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Eating Behaviors 13 (2012) 398–401
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Eating Behaviors
Does the Internet function like magazines? An exploration of image-focused media,
eating pathology, and body dissatisfaction
Carrie E. Bair ⁎, Nichole R. Kelly, Kasey L. Serdar, Suzanne E. Mazzeo
Virginia Commonwealth University, White House, Psychology Department, 806 West Franklin St., P.O. Box 842018, Richmond, VA 23284–2018, USA
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 804 828 1193; fax:
E-mail addresses: bairce@vcu.edu (C.E. Bair), nrkelly
serdarkl@vcu.edu (K.L. Serdar), semazzeo@vcu.edu (S.E
1471-0153/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All
doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2012.06.003
a b s t r a c t
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 6 February 2012
Received in revised form 21 May 2012
Accepted 20 June 2012
Available online 4 July 2012
Keywords:
Body dissatisfaction
Media
Internet
Thin-ideal internalization
Eating disorders
Television
Researchhas identified a relation between exposure to thin-idealmagazine and televisionmedia images and eat-
ing disorder pathology. However, few studies have examined the potential influence of Internet media on eating
disorder behaviors and attitudes. This study investigated associations among image-focused media exposure,
body dissatisfaction, eating pathology and thin-ideal internalization in a sample of 421 female undergraduates.
Undergraduate women spent significantly more time viewing online appearance-oriented media, rather than
reading image-focusedmagazines. Appearance-oriented Internet and television use were associated with eating
pathology. Moreover, the association between image-focused Internet use and BD was mediated by thin-ideal
internalization. These findings are consistent with those of previous research, and highlight the vulnerability in-
dividuals high in thin-ideal internalization might have to media exposure. They also suggest that Internet media
use is an important topic to attend to in eating disorders prevention and treatment.
© 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Western media are saturated with images promoting thinness, and
media influences on eating behaviors have long been a focus of psycho-
logical research (Marino Carper, Negy, & Tantleff-Dunn, 2010; Slevec &
Tiggemann, 2011). Links among disordered eating behaviors, attitudes
and exposure to thin-ideal images have been established in both
cross-sectional and longitudinal research (Groesz, Levine, & Murnen,
2002; Levine&Murnen, 2009; Tiggemann&McGill, 2004). Themajority
of this research has focused on ideal images presented in print and tele-
vision media. Yet media use is rapidly evolving, and the Internet is
quickly becoming the primary media source used by young adults
(Jones & Fox, 2009). A study of adolescent females found a link between
exposure to Internet thin-ideal images and body dissatisfaction
(Tiggemann & Miller, 2010). However, to our knowledge, this relation
has not been explored in adult populations.
Thin-ideal internalization, an individual's belief in the socially de-
fined ideals of attractiveness and engagement in behavior focused on
achieving that ideal, has been found to affect the relation between
media exposure and body dissatisfaction (Dittmar & Howard, 2004;
Thompson & Stice, 2001; Tiggemann, 2003). While internalization of
the thin-ideal alone does not cause eating disorder symptoms, it is a
risk factor (Stice & Shaw, 1994; Thompson & Stice, 2001). Studies
have concluded that thin-ideal internalization mediates the relation
between exposure to thin-ideal images and body dissatisfaction, and
can trigger eating disorder symptoms (Stice, Schupak-Neuberg,
Shaw, & Stein, 1994; Tiggemann, 2003).
+1 804 828 2237.
@vcu.edu (N.R. Kelly),
. Mazzeo).
rights reserved.
Research on television and magazine exposure suggests that
consumption of different media types may have diverse psychological
consequences (Rubin, 1993). For example, one study suggested that
fashion magazine readership is more strongly linked to disordered eat-
ing outcomes than is image-focused television viewing (Tiggemann,
2003), and music video viewing has consistently been correlated with
higher body image dissatisfaction (Bell, Lawton, & Dittmar, 2007;
Borzekowski, Robinson, & Killen, 2000). Most research has focused on
television and magazine media. However, data suggest that television
watching might soon be eclipsed in popularity by online video viewing
amongyoung adults (ComScore, 2009). Given the rapid growth of Inter-
net use, and the associations between media consumption and eating
disorders, further attention to online media sources is needed.
The current study examined associations among body dissatisfac-
tion, thin‐ideal internalization, eating disorder symptomatology and
image-focused media use. It was hypothesized that image-focused
Internet media use would be more strongly associated with eating
disorder symptomatology (ED) and body dissatisfaction (BD) than
television or magazine use. It was also hypothesized that thin-ideal
internalization would mediate the relation between image-focused
Internet use and BD.
1. Method
1.1. Sample and procedure
Participants were 421 undergraduate women (Mage=19.20±
2.81) recruited from the Psychology department participant pool at
a large mid-Atlantic university. Undergraduate women are at high
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2012.06.003
mailto:bairce@vcu.edu
mailto:nrkelly@vcu.edu
mailto:serdarkl@vcu.edu
mailto:semazzeo@vcu.edu
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2012.06.003
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/14710153
399C.E. Bair et al. / Eating Behaviors 13 (2012) 398–401
risk for eating disorders (Heatherton, Nichols, Mahamedi, & Keel,
1995). Men were not assessed as most previous research in this
area has included women exclusively (e.g., Grabe, Ward, & Hyde,
2008). This study was approved by the university's Office of Research
Subjects’ Protection. Data collection was completed through secure
internal systems and participants were identified via a code number
to maintain anonymity. Table 1 includes participant demographics.
1.2. Measures
Two female graduate students and a female faculty member creat-
ed a media use questionnaire with entertainment, health/fitness, and
fashion categories. All three members of the team achieved consensus
for categorization. Two undergraduate females reviewed the ques-
tionnaire for content validity. Participants reported their television
and Internet use over the past week, and magazine use over the
past month due to the monthly cycle of many publications. In each
category, image-focused media use was defined as the total time in
hours spent with celebrity/entertainment, fashion, or fitness content
in the past month. Monthly Internet and televisionmedia use was cal-
culated by multiplying weekly totals by 4.2. Each category included
an “other” field where participants could add additional media
sources.
The top 10 best-selling magazines in each category (entertain-
ment, health/fitness, and fashion) were included (Association of
MagazineMedia, 2009). Sixteen fashion magazines, five health/fitness
magazines, and seven entertainment magazines were included on the
final survey. Television viewing habits were assessed by asking par-
ticipants to list their top 10 most frequently watched programs and
hours spent viewing each from the following categories: music
videos, fashion/beauty, soap operas, entertainment/celebrity news,
and other. Examples drawn from the top rated television shows and
consultation with undergraduate students were provided to focus
participants on the types of responses that fit. Internet use was
assessed by asking participants to indicate the frequency of use for
each website, and the duration (in hours). The final questionnaire in-
cluded 10 entertainment/celebrity news websites, 14 fashion/beauty
websites, and six health/fitness Internet websites.
The Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI, Garner, Olmstead, & Polivy,
1983) measures symptoms of anorexianervosa (AN) and bulimia
nervosa (BN). Revised versions of the EDI exist (EDI-2, Garner,
1991; EDI-3, Garner, 2004); however, the subscales measuring atti-
tudes and behaviors concerning eating, weight and shape used in
this study (body dissatisfaction, EDI-BD; drive for thinness, EDI-DFT;
and bulimia, EDI-BN) have not changed since the original. The EDI ef-
fectively distinguishes among individuals with AN, BN, or no eating
disorder, and has demonstrated good temporal stability (Garner et
Table 1
Participant demographics.
n Percentage
Total participants 421
Race/ethnicity
European-American/White 216 51.3
African-American/Black 93 22.1
Asian American 35 8.4
Pacific Islander 6 1.4
Multiracial 33 7.9
Other 25 5.9
Declined to respond 13 3.3
Year in school
First 262 62.3
Second 86 20.3
Third 46 10.9
Fourth 27 6.4
al., 1983) It was scored using recommendations for non-clinical sam-
ples (Hart & Ollendick, 1985). In the current sample, alpha was 0.93.
The Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire
(SATAQ-3) is a measure of sociocultural influences on appearance
and attitudes toward thinness (Thompson, van den Berg, Roehrig,
Guadra, & Heinberg, 2004). The SATAQ-3's Internalization-general
subscale was used in this study. Convergent validity evidence in-
cludes the high correlations reported between each of the SATAQ-3
subscales and disordered eating measurements (Thompson et al.,
2004). In the current sample, alpha for the Internalization subscale
was 0.95.
2. Results
Descriptive data provide information about image-focused media
use in college-aged women (see Table 2). The Internet was the most
commonly used media type, and was used 3.93 times as much as
magazines by this sample. Magazines were used less frequently
than Internet, t (420)=11.915, pb .001, and television in this sample,
t (420)=10.81, pb .001.
Pearson product–moment correlations were conducted to detect
associations between media type (as measured by average hours of
media use in each image-focused category), BD (EDI-BD) and ED
(EDI total scores). Image-focused magazine use was not significantly
associated with eating pathology or BD, r (420)=0.10, p>.10 and r
(420)=0.07, p>.10, respectively. Image-focused television use was
associated with eating pathology, r=0.13, R2=0.02, pb .05, and BD,
r=0.13, R2=0.02, pb .01. Image-focused Internet was also signifi-
cantly associated with eating pathology, r=0.15, R2=0.02, pb .01
and BD r=0.12, R2=0.01, pb .01. The effect size of each of these asso-
ciations is considered small (Cohen, 1977). A Fisher transformation
determined that there was no significant difference in the associa-
tions between image-focused television use and eating pathology,
and image-focused Internet use and eating pathology (p>0.10).
Based on previous research (Tiggemann, 2003), it was hypothesized
that thin-ideal internalization (as measured by the SATAQ-3) would
mediate the relation between image-focused Internet use and BD.
Following the recommended (Baron & Kenny, 1986) mediation
model, three regressions were performed, controlling for BMI. First,
image-focused Internet use was significantly associated with BD,
F(2, 413)=41.43, pb .001, R2=.18, β=.13, t (414)=2.85, p=.005.
Second, image-focused Internet use was significantly associated
with internalization of the thin ideal, F(2, 413)=11.32, pb .001,
R2=.06, β=.15, t (414)=3.02, p=.003. Finally, image-focused
Internet use and thin-ideal internalization together were significantly
associated with BD F(3, 412)=94.93, pb .001; R2=.43; however,
image-focused Internet use was not a significant independent predictor
Table 2
Time spent with media categories (hours per week).
Category Mean Standard deviation
Internet 8.60 14.80
Fashion 2.67 6.61
Entertainment 3.33 7.28
Fitness 0.39 1.53
Other 50.25 21.76
Television 4.19 7.96
Fashion 12.7 17.68
Music videos 10.16 17.12
Entertainment news 6.56 13.58
Soap opera 2.92 11
Magazines 2.19 4.75
Fashion 2.33 6.43
Entertainment 1.97 4.42
Fitness 0.81 4.58
400 C.E. Bair et al. / Eating Behaviors 13 (2012) 398–401
of BD in this simultaneousmultiple regressionmodel,β=.06, t (413)=
1.38, p=.18. A Sobel test showed that themagnitude of the relation be-
tween image-focused Internet use and BD decreased when the
thin-ideal internalization pathway was controlled (Z=3.28, pb .001).
Thus, thin-ideal internalization fully mediated the relation between
image-focused Internet use and BD.
3. Discussion
Prior research has established a relation between exposure to
image-focused media and BD for young women (Cohen, 2006;
Groesz et al., 2002; Stice & Shaw, 1994; Tiggemann & McGill, 2004).
However, this connection has not been explored with Internet
media in young women. Consistent with previous findings (Zickuhr,
2010), participants reported using the Internet more than any other
media source. This is significant as there is a seemingly endless supply
of image-focused verbal and visual data on the Internet (Levy &
Strombeck, 2002). These findings are consistent with prior research
indicating that college students spend more time on computers
than watching television (Alloy Media Marketing, 2009).
The current study found a link between Internet and television use
and BD, although no such association was detected for magazine use.
Although the magnitude of these associations was small (Cohen,
1977), they warrant more investigation. These findings contrast
with previous research that found strongest associations between
magazine use and BD (Levine & Murnen, 2009). A possible explana-
tion for this discrepancy is the changing nature of the media land-
scape, as young adults use the Internet as their primary news
source (versus newspapers or magazines; (Pew Internet & American
Life Project, 2011). Young adults’ new preference for Internet media
may explain the changing associations of different media types on
eating pathology. Although this study was cross-sectional and there-
fore cannot offer any definitive conclusions regarding causality, it is
important to consider characteristics shared by television and Inter-
net media that might explain their similar association with BD. Both
television and the Internet provide constant access to image-
focused content, whereas magazine content is limited to the images
and articles included in a specific issue. Time-shift television technol-
ogy (e.g., streaming programming on the Internet) is growing in pop-
ularity (e.g., Burbules, 2011). It is possible this television content is
selected more intentionally than traditional methods. Time-shift
technology was not measured, but it is recommended for future re-
search. Recent reports indicated that over 70% of consumers ages
18–33 use the Internet to watch videos (Zickuhr, 2010). Therefore,
there may be less of a distinction between television and Internet
within this age group, and young adults may be using their computers
to meet most of their media interests.
3.1. Limitations and future research
Limitations to this study include the sample of exclusively female
college students from a mid-Atlantic university. As with most media
studies (Groesz et al., 2002), information was collected retrospective-
ly via self-report. Future research should use more precise and impar-
tial methods of collecting data (e.g., use of objective technology to
record media use). As this study was cross-sectional in design, no
causal conclusions can be drawn. Although it is possible that media
exposure causes BD, the converse is also possible. Research has
suggested (Tiggemann & Miller, 2010) that women who are particu-
larly unhappy with their bodies may intentionally pursue thin-ideal
images, and this could be particularly likely for Internet use as it is a
medium viewers are able to fully control. Indeed, recent research
has shown that use of social networking websites is associated with
eating disorder risk among adolescent girls (University of Haifa,
2011). Experimental research is needed to investigate the causal rela-
tions among these variables.
3.2.Implications
Current findings have a number of practical implications. Media
literacy programs have yielded promising results in the prevention
of BD (Levine & Murnen, 2009). Nonetheless, the Internet is unique
in that it can provide instantaneous access to a large cache of
image-focused content. This is particularly concerning as the Internet
is now used in work, social and leisure activities (Pew Internet &
American Life Project, 2010). Further, 43% of undergraduates attend-
ing the university where the present study was conducted reported
using their personal mobile devices as their primary source of Inter-
net (Kapsidelis, 2011), highlighting the omnipresent nature of the
Internet. As such, targeted prevention for image-focused Internet
should be incorporated into current prevention programs.
Role of Funding Sources
There was no funding source for this research project.
Contributors
Nichole Kelly and Kasey Serdar designed the study and wrote the protocol. Carrie
Bair conducted literature searches, statistical analyses, and wrote the manuscript.
Suzanne Mazzeo supervised the study. All authors contributed to and approved the
final manuscript.
Conflict of Interest
All authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
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	Does the Internet function like magazines? An exploration of image-focused media, eating pathology, and body dissatisfaction
	1. Method
	1.1. Sample and procedure
	1.2. Measures
	2. Results
	3. Discussion
	3.1. Limitations and future research
	3.2. Implications
	Role of Funding Sources
	Contributors
	Conflict of Interest
	References