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ii SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Delft University of Technology 
Landbergstraat 15 
2628CE Delft 
The Netherlands 
T +31 (0) 15 278 9318 
 
Schiphol Group 
Post box 7501 
1118 ZG Schiphol 
The Netherlands 
T +31 (0) 20 601 9111 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The Diemigo project is made possible with the support of Transumo. Transumo (Transition to Sustainable Mobility) is 
a Dutch platform for over 150 companies, governments and knowledge institutes that cooperate in the development 
of knowledge with regard to sustainable mobility. Transumo aims to contribute to the transition from the current 
inefficient mobility system towards one that enables greater economic competitiveness, as well as a strong focus on 
people and the environment. The research and knowledge development activities under Transumo began in the year 
2005 and will continue at least until 2009. Currently, more than 20 projects are conducted under the scope of 
Transumo. 
 
More information is available at www.transumo.nl 
 
SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 iii 
 
 
 
SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 
A SCENARIO FOR INTEGRATON OF ELECTRIC MOBILITY INTO THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Authors: 
Dr.ir. Sacha Silvester 
Ir. Satish kumar Beella 
Dr.ir. Arjan van Timmeren 
Prof.dr.ir. Pavol Bauer 
Dr. Jaco Quist 
Dr.ir. Stephan van Dijk 
 
 
Schiphol contact person: 
Ir Jonas van Stekelenburg 
 
 
Graphic design and layout: 
Mr. Marin Licina 
Ir. Satish kumar Beella 
 
 
 
 
 
 
© Delft University of Technology, 2010 
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, transcribed, stored in a retrieval system, translated into 
any other language or computer language or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical or 
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. 
iv SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 
 
SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 v 
Foreword 
 
The introduction of electric mobility into Dutch Society is one of the promising options 
to create a more sustainable mobility system for the future. Electric vehicles offer the 
promise of major reductions in local CO2, NOX and particulate emissions. In addition, 
electric vehicles are silent, easy to service and have high ‘well-to-wheel’ energy 
efficiency. However, the introduction of electric vehicles into society also poses 
several important challenges. Current electric vehicle technologies have limitations 
with respect to ease of use, driving range, and time-to-charge, and are relatively 
expensive. Moreover, the use of electric vehicles requires an adequate charging and 
electric grid infrastructure, as well as dedicated solutions for vehicle charging and 
storage that are optimally integrated into the built environment. 
 
The possible linking of renewable –decentralised- energy generation and storage in 
electric vehicles, the switch from ICE-based to electrical and ICT based technologies 
and the entrance of new ‘players’, the shift from ownership to usership, the pressure 
from (local) communities to improve urban environment are some of the important 
developments that will lead to a radical change of our mobility system. 
What the exact outcome of the transition process will be and how the process itself 
will look like is still uncertain. It is challenging that in spite of these uncertainties a lot 
of stakeholders in the transition already preparing themselves. 
An enormous amount of small-scale pilots with electric mobility is announced and a 
few pilots -integrating energy production, infrastructure, vehicle-, building- and urban 
design- are actually on the way. These pilots offer short learning cycles: “if we fail, 
we quickly fail, if we succeed we built further”. 
 
This report presents the results of an integrated research and design pilot for the 
introduction of electric vehicles in the urban environment. The Schiphol Group has 
the ambition to develop its properties and business park areas in a more sustainable 
and socially responsible way. Therefore, electric mobility is an interesting option to 
consider. To explore this option, The Grounds location at Schiphol was chosen as a 
challenging case. 
The project was exciting as a result of the collaboration with a leading organisation 
such as Schiphol and also because of the participation of twenty-five researchers 
and designers from four different faculties of the Delft University of Technology. 
 
The results of the project demonstrate that it is possible to create a multifunctional, 
sustainable and comfortable urban area in which the electric mobility is very well 
integrated. It can even be concluded that sustainable urban development is 
becoming more feasible because of the clever integration of renewable energy, 
electricity grid design, inductive charging and customized electric vehicle services. 
Some of the components of the proposed plan are very promising and can be 
developed immediately, since most of the required technologies are currently 
available. These components can act as stepping-stones towards -and 
demonstrators for- the integrated Schiphol The Grounds ‘2030’ plan. 
The Grounds location near Schiphol Airport City has been a unique case for 
developing novel concepts and methods. However, to be able to generalise the 
findings and to validate the applied methodology, many other urban areas should be 
developed. 
 
I hope that this report will inspire the Schiphol Group and will help to fulfil their 
sustainability goals. Let’s challenge this sustainable future! 
 
Sacha Silvester 
March, 2010 
vi SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 
 
SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 vii 
 
Acknowledgements 
 
The Diemigo research project was initiated in April 2009 and completed in November 
2009. Many people have contributed to this project and without their commitment and 
efforts the results of this project would not have been achieved. We would like to 
thank Jan Klinkenberg, director of Transumo, for supporting this challenging project 
and for his help during the critical phases. We would also like to thank the enduring 
support and enthusiasm of Jonas van Stekelenburg of the Schiphol Group who is 
also the project manager of The Grounds. The project has also benefited from the 
knowledge of Teun Bijlsma, Patrick Janssen, Jan-Willem Samama, Maurits 
Schaafsma, Tabor Smeets, Gert-Jan Vermeulen, Martijn van Boxtel, Ho, van der 
Horst en Wagemakers, all from the Schiphol Group. We hope the results of this 
project will inspire the Schiphol Group to pursue their sustainability strategy even 
more vigorously in the coming decade. 
 
Several employees at the Delft University of Technology have provided critical 
support for the administrative and financial aspects of this project. We would like to 
thank Linda Roos and Remco Blijleven for their energy and dedication. Finally, but 
most importantly, this project has been executed by a dynamic team of bright 
researchers from Delft University of Technology and we would like to thank all of 
them for their contribution: Pavol Bauer, Satish kumar Beella, Siebe Broersma, 
Carlos Castillo Cortes, Stephan van Dijk, Jeremie Doppler, Chandler Elizabeth 
Hatton, Inge Heit, Kas Hemmes, Frank van der Hoeven, Jessica Abad Kelly, Peter 
van Kouwen, Marin Licina, Bauke Muntz, Gregorio Muraca, Jaco Quist, Paul de 
Ruiter, Sacha Silvester, Stefan van der Spek, Neil Stembridge, Koen Terra, Arjan 
van Timmeren, Anne-Lorene Brigitte Helene Vernay and Yi Zhou. 
viii SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 
 
SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 ix 
 
Table of Contents 
 
 
 
1  Executive Summary ...............................................................................................1 
1.1  Key results ......................................................................................................1 
1.2  Recommendations ..........................................................................................61.3  Recommendations for Schiphol ......................................................................7 
 
2  Introduction ............................................................................................................8 
2.1  The Challenge.................................................................................................8 
2.2  Research Structure & Questions.....................................................................9 
2.3  Schiphol and The Grounds ...........................................................................11 
2.4  Deliverables ..................................................................................................12 
 
3  Methodology ........................................................................................................13 
3.1  Introduction ...................................................................................................13 
3.2  Three major challenges.................................................................................13 
3.3  Methodological approach..............................................................................15 
 
4  Challenges and Requirements.............................................................................18 
4.1  Technology assessment ...............................................................................18 
4.1.1  Electric Vehicle Technology ...................................................................18 
4.1.2  Battery Technology ................................................................................33 
4.1.3  Battery Charging ....................................................................................42 
4.1.4  Electrical Grid.........................................................................................49 
4.1.5  Battery Design Issues ............................................................................57 
4.1.6  Electric Vehicle Design Issues ...............................................................68 
4.1.7  Fast Charging Design Issues .................................................................71 
4.2  Developments in electric mobility..................................................................81 
4.2.1  Market and pilot developments ..............................................................81 
4.2.2  Government and politics ........................................................................86 
4.2.3  Industry ..................................................................................................88 
4.2.4  International activities on electric mobility ..............................................95 
4.2.5  Overview initiatives and pilots abroad..................................................103 
4.2.6  Conclusions on developments in electric mobility................................105 
4.3  Actors, users & social aspects ....................................................................105 
4.3.1  Actors ...................................................................................................105 
4.3.2  Social aspects ......................................................................................108 
4.3.3  Conclusions..........................................................................................122 
4.4  Urban context and potentials ......................................................................126 
4.4.1  The Built Environment & E-mobility, Approach ....................................126 
4.4.2  Climate and sustainable energy potential analysis of Schiphol and the 
Haarlemmermeer .............................................................................................131 
4.4.3  Schiphol, the urban context..................................................................140 
4.4.4  Conclusion ...........................................................................................168 
4.5  Design scenarios ‘The Grounds 2030’ ........................................................170 
4.5.1  General background future development scenarios ............................170 
4.5.2  Plotting the scenarios...........................................................................173 
4.5.3  Mental maps of the future ....................................................................174 
4.5.4  Key factors ...........................................................................................175 
4.5.5  Critical Forces ......................................................................................176 
4.5.6  Driving Forces ......................................................................................177 
x SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 
4.5.7  Selected scenarios...............................................................................182 
 
5  Concepts............................................................................................................190 
5.1  Mobility/functional concepts ........................................................................190 
5.1.1  EV schiPOOL System ..........................................................................190 
5.1.2  Do Anything Box ..................................................................................191 
5.1.3  Energy Card .........................................................................................192 
5.1.4  Compact and Stacked..........................................................................192 
5.1.5  Modular Society ...................................................................................193 
5.1.6  Resource Exchange Node (REN) ........................................................194 
5.1.7  Self-Sufficient Communities .................................................................195 
5.1.8  Better Tomorrow ..................................................................................196 
5.1.9  Complete Package...............................................................................197 
5.1.10  Service-Oriented Autonomous Vehicles ............................................197 
5.1.11  Seamless Mobility ..............................................................................198 
5.1.12  Mobile Built Environment ...................................................................199 
5.1.13  Build-a-Vehicle ...................................................................................199 
5.1.14  New Generation EVs..........................................................................200 
5.2  Urban concepts ...........................................................................................201 
5.2.1  Built Environment and approach ..........................................................201 
5.2.2  Integration of e-mobility within future scenarios for ‘Elzenhof The 
Grounds’...........................................................................................................203 
5.2.3  Integrated urban mobility and electric charging concepts ....................235 
5.2.4  Conclusion (urban concepts) ...............................................................236 
5.3  Grid and charging concepts ........................................................................237 
5.3.1  Travel Pattern.......................................................................................238 
5.3.2  Load Profile of Different Buildings........................................................239 
5.3.3  Charging Pattern ..................................................................................241 
5.3.4  Scenario Results (Generation Eco-Geek)............................................244 
5.3.5  Economic Analysis and Grid Design ....................................................249 
5.4  Scenario selection.......................................................................................254 
5.4.1  Criteria and method for selection .........................................................254 
5.4.2  Selected Scenario Delineation.............................................................255 
5.5  Morphological charts ...................................................................................261 
 
6  Design phase .....................................................................................................265 
6.1  The ‘Elzenhof The Grounds’ design scenario ‘Generation Eco-Geek’...........265 
6.1.1  Background of the concept ..................................................................265 
6.1.2  Conceptual design ‘Generation Eco-geek’ scenario elaboration .........280 
6.1.3  Strategy of implementation ..................................................................285 
6.1.4  Conclusion ...........................................................................................294 
6.1.5  Urban design conclusions ....................................................................295 
6.2  Mobility ........................................................................................................296 
6.2.1  Ecar 0f 2030.........................................................................................296 
6.3  Induction Charging: Interaction and user experience .................................302 
6.4  Grid Design .................................................................................................305 
6.5  Conclusions.................................................................................................307 
 
7  Conclusions and Recommendations .................................................................308 
7.1  State of the art in electric mobility and future trends...................................308 
7.2  Design solutions for the Schiphol case ........................................................309 
7.3  Urban design and electric mobility concepts ...............................................310 
7.4  Energy infrastructure design .......................................................................311 
7.5  Methodology ................................................................................................312 
 
SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 xi 
7.6  Recommendations .......................................................................................312 
7.7  Recommendations for Schiphol ..................................................................313 
 
8  References.........................................................................................................314 
 
9  Appendix ............................................................................................................324 
9.1  Results from other three Scenarios.............................................................324 
9.1.1  Results of Scenario “Time to eat the dog”............................................324 
9.1.2  Results of Scenario “As Good as Its Gets” ..........................................328 
9.1.3  Results of Scenario “Footprints on the Water” .....................................332 
9.2  Appendix D Standards for EVs ...................................................................336 
 
10  Illustrations.......................................................................................................337 
 
 
 
 
1 Executive Summary 
 
A large-scale introduction of electric vehicles into Dutch society has a variety of 
benefits, including higher ‘Well-to-Wheel’ efficiencies, the mitigation of local 
greenhouse gas emissions, particulate pollution, and noise, and an increased need 
for the production of renewable energy. The batteries of electric vehicles could also 
be used as auxiliary storage capacity for the electricity grid, further reinforcing the 
integration of renewable energy in both decentralised and centralised electrical grids. 
Although these benefits provide incentives for many parties and stakeholders to 
pursue the electrification of mobility in the Netherlands, much is still unknown about 
the complexities arising from the integration of electric mobility in the built 
environment, especially at a large scale. 
 
To explore these complexities and develop a better understanding of the true 
benefits of electric mobility, an integrated scenario development project (called 
DIEMIGO) was jointly undertaken by the Delft University of Technology and the 
Schiphol Group. This report presents the main results of this project and 
demonstrates the consequences of, and design solutions for, the large-scale 
introduction of electric vehicles into the built environment. The integrated scenario 
and design solutions have been developed for a future business park near Schiphol 
Airport City, called ‘The Grounds’, which Schiphol aims to develop in a sustainable 
way. The objectives of this project were twofold: 
 
- To develop an integrated methodology to design effective solutions for the 
implementation of large-scale electric mobility in the built environment. 
- To develop a location-specific scenario for the year 2030 for one of the urban 
development areas at Schiphol Airport City (i.e., The Grounds), based on this 
methodology. 
 
When putted more concretely, an assessment focussing on electric vehicle 
technology and battery technology, market and social developments and finally the 
urban context was the input for the development of four scenarios. Concepts of the 
urban design, electrical infrastructures, the buildings and the vehicle concepts were 
generated for each of the scenarios. The most challenging of the four scenarios was 
selected and elaborated into a location-specific scenario for Schiphol in the year 
2030. 
 
The TRANSUMO (Transition to Sustainable Mobility) program – a research program 
subsidised by the Dutch national government to improve the knowledge 
infrastructure of the Netherlands on sustainable mobility–provided the financial 
support for this research project. A multi-disciplinary team of researchers from the 
Faculties of Architecture, Electrical Engineering, Industrial Design, and Technology 
Policy and Management at TU Delft worked together with experts from the Schiphol 
Group to execute the project and develop solutions. 
1.1 Key results 
 
The key results of the study are summarised below: 
 
- To assess the feasibility (in social, economic, technological, and policy terms) of 
existing electric mobility concepts an extensive technology assessment was 
executed at the beginning of the project, with the following main outcomes: 
 
 
2 SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 
- The range of electric vehicles (EVs) is limited when compared to conventional 
cars. The state of current battery technology, although it is constantly 
improving, is one of the reasons for the limited usage of EVs. Significant 
technological breakthroughs are needed in order to develop an EV with a 
comparable range and an affordable price. 
- Safety, modularity and compatibility will be the key aspects in establishing 
dynamic and long-term solutions for EV charging infrastructures. It is of great 
importance for successful implementation that these user-related aspects are 
taken into account when assessing EV technologies. 
- The biggest bottleneck for the electrical infrastructure is achieving sufficient 
distribution capacity in the grid if EVs are concentrated in particular regions or 
locations and fast charged. 
- The availability of full sized EVs for personal transport is still limited. 
However, with regard to market developments in the Netherlands, the 
numbers of hybrid EVs, professional market niches (e.g. on-site, public 
services, vans & small trucks), and electric bikes (pedelecs) and scooters are 
constantly growing. 
- The environmental benefits of EVs are almost completely dependent on the 
type of energy production that is used to charge the battery. 
- Changes in consumers’ behaviour (e.g. using a second car, rental car or 
public transport) for longer trips might need certain adaptations and changes 
specific to their mode choices in order to use EVsand related infrastructure. 
This situation could be avoided with the implementation of technological 
solutions such as fast charging, battery swapping and range extenders. 
- The higher purchasing price of an EV is a barrier for the buyer. As a result, 
there is need for and likelihood of different business models, such as battery 
leasing, which will develop in the early years of EVs. 
- The vehicle-to-grid (V2G) option for exchanging electricity back and forth to 
the grid is viable if the EV charging and energy distribution markets are 
matched. In the United States, V2G services are very profitable for users if 
this match is sold as spinning reserves and grid regulation. However, these 
high value energy markets are presently non-existent in the Netherlands. 
Changes are required in the current Netherlands energy market in order to 
make V2G services economically viable. 
 
- To establish clear guidelines for the design of effective solutions for the 
integration of electric mobility in urban environments in the future, four different 
Design Orienting Scenarios (DOS) for 2030 were developed. In addition to the 
existing Policy Oriented Scenarios (POS) of the CPB (CPB 2004), which deal 
with the macro-scale of the socio-technical systems and present a variety of 
possible futures and facilitate political decisions, these scenarios are conceived 
as tools to be used in design processes. They are made of a variety of 
comparable visions, which are motivated and enriched with visible and tangible 
proposals. The driving forces for the scenarios are: 
 
o CO2 neutral policy 
o Zero emission regulation in urban areas 
o Sustainable behaviour 
o Focus on usership 
o Technology developments, particularly ones related to batteries, fast 
charging and range extenders. 
 
 SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 3 
 
Fig 1. Central location of Schiphol 
 
- ‘Generation Eco-Geek’ was the scenario chosen for further development, 
because it is the most conscious of the four developed scenarios with regard to 
sustainability (Fig 2). This scenario describes a world in which rapid technological 
development and minimalistic design principles are essential. Generation Eco-
Geek marks a change in consumer behaviour: consumers exhibit a clear 
preference for value-based products and attention to detail. The Dutch society is 
CO2 neutral and 70% of all Dutch cars are electric. Schiphol Airport also acts as a 
showroom for modern technological advancements. The airport is automated, 
space efficient and flexible, allowing it to remain compact and effective. This 
scenario is used to guide the development of the different design aspects, such 
as the urban profile and the modal split (mix of different travel modes) of The 
Grounds area of Schiphol. 
 
- To determine the operational context for future mobility systems at a specific 
location (i.e. The Grounds area), an urban indicator tool was developed. Based 
on the tool one can determine and simulate the type of activities and user groups 
in the area, the land usage for different functions such as working, parking, 
recreation, and local energy production, the number of electric vehicles and the 
anticipated vehicle usage. 
 
Fig 2. Representation of the four scenarios, including ‘Generation Eco-Geek’ 
 
 
 
4 SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 
 
- Based on the results of the urban indicator model and the ‘Generation Eco-Geek’ 
scenario, an urban design for The Grounds was developed (Fig 3). The urban 
design demonstrates the creation of an ecological, comfortable, and silent 
business-science park and transfer point at The Grounds location that is able to 
host 9,400 electric vehicles every day (3300 HEVs and 6100 all EVs). The local 
renewable energy is mainly generated by photovoltaic systems that are 
integrated in the facades and rooftops of buildings. Green facades near the A4 
highway and inner gardens with integrated algae production for energy 
production purposes are also an important part of the concept. 
 
Fig 3. Aerial and detail views of the urban design layout for The Grounds 
 
- Based on the Generation Eco-Geek scenario and the urban design and 
designated urban functions, several novel electric mobility concepts have been 
developed that fulfil future user needs. Users, which include visitors, travellers, 
and employees of the business-science park, can select from a number of these 
electric mobility concepts (Fig 4). These concepts include: 
 
 
Fig 4. Various electric vehicles with specific and innovative functionalities 
 
o The ultra-light EV is a small foldable, one-person electric powered vehicle 
used to form a link in chain mobility. It is suitable for short and medium 
range and in combination with other modes, such as with the E-car 2030 
or public transport. 
o The E-car 2030 is a space efficient four-wheel EV for two persons meant 
for airside and landside personal mobility, and it is optimized for 
automated parking and inductive charging. User-specific settings can be 
stored and uploaded in every available E-car. 
o The E-rope is a special suspended vehicle that is based on a combination 
of both individual and collective components. It offers a frequent and 
comfortable bidirectional transport mode. The infrastructure needed for 
the E-rope is lighter and less rigid than a rail oriented solution. 
o The Build-an-EV is a customizable vehicle developed to match individual 
needs and wishes. The concept is meant to serve different purposes with 
 
 
 SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 5 
the help of standard components (two, three or four wheels, covered or 
open, variable ratio of person vs. luggage space, etc.) 
 
- The new generation electric vehicles are proposed along with an urban plan and 
building integrated supportive infrastructure for parking, charging, and vehicle 
assembly and distribution. There are many methods to charge EV batteries 
according to their different charging characteristics. Conductive charging 
technology is currently the most favoured, as it allows for the connection of EVs 
to an existing power supply with high efficiency and without the need for 
additional infrastructure. However, the recommended infrastructure to support the 
aforementioned mobility concepts makes use of induction charging technology. 
The use of induction charging increases the freedom and flexibility with which the 
charging infrastructure can be integrated into the built environment. Both static 
induction charging and dynamic (i.e., in-road and on the go) induction charging 
enable users to recharge their vehicles with ease at The Grounds (Fig 5). 
 
Fig 5. Dynamic Induction charging lane (left) and induction charging with the receptor located in the 
bumper (right) 
 
- The EV charging activities take place in the automated Park&Charge long-term 
garage, where the automated parking configuration and system result in a very 
dense parking solution (Fig 6). These garages – optimally oriented towards the 
sun - are equipped with photovoltaic facades and rooftops to locally generate 
electricity from solar energy. 
 
- The load profile modelling, the expected variation in the electrical load versus 
time, indicates that local solar power generation is matched to the anticipated 
electrical load at The Grounds business-science park on weekdays, including the 
charging of electric vehicles. On weekends, there is an excess of locally 
produced solar power. 
Fig 6. Schematic layouts of automatic parking at the Park&Charge garage and renewable charging 
facilities 
 
 
 
 
6 SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 
- Three different charging strategies are distinguished in this project: dumb, 
controlled and smart. In the case of ‘Dumb’ charging, no intelligence is added to 
the system and EVs are directly charged when connected to the grid. ‘Controlled’ 
charging means that EVs are charged during specific time-slots during the day. 
‘Smart’ charging is also controlled and part of a smartnetwork. A smart network 
is managing the grid load by enabling matching between demand and supply of 
electricity and the more effective integration of local renewable energy production 
(i.e. solar power). 
 
- Local electricity production with photovoltaic systems is economically feasible. 
Local renewable energy production enables the existing grid to cope with the 
intensified electricity flows resulting from the large-scale charging of electric 
vehicles. Thus there is no need to invest in strengthening the existing grid. 
Moreover, it is estimated that after the year 2020, the cost of grid electricity will 
be higher than solar production costs. The annual benefits from using solar 
energy will reach up to €1.3 million in the year 2030. 
 
- The V2G function of the Park&Charge garage is already economically attractive. 
With the assumption that the batteries of EV in the parking garages can always 
share the real-time bidding market, the annual revenue from the 6100 vehicles 
parked at The Grounds is estimated to be €0.19 million. 
 
- To support the large-scale charging of electric vehicles and the integration of 
local renewable energy production different grid topologies are suggested; either 
a pure AC grid or a parallel AC-DC grid would suffice. A pure DC grid linked to 
the existing DC railroad grid could also be used, but this would require an update 
of the DC railroad grid, which is a 2601 km track equipped with 1.5 kV DC. The 
three proposed grid topologies do not have significant differences from an 
economic point of view. 
 
- Finally, vivid visualizations of the urban plan and the proposed mobility solutions 
are used for the communication of the project to external parties. 
1.2 Recommendations 
 
- The Schiphol Airport City location has been one of the first locations in the 
Netherlands to test and develop novel concepts and methods. To be able to 
generalise the findings and to validate the methodology, a number of diverse 
urban areas should also be researched, such as city centres and suburbs, and 
greenfield as well as brownfield situations. 
 
- The Technology Assessment executed within the framework of this project 
provides a general picture of the potential benefits of integrating electric mobility 
in the built environment. The specific consequences for Schiphol and its 
stakeholders resulting from the novel design choices made in this project – in 
terms of the environmental impact, the economic aspects and the identification of 
potential social, technical, and organizational barriers - have to be elaborated in 
greater depth. This assessment could not be accomplished within the available 
time span for the project. 
 
- A number of the future concepts presented in this project should be developed 
further. These include: 
 
 
 SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 7 
o The switch towards electric drive trains in the case of the ‘Built-an-EV’ 
appears promising with respect to the standardization of components and 
the development of universal EV-platforms. Customer acceptance of 
these highly customizable products is still unclear, as is the effect of 
customization when ownership of EVs is shifts towards usership. 
o Fast induction charging, although currently used in domestic appliances, 
is still being developed for the induction charging of EVs. Aspects such as 
safety, efficiency, environmental impact, costs and usability should be 
thoroughly investigated. 
o The automated Park&Charge garage, with its combined parking, charging 
and PV power generation, is one of the most interesting concepts 
resulting from this project. In the DIEMIGO case a large-scale version of 
the Park&Charge garage is presented. Research into a modular set-up for 
the Park&Charge garage is recommended. Smaller scale versions could 
be a very interesting option for sub- urban living areas. Further research 
could also include alternative configurations (e.g. horizontal distribution) 
and the transformation of existing parking spaces to automated smart 
charging parking, or hybrid elaborations of both. In addition, research is 
recommended on the possibilities of converting existing (automated) 
parking garages into Park&Charge facilities. 
o The smart grid integration needs to be investigated further for both 
charging and utilization of renewable energy sources, and its integration 
into buildings and building components, like building facades and parking 
area floors or ceilings. 
 
- The lifetime of a battery system depends, among other factors, on the number of 
discharge/charge cycles. The incorporation of EV batteries as a buffer in the 
electricity grid (V2G) will lead to an increase in the number of cycles. This 
consequence can be a potential hindrance for the V2G option. Little is known 
about the effects on batteries that are integrated into V2G systems. Research on 
the effects of V2G on the lifetime of car battery systems and the environmental 
and economic consequences is recommended. 
1.3 Recommendations for Schiphol 
 
- The integral design and its basic assumptions for The Grounds area have to be 
evaluated and validated by Schiphol and its stakeholders. 
- Some of the components of the proposed plan are very promising and can be 
developed already, as most of the required technologies are already available. 
These components can act as stepping-stones towards -and demonstrators of- 
the integrated ‘2030’-plan. 
- The principle of ‘decentralized concentration’ and the ‘short-cycles’ city, the 
Park&Charge garages, the Ultra Light EV and small-scale experiments with smart 
grids are recommended. 
 
8 SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 
2 Introduction 
2.1 The Challenge 
Mobility is a crucial part of daily life. It enables people to overcome the distance that 
separates their homes from the places where they work, learn, recreate, seek care, 
do business, or interact with family and friends. Businesses are also heavily 
dependent on mobility to overcome the distances that separate them from their 
suppliers, markets, and employees. However, when implemented at a large scale, 
mobility has a number of negative repercussions: congestion, particulate pollution, 
greenhouse gas emissions, noise, and accidents, to name a few. Another concern is 
that the world’s current mobility systems rely almost exclusively on a single, limited 
source of non-renewable energy — petroleum. 
 
The challenge, that society as a whole faces, is the design, development, and 
implementation of mobility systems that are more efficient, more equitable and less 
disruptive, both socially and environmentally (WBCSD 2004). 
 
The transition from conventional mobility technologies towards a situation in which 
electric vehicles (EVs) play a leading role is one of the most promising opportunities 
for achieving a sustainable mobility system. A large-scale introduction of electric 
vehicles has a variety of benefits, including higher ‘Well-to-Wheel’ efficiencies, the 
mitigation of local greenhouse gas emissions, particulate pollution, and noise, and 
increased support for renewable energy production. Moreover, electric vehicle 
batteries may provide auxiliary storage capacity for the electricity grid, further 
reinforcing the integration of renewable energy conversion technologies in the 
national electrical grid. 
 
Past efforts to introduce electric mobility to the general public have struggled to 
transcend the niche markets that EVs have historically occupied. This is because the 
complexity associated with the widespread deployment of electric mobility 
necessitates a radical transition process, which draws upon specific knowledge of 
consumer behaviour as related to the use of products and services, as well as the 
anticipated trajectory of vehicle technologies. Infrastructures must be developed for 
the physical, as well as for the information and communication domains. To be 
successful in integrating electric mobility into our built environment, synergetic 
researchand innovation processes must take place; these form the backbone of this 
research project. 
 
This research falls within the context of the DIEMIGO project, which aims to advance 
the integration of electric mobility into the built environment. The TRANSUMO 
(Transition to Sustainable Mobility) program (Transumo 2009) – a research program 
subsidised by the national government to improve the knowledge infrastructure of the 
Netherlands – has shown direct interest in the DIEMIGO project. 
 
This project addresses a number of aspects associated with the transition toward 
electric mobility, including system innovation, supportive infrastructure, built 
environment, and vehicle products and services. 
 
System Innovation 
The foreseen complexity and impact of the transition towards electrical mobility elicits 
the term ‘system innovation’. System innovation can be defined as a combination of 
technological, organizational, and cultural changes that result in a vastly different 
approach to the performance of familiar tasks. This project strives to develop a new 
understanding of mobility in relation to urban infrastructure. In doing this, several 
 
 SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 9 
research methods can be utilized, including ‘backcasting’ (Quist 2007), ‘visioning’, 
and the development of ‘design-orienting scenarios’ (van Notten, Rotmans et al. 
2003; Manzini 2008). The development of a method to cope with this complex 
‘design’ process will be one of main objectives of this project. 
 
Infrastructure 
The creation of supportive and reliable vehicle charging infrastructures is vital to the 
mass-deployment of electric mobility. Contemporary energy infrastructure is not yet 
suited to host large amounts of electrical vehicles (Hatton 2009). Also, the ICT 
infrastructure necessary to manage the vehicle charging process has not yet been 
established. It is apparent that the semi-permanent incorporation of vehicle batteries 
into the electrical grid in the form of vehicle-to-grid interaction can improve the 
operational efficiency of the energy distribution system; the integration of this 
technology must be handled with care and ingenuity. 
 
Simple, context-sensitive infrastructural systems will be necessary to support user 
acceptance and the smooth deployment of electric vehicles. The integration of the 
electrical grid and ICT infrastructures, the designation of the charging speed, and the 
design of interfaces that support the location of charging stations and the charging, 
payment, and communication processes are to be addressed. 
 
Built Environment 
Architects and urban designers must address the integration of charging 
infrastructure into the contemporary urban fabric. These designers may consider the 
positive effect that reduced noise and air pollution will have on the built environment. 
They may also consider the specification of land uses that are conducive to electric 
mobility, the coupling of vehicle charging with local renewable energy generation, 
and the design of parking facilities equipped with charging amenities. 
 
Vehicle Product & Service Design 
The notion of well-functioning electric vehicles for public transport is a familiar one. In 
the near future, personal vehicles such as scooters, motorcycles, cars, and trucks 
will also undergo the process of electrification. The design of this new generation of 
vehicles must account for distinct changes in the interaction that takes place between 
users and vehicles, as well as that which takes place between vehicles and transport 
infrastructure. Designers of these future mobility concepts must also reflect on the 
influence of social and cultural trends on mobility patterns. 
2.2 Research Structure & Questions 
This research will ease the challenges that society now faces in the mobility domain, 
as well as contribute to the generation of fundamentally new scientific knowledge. 
The epistemological aim of this programme is to contribute to the development of 
scientific knowledge through ‘design inclusive research’. The goal of including design 
into the research process is to create new opportunities for generating new 
knowledge, which cannot be derived another way or can be obtained more effectively 
(Horvath 2008). Design inclusive research is combining analytic research methods 
with synthetic/constructive design methods. 
 
 
10 SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 
 
Fig 7. Design Inclusive Research. Left the research steps and right the design steps. (Horvath 2008) 
 
The process of design inclusive research is composed of three phases: the phase of 
explorative research actions, the phase of creative design actions and the phase of 
evaluative research actions. In the first phase, the existing knowledge and new 
developments about a specific phenomenon are analysed and the specific research 
questions and design problems are formulated. After the design phase, the third 
evaluative phase encompasses the verification of the hypothesis and the validation 
of the research and design methods and findings. 
 
The main research question of the DIEMIGO-project is: 
 
‘How to integrate electric vehicles into urban and local energy infrastructures 
to improve large-scale adoption in 2020-2030?’ 
 
The DIEMIGO-project is structured according to the three phases of the design 
inclusive research approach. The main research question is split-up in the following 
three sub-questions that represent the explorative, creative and evaluative phases: 
 
i. What are the challenges and requirements? 
a. What are the mobility needs for 2030? 
b. What local and decentralized energy sources could be integrated into the 
built environment? 
c. What are the limitations of the grid for large scale EV introduction? 
d. What are the challenges and requirements from an urban perspective? 
 
ii. What are the different solutions? 
a. Which EV concepts fulfil the expected mobility needs? 
b. Which urban and layout typologies fulfil the mobility, built environment and 
energy infrastructure needs? 
c. Which are the interfaces most suited for the users, the EVs and the built 
environment? 
d. What are the charging types, strategies and grid topologies? 
 
iii. What is the effectiveness? 
a. Which solutions and technologies are feasible in what time scale? 
b. How it will affect the penetration of EVs and consumer acceptance? 
c. How and in which way can this project stimulate sustainability and a 
reduction of emissions? 
 
 SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 11 
2.3 Schiphol and The Grounds 
 
The ‘design inclusive research’ methodology mandates the use of appropriate case 
studies. The Schiphol Group is a strong partner for this project, as Schiphol Airport 
City is a complex location that serves as a pivotal point in the Dutch transport 
network. The Schiphol Group is currently devising a roadmap to illustrate the 
implementation of electric mobility (2008-2020) among its own fleet in close 
coordination with the neighbouring municipalities. The Schiphol Group considers 
electric mobility as an important opportunity for both its own fleet as well as for other 
public and private mobility streams flowing into and out of Schiphol Airport City. The 
Schiphol Group provided the research team with several options for locations to 
serve as case for this project. An assessment for location choice will be part of the 
project, in which the following criteria will be considered: 
 
• Potential for combining the existing electric infrastructure (ProRail) with grid-to-
vehicle and vehicle-to-grid facilities 
• Potentially fast car-plane connections for EVs only 
• Potentially fast car-inner city connections (e.g. for EVs only) by integrating a 
smart Transferium option next to the planned metro station 
• Potential Landside/Airside combinational charging/services and energy exchange 
• Potential EV car-share Network Hub with fast connections (highways A4, A9, and 
A10) 
• Potential integration of risk strategy energy managementsystem as a basis for a 
resilient energy system (integrating EVs, renewable energy, and development 
planning) 
• Challenging complexity and potential interference with several planned 
developments. 
 
The main objectives of the project are: 
 
• To develop a preliminary methodology for planning, organizing and implementing 
large scale e-mobility and electric charging infrastructures. The 60Ha area 
(referred to as ‘The Grounds’) of Schiphol (and the roadmap developed by 
Econcern/Schiphol) will serve as a case; the strategy can be generalized in that it 
can be rolled out in other regions and locations (e.g. public and private fleet 
owners, centres that attract major mobility). This methodology is based on a 
single case (e.g. Schiphol) and will need further development after this project in 
order to improve validity and usability. 
• To develop a design of a fast charging interface (including interfacing, grid 
connection, urban design implications, location choice, and implementation 
strategy) specifically for The Grounds; the strategy for setting up fast charge 
infrastructure can be applied to other regions/areas, fleet owners and contexts 
(e.g. grid characteristics). 
 
The available time for the execution of this project has been limited because of the 
conclusion of the Transumo program in November 2009. Due to the fact that the 
project had to be finished within seven months, criteria were formulated together with 
representatives of The Schiphol Group in order to help focus the activities of the 
research and design team at TU Delft. These criteria guided the use of the restricted 
time as effectively and efficiently as possible. 
 
 
12 SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 
The following three statements explain the decision focus: 
 
• The urban plan, its buildings, the charging infrastructure and the mobility 
solutions are stepping stones in the direction of a ‘sustainable Schiphol’ or ‘C02 
neutral Schiphol by 2012’. 
• The infrastructure integration of the buildings and the mobility solutions are 
expected to be innovative and well supported by the latest developments. More 
important than the actual design manifestation are the requirements formulated to 
guide the generation of the design options. 
• Potentially demonstrable elements of the scenarios in the near future or solutions 
that can already be applied are important in order to show the potential of the 
transition towards electric mobility for Schiphol Airport City. These spin-offs will 
motivate the various stakeholders, whose support is needed for the long-term 
transition process. 
 
As a consequence of the limitations of this project – with respect to the available time 
– it was decided to focus on the first two phases of the ‘design inclusive research’ 
approach, namely the analysis phase and the conceptual phase. The third phase –
the evaluative phase – is therefore beyond the scope of the project. 
 
 
2.4 Deliverables 
This project has the following deliverables: 
 
• Technology assessments report on the ‘technical and social’ strengths and 
weaknesses of the state-of-the-art electric vehicle and charging technology. 
• A first-of-a-kind electric mobility development methodology, that describes the 
steps and considerations when setting up large scale electric mobility and 
charging infrastructure for particular regions, fleet-owners or municipalities. 
• Urban development and mobility scenarios for the Elzenhof The Grounds area. It 
should include: building/charging interfaces, urban planning design, grid 
characteristics, location aspects and mobility concepts and patterns. 
• Development of mobility concepts based on the interaction of future users and 
contexts. 
• Technical design of the charging infrastructure; interfaces between electric 
vehicles and the buildings at The Grounds. 
• A technical requirements plan for the electrical infrastructure to support electric 
charging. 
• An integrated urban design for the Elzenhof The Grounds area (focusing on the 
integration of e-mobility and electric charging). 
• Visual representations of the e-charging solutions and the urban development 
plan. 
 
 SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 13 
3 Methodology 
3.1 Introduction 
The large-scale introduction of electric vehicles in our society is much more than a 
simple substitution of the internal combustion drive train by an electrical one. To 
really take advantage of all of the potential benefits, the transition towards electric 
mobility has to offer: 
 
• The sustainability of urban areas, by means of the reduction of noise, CO2, NOx 
and dust emissions 
• New possibilities for urban development, through the disappearance of 
restrictions caused by noise, etc. 
• Efficient energy systems by linking the buffer capacity of EV batteries to the 
electricity grid and peak shaving 
• Buffer of distributed renewable wind, solar and surplus energy of micro combined 
heat/power systems 
• Attractive product-service business propositions, a shift from products towards 
services. 
 
Synchronised actions from a broad array of stakeholders have to take place in order 
to establish a sustainable mobility system. 
In this project a first attempt of a methodology is developed to cope with the 
complexity of these mutually dependent developments. This methodology, when fully 
developed, is meant to support the following stakeholders in urban mobility in taking 
the right decisions towards sustainability: 
 
• Regional authorities 
• Urban developers 
• City planners 
• Infrastructure and utilities companies 
• EV solution providers 
• Fleet owners 
 
In this chapter the major methodological challenges of the project will be elaborated, 
leading to description of the applied methodological framework. 
3.2 Three major challenges 
Electric transportation as a system innovation 
The introduction of electric vehicles and transportation into society involves 
innovation at different levels and sub-systems of the mobility system. System 
innovation goes beyond existing organisations and radically changes the relationship 
between companies, organisations and individuals. System innovation can be 
defined as a combination of technological, organizational and cultural changes that 
results in a totally new fulfilment of needs. Transitions and system innovations are 
seen as social learning processes. Currently, the public debate is focused on the 
performance characteristics of existing and future electric vehicles and in what way 
they fulfil customer and user requirements (e.g. driving range, speed, safety, costs, 
ease of use, and environmental impact). 
 
Although customer needs fulfilment of the vehicle is essential for the adoption of EVs 
by users, it is not the only factor that needs to be taken into account. EVs imply 
innovation at several levels of the mobility system; for user adoption, it is also 
necessary to develop an effective electrical and urban infrastructure that supports the 
 
14 SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 
driver in making efficient use of an EV. For example, traditional fuel-based 
transportation is based on the wide availability of fuelling stations, optimally located 
at highways and within cities. The location of these fuelling stations is in part 
determined by the existing urban infrastructure (e.g. roads, intermodal hubs, and 
urban area functions) and related mobility patterns. With respect to EVs, the 
necessary electric and urban infrastructure is only partially available. Although most 
EVs can be charged with normal household sockets, charging solutions at business 
areas, large parking lots, flats, or crowded inner city streets have only received 
limited attention. Moreover, in order to be able to supply sufficient electricity to 
charge multiple EVs at a certain location within a certain time, the electrical 
infrastructure (grid) needs to be able to cope with this (peak) demand intelligently. 
This suggests that the transition to electricmobility in the next decades also requires 
changes and innovations at the level of urban and electrical infrastructures. The 
challenge is not only to design and improve efficient electric vehicles and mobility 
concepts, but also to design and implement urban and electrical infrastructure 
solutions that enable the transition to electric mobility. 
 
Adoption and diffusion of E-mobility 
Currently, the central question for regional authorities, local governments, cities and 
infrastructure and utility companies is how to accommodate and support the 
introduction of EVs into society. Primarily, this discussion is based on a 'technology-
push' approach; EVs offer all kinds of new possibilities, they seem to have benefits 
for the environment, and infrastructural solutions have to be developed to support 
this in the best way possible. Although this is not incorrect, it tends to miss the point 
that the adoption of electric transportation is highly dependent on the evolution of 
mobility needs in the future. These mobility needs are partially determined by urban 
developments and the related geographic distribution of urban functions, as well as 
the consumer/user trends of the future. The challenge is to align the technical 
possibilities of EVs and the related infrastructure solutions in a better way with future 
mobility needs. In this project a user-driven approach will be applied. This will 
require: 
• Deep insight in user needs for mobility to identify new mobility solutions or to 
improve the adoption of existing solutions. 
• Designing artefacts and creating visual representations in order to get quick 
feedback from users and producers. 
• Designing artefacts to allow for experimentation and simulation, so that quick 
feedback for improvement can be obtained. 
 
Making decisions in an uncertain world 
The past years have witnessed the introduction of numerous and very different 
electric vehicle concepts and electric charging infrastructures (e.g. charging poles, or 
batter swapping stations). Also, at the level of the components of electric vehicles, 
technological developments are rapidly occurring (new battery types, electric drive 
trains, power management systems, hybrid vehicles and range extenders). Only very 
recently has the standardization of components and designs begun, but no definite 
dominant designs have emerged and new concepts are still being developed. Also, 
the availability of electric vehicles is still limited, except for several types of hybrid 
electric vehicles. This places regional developers, local governments, infrastructure 
and utilities companies, and fleet owners in a difficult situation. Since the direction of 
the development and adoption path of EVs is still highly uncertain, making 
investments in the right infrastructure solutions in the long term is complex. As 
investments in infrastructural solutions tend to be high and returns accrue only in the 
long term, this creates high investment risks for these actors. The strategic challenge 
at this stage is not to invest in single, highly specialized infrastructural solutions 
(because it is still highly uncertain whether these solutions will become dominant), 
 
 SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 15 
but to develop and invest in solutions that allow and can accommodate many 
different technological options. This option-approach circumvents the risk of 
premature lock-ins in sub-optimal infrastructure and EV solutions. 
 
3.3 Methodological approach 
The methodology for identifying, selecting, and developing the right combination of 
EV concepts, urban and electric infrastructure solutions has to facilitate the three 
strategic challenges as explained in the previous section: (1) It has to be able to 
address interdependent elements and sub-systems of the mobility system, (2) It 
should align future mobility and user needs with technological solutions, and (3) It 
should be able to identify the infrastructure and mobility solutions that can 
accommodate a wide variety of EV options in the future. 
The applied methodology is structured according to the following phases: analysis, 
scenario development, concept development, design prototyping and evaluation. 
 
Analysis 
Within this phase a technology assessment is made of electric mobility in the 
Netherlands, mapping both developments on Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) and full 
Electric Vehicles (EVs). It covers not only technological developments relevant for 
electrical mobility at a system level, but also (policy) developments by the 
government and developments in niche markets, pilots and experiments in society. In 
addition, it identifies social, environmental and economic aspects of the large-scale 
introduction and adoption of electric mobility in the Netherlands. 
The findings of the technology assessment are being validated during a workshop 
with important stakeholders. The main goal of this workshop is to (1) collect the 
expectations and opinions of these actors regarding relevant social aspects, barriers 
and drivers related to electric mobility up to the year 2030, and (2) to work on vision 
development for future electric mobility and to elaborate it for different types of built 
environments. 
Based on the results of the Technology Assessment and workshop, all of the key 
factors that are relevant for the transition towards electric mobility will be identified. 
Ranking and clustering the key factors according to importance and uncertainty will 
lead to the formulation of the driving forces. These driving forces will form the input 
for the scenario development phase. 
During the analysis, specific research will be executed on the climate and the 
sustainable energy potential of the selected area. The possibilities of local 
decentralized energy production for powering electric mobility at the Elzenhof The 
Grounds location will be investigated. Furthermore, the analysis of the urban context 
has to provide the most suited functionalities for the chosen location. 
 
Scenario development 
Scenario building is especially useful in circumstances in which it is important to take 
a long-term view of the technological developments and related strategies of the 
actors involved. It is also useful when there are a limited number of key factors 
influencing appropriate strategies, but also a high level of uncertainty about these 
influences. Scenario building tries to build plausible views of different possible futures 
for relevant actors based on groupings of certain key environmental influences and 
drivers of change. The result is a limited number of logically consistent yet different 
scenarios that can be considered alongside each other. There are two main benefits 
to scenario building. First, actors can examine the strategic options against the 
 
16 SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 
scenarios and carry out a ‘what-if’ analysis. Scenarios can be used to determine the 
robustness of different strategies. Second, the implications of scenarios can be used 
to challenge pre-assumptions about the environment and technological development 
in which industry actors operate. This is especially important when change is 
unpredictable and industry actors are concerned with short-term interests, goals and 
results (Johnson & Scholes, 1997). 
 
Practice shows that scenarios have been applied in an increasing number of 
disciplines and sectors. Several overviews of the diversity of applications have been 
carried out (van Notten, Rotmans et al. 2003). Scenarios can be classified according 
to aspects such as project gal, scenario content and process design. Manzini (2006) 
makes the distinction between Policy-oriented scenarios (POS) and Design-oriented 
scenarios (DOS). Policy-oriented scenarios usually deal with the macro-scale of the 
socio-technical systems and present a variety of possible futures and facilitate 
political decisions. Design-oriented scenarios are conceived as tools to be used in 
design processes. These scenariosshould propose a variety of comparable visions 
that have to be clearly motivated and enriched with visible and (potentially) feasible 
proposals. A Design-Oriented scenario is supposed to create inspiration for 
designers whether in industry, government, universities or NGOs, to design urban 
plans, products, services and social arrangements that might take steps towards the 
realisation of these scenarios (Green 2001). A DOS should contain the following 
elements: 
• Various proposals developed as concrete plans, products and/or services. 
• A global ‘vision’ picturing the effect of the implementation of the ‘proposals’ and 
their possible impact. 
• The essential characteristics explaining the main effects and benefits that the 
DOS is expected to have in terms of sustainability, economics and user 
acceptance. 
• A storyboard, describing ‘a day in the life…’ of the mobility user in 2030. 
 
An assessment of the essential characteristics - sustainability, economics and user 
acceptance –will lead to the selection of the most promising scenario. This scenario 
will form the context for the concept development. To quantify the effects of the 
different scenarios, such as the impact on urban development in terms of the number 
of EVs and the pressure on the available space and facilities, an instrument referred 
to as the ‘Urban Indicator’ will be developed and applied. 
 
Concept development 
During the concept development phase, different options for urban plans, mobility 
concepts and electric infrastructures are being developed in parallel. One of the 
important instruments to be used in fostering the richness of the options generated is 
the morphological chart. 
 
“A morphological chart is a visual way to capture the necessary product functionality 
and explore alternative means and combinations of achieving that functionality. For 
each element of product function, there may be a number of possible solutions. The 
chart enables these solutions to be expressed and provides a structure for 
considering alternative combinations” (IFM 2009). 
 
Design prototyping 
Potentially demonstrable elements of the scenarios in the near future or solutions 
that can already be applied are important in order to show the potential of the 
transition towards electric mobility for Schiphol Airport City. These spin-offs will 
motivate the various stakeholders, whose support is needed for the long-term 
transition process. 
 
 SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 17 
Visual representations of the urban development, the mobility concepts, the e-
infrastructure and the e-charging solutions will be important deliverables of the 
project. Due to the limited time available for the whole project, real physical 
prototyping is not an option. 
 
Evaluation 
This phase will not be included in the project. As part of the follow-up research within 
the DIEMIGO-program, the Schiphol the Grounds project will serve as a case to 
develop an evaluation framework for: 
- The ecological aspects (ecological quality, emissions, and use of natural 
resources). 
- The social aspects (perceived characteristics, acceptance of urban design, 
mobility concepts, and product-/service propositions). 
- The economic aspects (return-on-investment and new business 
opportunities). 
 
 
18 SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 
4 Challenges and Requirements 
4.1 Technology assessment 
4.1.1 Electric Vehicle Technology 
Conventional vehicles (CV) use an internal combustion engine to propel the vehicle, 
whereas electric vehicles (EV) use stored energy (rechargeable battery, ultra 
capacitors or flywheel) to drive an electric motor, which propels the vehicle. A hybrid 
electric vehicle (HEV) has both an internal combustion engine and an electric 
machine as power sources, with the overall aim of reducing fossil fuel consumption. 
The term ‘electric vehicle’ is used throughout this report according to the European 
standard IEC 61851 [Appendix 9.2]. The definition is given as follows: 
 
Any vehicle propelled by an electric motor draining current from a rechargeable 
storage battery or from other portable energy storage devices (rechargeable, 
using energy from a source off the vehicle such as a residential or public 
electrical service), which is manufactured for use on public streets, roads or 
highways. 
 
This description therefore covers fully electric/battery electric vehicles (BEV), plug-in 
hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) and range extending solar electric vehicles (SEV). 
These types of vehicles will be the focus of this report. Both HEVs and PHEVs share 
common technology, so they are sometimes discussed in parallel. Fig 8 shows the 
configuration of the different types of vehicles. 
 
(a) 
 
(b) 
 
(c) 
 
(d) 
 
Fig 8. (a) HEV, (b) PHEV, (c) BEV and (d) SEV Configurations 
 
 SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 19 
4.1.1.1 State of the Art 
Although most major vehicle manufacturers worldwide are in the process of 
developing EVs for mass production, the commercial availability of these vehicles is 
still limited. This may be due to many factors, including the fear of transition to new 
and largely unknown technology as well as the dependence on the electricity supply 
infrastructure. Many unknown factors also exist on a management level, on a 
technology level and on the end user level. Development strategies for EV 
manufacturers can be difficult to formulate, largely due to the dependence of the 
technology on the electrical power generation industry. Coupled with this is the 
uncertainty surrounding the use pattern of EVs in the future, which may differ from 
the manner in which conventional vehicles are used today. However in light of these 
difficulties, EV development is mainly focused on extending the all electric range 
(AER) of both PHEVs and BEVs and lowering costs (Ehsani 2005). The temporary 
nature of HEV technology is discussed in (RBGS 2008), where it is argued that the 
complexity of developing these vehicles may be inhibiting the development of more 
sustainable or zero emissions solutions, such as fully electric and fuel cell 
technologies. A summary of development strategies for OEM’s, component suppliers 
and emerging technology suppliers is provided, in light of alternative drive vehicles. A 
comprehensive overview of currently available EVs is provided in (Fuhs 2009), which 
also provides an outline for future plans for production of EVs up to the year 2013 
(Fig 9). 
 
 
Fig 9. EV Vehicles (RBGS 2008) 
4.1.1.2 PHEV Technology Map 
The PHEV class of vehicle has the most complex configuration among the electric 
vehicles considered in this report. In order to improve fuel efficiency and reduce CO2 
emissions, a dual power source is used to propel the vehicle. Many design 
challenges exist in developing optimum PHEVs, both on a component and control 
level. A classification method for hybrid vehicles is first presented, followed by a brief 
description of PHEV control systems. 
 
20 SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 
 
4.1.1.2.1 Hybridization Rate 
The hybridization rate (HR) is a measure used to describe how strongly the 
powertrain is hybridized (Liao, Weber et al. 2004). It is defined as the ratio of electric 
power to total power and is described by Equation 1.1. 
 4.1 
 
Where, Pem is the power provided by the electric machine and Pice is the power 
provided by the internal combustion engine. The classification of the different values 
of HR is shown in Table 1. 
 
Table 1. Hybridization rate classification 
HR Classification 
 CV (conventional vehicle) 
 HEV (mild and micro hybrid) 
 HEV (semi hybrid) 
 HEV (full hybrid) 
 BEV (battery electric vehicle) 
 
 
 
Fig 10. Hybridization Rate 
 
In terms of hybrid classification, the one with the lowest contribution of electric power 
is referred to as a micro hybrid. In a micro hybrid, the electric motor is used for 
applications such as engine stop/start and regenerative braking, but it cannot be 
used to supply additionaltorque to the wheels. In a mild hybrid, the electric drive 
motor can assist the engine when extra power is needed, but it is incapable of 
propelling the vehicle. In a full hybrid, the electric motor is capable of propelling the 
vehicle on its own, generally for low speed manoeuvring and light cruising conditions. 
 
 SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 21 
 
Table 2. HEV Functionality 
HEV 
Classification 
Micro hybrid Mild hybrid Full hybrid 
Functionality Engine start-stop 
whilst idling 
Engine off while 
decelerating 
 
Mild regenerative 
braking 
 
Electric power assist 
Engine cycle 
optimization (Atkinson 
cycle) 
 
Full regenerative 
braking 
 
All electric drive 
Improvement of 
fuel economy (%) 
2-4 10-20 30+ 
 
4.1.1.2.2 PHEV Vehicle Configuration 
PHEV’s have similar powertrain architecture to that of HEVs, with the addition of a 
connection to a mains supply. They are broadly categorized by the connection of the 
powertrain components, which define the energy flow and control ports. The main 
architectures are: series, parallel and series-parallel. A schematic of these 
configurations is show in Fig 11 and a comparison of the fuel economy and driving 
performance is shown in Table 3 (TMC 2003). 
 
Series 
The use of an internal combustion engine to drive a generator and provide electrical 
power for one or more traction motors is a common propulsion method which has 
been used in locomotives for many years (Miller 2004). The series hybrid is based on 
this technology, with the addition of some form of energy storage. The traction motor 
is the only power supply unit with a direct connection to the road wheels. The 
advantage is that the internal combustion engine can be operated at its most efficient 
point to generate the necessary current for driving the traction motor or charging the 
battery. This type of configuration is most advantageous for start-stop style driving, 
such as public urban transport. 
 
Parallel 
The parallel hybrid architecture can simultaneously transmit power to the drive 
wheels from both the internal combustion engine and the battery-powered electric 
drive. Although most parallel hybrids have a traction motor between the vehicle's 
engine and transmission, a parallel hybrid can also use its engine to drive one of the 
vehicle's axles while the electric motor drives the other axle and/or a generator used 
for recharging the batteries. 
 
Series-parallel 
The series-parallel or dual-mode hybrid has the flexibility to operate in either series 
or parallel mode. These types of hybrid power trains are currently used by Ford, 
Nissan and Toyota and the advantage is that both series and parallel hybrid modes 
are possible. Since 2007, most plug-in hybrid conversions have made use of this 
architecture. Although this type of architecture is more flexible in terms of driving 
modes, it is also more complex and costly. 
 
 
22 SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 
 
Fig 11. HEV Architecture 
 
Table 3. HEV Architecture Comparison 
Fuel economy improvement Driving performance 
Idling 
stop 
Energy 
recovery 
High 
efficiency 
control 
Total 
efficiency 
Acceleration Continuous 
high output 
Series Good Excellent Good Good Poor Poor 
Parallel Good Good Poor Good Good Poor 
Series-
Parallel 
Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Good Good 
 
4.1.1.2.3 PHEV Components and Control 
A general representation of the main components in a series-parallel PHEV is shown 
in Fig 12, which shows the power flow between components and the control structure 
required to ensure optimum performance. The driver input is represented by the 
accelerator pedal angle φacc and the brake pedal angle φdec. As described in (TMC 
2003), the ICE used in commercially available HEVs is different from those used in 
conventional vehicles. A heat cycle engine is used, which has a higher thermal 
efficiency but limited output. It is ideal for use in HEVs, as additional power can be 
provided by the secondary power source. The main electrical components used for 
the secondary power source are the electric machine, the power converters and the 
battery. These are similar to the components used in BEVs, which are described in 
Section 1.3. 
 
 
 SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 23 
 
 
Fig 12. PHEV Technology 
 
Transmission and Powertrain Control 
The driving performance of a PHEV is a crucial factor in determining the market 
success of this type of vehicle. ‘Driveability’ is a term used to describe the 
performance of a vehicle in response to a driver’s input. 
 
Good vehicle driveability is characterized by the driver having 
ease of control of the vehicle and confidence in both predictable 
and desirable responses to the drivers demands. It is very much 
dominated by the performance of the powertrain and vehicle in 
transient conditions (Wicke, Brace et al. 2000). 
 
From this description, it is evident that driveability is mainly concerned with the 
longitudinal dynamics of a vehicle in response to driver inputs. In a vehicle with dual 
power sources, such as the PHEV, powertrain control is crucial to ensure smooth 
power delivery to the road wheels and therefore good driveability. 
 
Coupling of the torque produced by the internal combustion engine with that 
produced by the electric machine can be achieved with planetary gear sets or 
continuously variable transmissions (CVT). The control of these components is 
challenging for the powertrain engineer, especially in keeping costs as low as 
possible. Planetary or epicyclic gear sets are commonly used in vehicles with 
automatic transmission and have been employed in PHEV transmission systems 
(Miller 2004). CVT’s offer a continuous gear ratio between input and output shafts, 
ensuring a smoother transition between driving states. The hydraulic clamping forces 
can be high and as a result, efficiencies are lower than with an epicyclic system. 
 
Energy Management 
The overall aim of an energy management system (EMS) is to minimize the fuel 
consumption, whilst ensuring that the driver’s demands are met. Managing the power 
being transmitted to the road wheels in a PHEV is a complex task and many 
methods have been adopted, including rule based systems and those based on 
various optimization algorithms (Hofman, Steinbuch et al. 2007). Rule based systems 
are generally more intuitive, but an in depth knowledge of the system is required. 
 
24 SCHIPHOL THE GROUNDS 2030 
Optimization problems have been formulated for deterministic systems, where 
knowledge of the driving cycle is required. However, for real PHEV applications, real-
time optimization techniques must be adopted. 
 
 
Fig 13. Rule-based Energy Management System 
 
Fig 13 shows a rule-based EMS. The inputs are the battery SOC and the engine 
power PICE and the output is the desired electric machine power, Pem,d. From the 
output of the rule-based decision process, the driving mode is selected. Driving 
modes for typical PHEVs are: motoring (all electric), assist (power delivered by 
engine and electric machine), charge (engine used to charge battery) and brake 
energy recovery (Hofman, Steinbuch et al. 2007). The desired electric machine 
power, Pem,d is then used as an input to the EM controller. 
4.1.1.3 BEV Technology Map 
4.1.1.3.1 BEV Components 
Because the BEV powertrain only has one source of energy, there are fewer 
components involved than with PHEVs. The main components of the BEV are the 
electric machine (EM), a bi-directional power converter with controller and a battery, 
which are shown in Fig 14. The energy capacity of the battery in BEVs is much 
higher than that of the batteries found in PHEVs, since the battery is the sole energy 
source of the vehicle. Typically, these types of vehicles have a battery capacity of 
approximately 20kWh. The total driving range depends on the power rating of the 
electric machine, the style of driving and the driving pattern. 
 
With reference to Fig 14, the demand power Pd