only better understand the impacts of climate change on biodiversity, but to also identify, test and implement measures aimed at managing the many risks climate change poses to fauna, flora and micro organisms. LET 2018 – The15th IWA Leading Edge Conference on Water and Wastewater Technologies 27 – 31 May 2018 Nanjing, China New insights into how pioneering science, technological innovation and leading practices shape the major 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report E-2 transformation in water management that is underway. European Maritime Day 31 May – 1 June 2018 Burgas, Bulgaria Annual meeting point for Europe’s maritime community to network, discuss and forge joint action. OSPAR Intersessional Correspondence Group on Marine Litter June 2018 Gothenburg, Sweden T.b.d. 4th InternationalSymposium "The Effects of Climate Change on the World's Oceans" 4 – 6 June 2018 Washington DC, U.S.A. Bring together experts from around the world to better understand climate impacts on ocean ecosystems – and how to respond. OSPAR Commission 25 – 29 June 2018 T.b.d. T.b.d. 4th International Symposium on Integrated Coastal Zone Management In a changing climate 2 – 5 July 2018 Arendal, Norway Promote science and integration of knowledge for the sustainable management of coastal resources. 47th Underwater Mining Conference September 2018 T.b.d. T.b.d. Arctic Circle 19 – 21 October 2018 Reykjavik, Iceland International dialogue and cooperation on the future of the Arctic. It is an open democratic platform with participation from governments, organizations, corporations, universities, think tanks, environmental associations, indigenous communities, concerned citizens 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report F-1 F Appendix – Overview of relevant Deltares projects in Indonesia Duration Assignment name / & brief description of main deliverables / outputs Name of Client & Country of Assignment Role on the Assignment Jul-2016 Jul-2019 National Capital Integrated Coastal Development NCICD - Knowledge management component Based on the description of the complexities of the NCICD Phase B program, the overall objective of the Knowledge Management program is to develop and implement the NCICD Knowledge Management System based on the principles of the learning organization. Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in Jakarta – Indonesia Indonesia Lead partner Feb-2015 Dec-2015 Flood risk mitigation project Astra The project studied the causes of January and February 2015 floods in the Astra area in northeast Jakarta, analysed possible measures in the area in view of land subsidence and planned polder development by DKI Jakarta. The effectiveness of the measures in terms of flood depth reduction, and costs of measures were estimated and options were presented to Astra management Astra International Indonesia Lead partner Mar-2014 Mar-2015 Young Water Development Program Indonesia Together with MDF (lead) and SWO, Deltares executed a training needs assessment (TNA) for the non-technical skills young water professionals within the Indonesian Ministry of Public Works need to effectively function in international, multi-sectoral and multi-stakeholder projects. Based on this TNA, a training curriculum was developed and a pilot training executed, consisting of 2 x 2 weeks classroom training and ensuing assignments in real-life projects. During and at the end of the project, several actions were undertaken to embed the training in the human resources development program of the ministry. Netherlands Enterprise Agency (RVO) Indonesia Joint Venture Partner Nov-2013 Feb-2015 Improving Water Sector Planning, Management and Development - TA-8432 INO The overall objective for the Improving Water Sector Planning, Asian Development Bank , State Ministry of National Development Planning / BAPPENAS – Lead partner 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report F-2 Duration Assignment name / & brief description of main deliverables / outputs Name of Client & Country of Assignment Role on the Assignment Management and Development (IWSPMD) project is improved water planning and investment in Indonesia. This will be achieved through two outputs: • Country Water Assessment (CWA) and strategic planning • Capacity development and knowledge transfer Indonesia Indonesia Jan-2013 Dec-2014 National Capital Integrated Coastal Development – Master Plan Project The main goal of the NCICD Master Plan is to offer Jakarta long term protection against flooding from the main water system (sea and rivers within the focus area) and to thereby facilitate the socio-economic development of the National Capital of Indonesia as laid out in the MP3EI plan. Netherlands Enterprise Agency (RVO) Indonesia Sub-consultant Aug-2011 Jan-2012 Adaptive Water Management for Delta regions: towards GREEN Water Defense in East Asia The study included an overview of flooding and climate change risks in the East Asia deltas, examples of best practices as well as an analysis of key factors of their successful implementation. Specific in-depth analysis was prepared on the climate vulnerability and flood risk management in the Mekong Delta (Vietnam) and Jakarta Delta (Indonesia). World Bank Viet Nam, Indonesia Lead partner Jan-2011 Apr-2015 Joint Cooperation Programme (JCP) The Joint Cooperation Programme intends to develop in a long-term knowledge sharing and capacity building program between the four institutes KNMI, BMKG, PusAir and Deltares. The ultimate aim is to increase the state of the art of the knowledge base of all the institutes involved and to strengthen the capacity in Indonesia to plan, develop and manage their (marine and fresh) water resources systems. Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in Jakarta , Partners for Water (PfW) – Netherlands Indonesia Lead partner Oct-2010 Jul-2011 Jakarta Coastal Defence Strategy (JCDS) Assist the Indonesian Government in evaluating social, economic and environmental impact from flooding from the sea in Jakarta, identifying the strategic way forward to safeguard Jakarta. Ministry of Economic Affairs Indonesia Lead partner 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report F-3 Duration Assignment name / & brief description of main deliverables / outputs Name of Client & Country of Assignment Role on the Assignment Sep-2010 Oct-2011 Supporting Investments in Water Related Disaster Management RETA 7276 Regional Capacity Development for Supporting Investments in Water- Related Disaster Management (R-CDTA7276) to help prepare and implement flood management investment projects through knowledge and capacity development services and reducing vulnerability to water- related disasters with in-country and regional assistance. ADB Asian Development Bank Bangladesh, Cambodia, Indonesia Lead partner Feb-2008 Dec-2008 Jakarta Floods – Flood Hazard Mapping 2 (FHM2) A direct continuation of the Jakarta Flood Management project, focusing on further development and application of the Flood Hazard Mapping Framework. Evaluation of virtually all proposed major flood mitigation works, i.e. deep tunnel storage, dredging, east Banjir Canal-Ciliwung connection, as well as catchment preservation measures. Formulation (in close communication with PU, BB Ciliwung-Cisadane, Dinas DKI, Satkorlak) of a 'Water Centre of Excellence' for capacity building and future maintenance of the knowledge framework. Ministry of Public Works, Directorate General of Water Resources Indonesia Lead partner May-2007 Dec-2007 Non-structural measures for Jakarta Flood Management 1 (JFM1) Assist the Indonesian Government in evaluating social, economic and environmental impact from flooding in Jakarta, identifying non-structural measures using the Flood Hazard Mapping (FHM) Framework and formulating communication strategies. This components consisted of Flood Hazard Mapping (FHM1) (Deltares & HKV). Ministry of Public Works, Directorate General of Water Resources Indonesia Lead partner May-2007 Dec-2008 Jakarta Floods – Flood Hazard Mapping Compilation of a comprehensive hydrologic and hydraulic modelling framework (SOBEK-FEWS) for the complete major drainage system for whole Jabodetabek. This allowed evaluation of nearly all proposed major works, i.e. deep tunnel storage, dredging, east banjir canal-Ciliwung connection,and catchment preservation measures. Partners for Water (PfW) Indonesia Sub-consultant Mar-2007 Aug-2008 Aceh Nias Sea Defence, Flood Protection, Refuges and Early Warning Project The project aimed to assist the Indonesian Government in the recovery Ministry of Foreign Affairs Indonesia Sub-consultant 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report F-4 Duration Assignment name / & brief description of main deliverables / outputs Name of Client & Country of Assignment Role on the Assignment and rehabilitation effort of the Tsunami-stricken areas of Aceh and Nias. Deltares provided specialist advice and modelling tools in the field of coastal defence strategies, drainage, flood mitigation, tsunami early warning system and environmental safeguards. 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report G-1 G Appendix – Project results for policy makers Improved Knowledge of Oceans and Seas Project Deliverables Application Source FP7 Vectors - Vectors of Change in Oceans and Seas Marine Life, Impact on Economic Sectors Report Synthesis report of the VECTORS findings that are relevant to the issues of the North Sea Regional Sea Policy Makers Environmental Managers & Monitoring It summarizes research conducted within the North Sea to explore outbreak forming species, invasive alien species and changes in distribution and productivity. http://www.marine-vectors.eu/getattachment/bd82ad76- 4e56-4de2-9245-6ca424033589/D4_2_1 EMODnet Database platforms EMODnet provides access to European marine data across seven discipline- based themes: bathymetry, Geology, Seabed habitats, Chemistry, Biology, Physics and Human activities. Policy Makers Environmental Managers & Monitoring Offshore Industry Maritime sectors Users have access to standardized observations, data quality indicators and processed data products, such as basin-scale maps. These data products are free to access and use. http://www.emodnet.eu/portals SCALES – Service contract DG Environment Report Coherent geographic scales and aggregation rules for environmental status assessment within the Marine Strategy Framework Directive. Towards a draft guidance (2014) Policy Makers Environmental Managers & Monitoring This report deals with the definition of spatial scales and the use of aggregation methods in the assessments of environmental status within the MSFD. https://circabc.europa.eu/sd/a/3fdcc394-1b7d-4fcc-9e9d- 16634debce88/Coherent%20geographic%20scales%20 and%20aggregation%20rules- %20guidance%20report%20Final%2031%20October%2 02014.pdf Marine Litter Project Deliverables Target & Application Source http://www.marine-vectors.eu/getattachment/bd82ad76-4e56-4de2-9245-6ca424033589/D4_2_1 http://www.marine-vectors.eu/getattachment/bd82ad76-4e56-4de2-9245-6ca424033589/D4_2_1 http://www.emodnet.eu/portals https://circabc.europa.eu/sd/a/3fdcc394-1b7d-4fcc-9e9d-16634debce88/Coherent%20geographic%20scales%20and%20aggregation%20rules-%20guidance%20report%20Final%2031%20October%202014.pdf https://circabc.europa.eu/sd/a/3fdcc394-1b7d-4fcc-9e9d-16634debce88/Coherent%20geographic%20scales%20and%20aggregation%20rules-%20guidance%20report%20Final%2031%20October%202014.pdf https://circabc.europa.eu/sd/a/3fdcc394-1b7d-4fcc-9e9d-16634debce88/Coherent%20geographic%20scales%20and%20aggregation%20rules-%20guidance%20report%20Final%2031%20October%202014.pdf https://circabc.europa.eu/sd/a/3fdcc394-1b7d-4fcc-9e9d-16634debce88/Coherent%20geographic%20scales%20and%20aggregation%20rules-%20guidance%20report%20Final%2031%20October%202014.pdf https://circabc.europa.eu/sd/a/3fdcc394-1b7d-4fcc-9e9d-16634debce88/Coherent%20geographic%20scales%20and%20aggregation%20rules-%20guidance%20report%20Final%2031%20October%202014.pdf 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report G-2 FP 7 - CleanSea Brochure Policy options for litter-free seas (2015) Policy Makers Industry Decision support tool for policy makers, authorities and key sectors on options and measures to reduce marine litter http://www.cleansea- project.eu/drupal/sites/default/files/project%20results/Cle anSea_Brochure_Final_0.pdf FP 7 – MARLISCO - MARine Litter in Europe Seas: Social AwarenesS and CO- Responsability Awareness raising & educational material Inc. posters, educational activities, serious-game (available in several languages inc. Dutch) General Public, Educators Awareness raising for different target audiences: general public, students, teachers www.marlisco.eu Report Outcomes from National Stakeholders For a (inc. Dutch Forum) Policy Makers Can inform policy makers on the outcomes of key discussions and stakeholders consultation regarding prevention of marine litter http://www.marlisco.eu/tl_files/marlisco/Downloadables/ WP%204/MARLISCO_D4_3_M34_v4.pdf Video Short videos made by students from 14 European countries on the topic of Marine Litter General Public 2min videos (some very high quality, e.g. Dutch and Portuguese one) serve as an example of how youngsters see the issue and can be used for awareness raising tool of broader public http://www.marlisco.eu/video-contest.en.html Interreg MICRO Report: Socio-economic impact of microplastics in the 2 Seas, Channel and France Manche Region An initial risk assessment Policy Makers Environmental Managers & Monitoring http://www.ilvo.vlaanderen.be/Portals/74/Documents/So cioeconomic_impact_microplastics_2Seas_and_France MancheRegion.pdf MSFD Technical Group Marine Litter Guidance Report Guidance on Monitoring of Marine Litter in European Seas (2013) Environmental Managers & Monitoring Support EU Member States in implementing harmonized monitoring programmes for marine litter https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/sites/jrcsh/files/lb-na-26113-en- n.pdf Guidance Report Environmental Managers & Monitoring http://ec.europa.eu/environment/marine/good- http://www.cleansea-project.eu/drupal/sites/default/files/project%20results/CleanSea_Brochure_Final_0.pdf http://www.cleansea-project.eu/drupal/sites/default/files/project%20results/CleanSea_Brochure_Final_0.pdf http://www.cleansea-project.eu/drupal/sites/default/files/project%20results/CleanSea_Brochure_Final_0.pdf http://www.marlisco.eu/ http://www.marlisco.eu/tl_files/marlisco/Downloadables/WP%204/MARLISCO_D4_3_M34_v4.pdf http://www.marlisco.eu/tl_files/marlisco/Downloadables/WP%204/MARLISCO_D4_3_M34_v4.pdf http://www.marlisco.eu/video-contest.en.html http://www.ilvo.vlaanderen.be/Portals/74/Documents/Socioeconomic_impact_microplastics_2Seas_and_FranceMancheRegion.pdf http://www.ilvo.vlaanderen.be/Portals/74/Documents/Socioeconomic_impact_microplastics_2Seas_and_FranceMancheRegion.pdf http://www.ilvo.vlaanderen.be/Portals/74/Documents/Socioeconomic_impact_microplastics_2Seas_and_FranceMancheRegion.pdf https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/sites/jrcsh/files/lb-na-26113-en-n.pdf https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/sites/jrcsh/files/lb-na-26113-en-n.pdf http://ec.europa.eu/environment/marine/good-environmental-status/descriptor-10/pdf/MSFD_identifying_sources_of_marine_litter.pdf 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report G-3 Identification of Sources of Marine Litter (2016) Guidelines and methodologies to better identify sources of marine litter environmental-status/descriptor- 10/pdf/MSFD_identifying_sources_of_marine_litter.pdf Guidance Report Harm caused by Marine Litter (2016) Policy Makers Scientific Community Environmental Managers & Monitoring Review of environmental and socio-economic impacts of marine litter http://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/J RC104308/lbna28317enn.pdf Guidance Report RiverineLitter Monitoring – Options and Recommendations (2016) Environmental Managers & Monitoring Guidelines for riverine litter monitoring http://ec.europa.eu/environment/marine/good- environmental-status/descriptor- 10/pdf/MSFD_riverine_litter_monitoring.pdf Marelitt – Pilot Project: Removal of Marine Litter from Europe’s Four Regional Seas Toolkit Marine Litter Retention (2015) NGOs Fishing Associations Authorities Guidelines on implementation of Fishing for Litter Initiative (planning, participants, funding, monitoring, etc) http://www.marelitt.eu/files/14259818910.pdf Toolkit Derelict Fishing Gear Retrieval (2015) NGOs Fishing Associations Authorities Guidelines to initiate a project to reduce the impact of derelict fishing gear on the marine environment http://www.marelitt.eu/files/14259815070.pdf Contaminants Project Deliverables Target & Application Source FP7 -ECsafeSEAFOOD Brochure Safe Seafood Guide for Policymakers: emerging chemical contaminants in seafood (2017) Policy Makers & food safety Authorities To inform on the latest seafood safety research results, in particular on newly emerging chemical contaminants which have not yet been regulated. Support communication of science-based risks http://www.ecsafeseafood.eu/images/ECsafeSEAFOOD/ Results/ECsafeSEAFOOD-Policy-Guide-Final.pdf http://ec.europa.eu/environment/marine/good-environmental-status/descriptor-10/pdf/MSFD_identifying_sources_of_marine_litter.pdf http://ec.europa.eu/environment/marine/good-environmental-status/descriptor-10/pdf/MSFD_identifying_sources_of_marine_litter.pdf http://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/JRC104308/lbna28317enn.pdf http://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/JRC104308/lbna28317enn.pdf http://www.marelitt.eu/files/14259818910.pdf http://www.marelitt.eu/files/14259815070.pdf 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report G-4 of contaminants in seafood; support design of policy and setting permissible levels of contaminants in seafood. Brochure Safe Seafood Guide for Industry Guide: Emerging Chemical Contaminants in Seafood (2017) Seafood Industry To assist Industry in assessing health risks associated with seafood. Guide provides current understanding of contaminants in seafood with a particular focus on non- regulated chemical contaminants of emerging concern. http://www.ecsafeseafood.eu/images/ECsafeSEAFOOD/ Results/ECsafeSEAFOOD-Industry-Guide-Final.pdf Brochure Safe Seafood Guide for Consumers (2017) Consumers To help consumers understand the benefits and risks associated with the seafood they eat. It includes recommendations to help reduce possible risks of seafood contamination. http://www.ecsafeseafood.eu/images/ECsafeSEAFOOD/ Results/ECsafeSEAFOOD-Consumer-Guide-Final-2.pdf EEA’s European Topic Centre on Inland, Coastal and Marine Waters Report Emissions of pollutants to Europe’s waters – sources, pathways and trends (2017) Policy Makers Environmental Managers Overview of the emissions to water at a European level for the major groups of pollutants (nutrients, organic matter, and priority substances) and the key emission sources: point sources such as urban waste water treatment plants (UWWTPs) and industry, and diffuse sources like agriculture, atmospheric deposition and traffic http://icm.eionet.europa.eu/ETC_Reports/EmissionsOfP ollutantsToEuropeanWaters_SourcesPathwaysAndTren ds/Emissions_of_pollutants_to_European_waters_for_p ublication_final.pdf Nutrients - Eutrophication Project Deliverables Application Source OSPAR Intermediate assessment Report Third OSPAR Integrated Report on the Eutrophication Status of the OSPAR Maritime Area, 2006-2014 Policy Makers Environmental Managers Assessment report of the eutrophication status of the NE Atlantic (2017) https://oap.ospar.org/en/ospar- assessments/intermediate-assessment-2017/pressures- human-activities/eutrophication/third-comp-summary- eutrophication/ http://icm.eionet.europa.eu/ETC_Reports/EmissionsOfPollutantsToEuropeanWaters_SourcesPathwaysAndTrends/Emissions_of_pollutants_to_European_waters_for_publication_final.pdf http://icm.eionet.europa.eu/ETC_Reports/EmissionsOfPollutantsToEuropeanWaters_SourcesPathwaysAndTrends/Emissions_of_pollutants_to_European_waters_for_publication_final.pdf http://icm.eionet.europa.eu/ETC_Reports/EmissionsOfPollutantsToEuropeanWaters_SourcesPathwaysAndTrends/Emissions_of_pollutants_to_European_waters_for_publication_final.pdf http://icm.eionet.europa.eu/ETC_Reports/EmissionsOfPollutantsToEuropeanWaters_SourcesPathwaysAndTrends/Emissions_of_pollutants_to_European_waters_for_publication_final.pdf https://oap.ospar.org/en/ospar-assessments/intermediate-assessment-2017/pressures-human-activities/eutrophication/third-comp-summary-eutrophication/ https://oap.ospar.org/en/ospar-assessments/intermediate-assessment-2017/pressures-human-activities/eutrophication/third-comp-summary-eutrophication/ https://oap.ospar.org/en/ospar-assessments/intermediate-assessment-2017/pressures-human-activities/eutrophication/third-comp-summary-eutrophication/ https://oap.ospar.org/en/ospar-assessments/intermediate-assessment-2017/pressures-human-activities/eutrophication/third-comp-summary-eutrophication/ 11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Oceans Report G-5 Acidification Project Deliverables Application Source Global Coastal Program Data - Ocean Carbon Data System (OCADS) Ocean Carbon and Acidification Data Portal OCADS includes data for the Western North Atlantic including adjacent seas and Eastern North Atlantic including adjacent seas and Eastern North Pacific. Environmental Managers & Monitoring Scientific Community Authorities OCADS provides data management support for the Global Coastal Carbon Data Project which includes bottle (discrete) and surface (underway) carbon-related measurements from coastal research cruises, time series cruises, and coastal moorings. https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/ocads/ Underwater Noise Project Deliverables Application Source FP7 SONIC - Suppression Of underwater Noise Induced by Cavitation Report Guidelines for Regulation on Underwater Noise from Commercial Shipping Environmental Managers & Monitoring Shipping Industry Implementation of mitigation measures where possible, as standard operation http://www.aquo.eu/downloads/AQUO- SONIC%20Guidelines_v4.3.pdf FP 7 – AQUO - Achieve Quieter Oceans by shipping noise footprint reduction Report “Underwater Noise Footprint of Shipping – The Practical Guide” Environmental Managers & Monitoring Industry Implementation of mitigation measures where possible, as standard operation http://www.aquo.eu/downloads/AQUO_D5.8_rev1.0_fina l.pdf Coastal Protection Project Deliverables Target & Application Source FP7 RISC-KIT - Resilience-Increasing Strategies for Coasts - toolKIT Policy Brief Disaster Risk Reduction strategies in EU coastal areas– recommendations for EU, national, and regional EU, national, and regional policy makers Guidelines and recommendations for reducing coastal disaster risk by implementing and promoting appropriate and effective disaster risk reduction measures, including nature- http://www.risckit.eu/np4/file/23/Deliverable6.6Final_poli cy_brief.pdf https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/ocads/ http://www.aquo.eu/downloads/AQUO-SONIC%20Guidelines_v4.3.pdf http://www.aquo.eu/downloads/AQUO-SONIC%20Guidelines_v4.3.pdf http://www.aquo.eu/downloads/AQUO_D5.8_rev1.0_final.pdf http://www.aquo.eu/downloads/AQUO_D5.8_rev1.0_final.pdf http://www.risckit.eu/np4/file/23/Deliverable6.6Final_policy_brief.pdf http://www.risckit.eu/np4/file/23/Deliverable6.6Final_policy_brief.pdf
