Plantas em Cosméticos

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Plants Used in Cosmetics
Article  in  Phytotherapy Research · November 2003
DOI: 10.1002/ptr.1363 · Source: PubMed
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PLANTS USED IN COSMETICS 987
Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Phytother. Res. 17, 987–1000 (2003)
Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Received 25 November 2002
Accepted 4 April 2003
PHYTOTHERAPY RESEARCH
Phytother. Res. 17, 987–1000 (2003)
Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/ptr.1363
* Correspondence to: Dr T. Aburjai, Department of Pharmaceutical Sci-
ences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Jordan, Amman 11942, Jordan.
E-mail: aburjai@ju.edu.jo or f_natsheh@yahoo.com
REVIEW ARTICLE
Plants Used in Cosmetics
Talal Aburjai* and Feda M. Natsheh
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Jordan, Amman 11942, Jordan
This review describes the use of some natural products in cosmetic preparations, due to their low mammalian
toxicity, with a brief description of the major use, plant parts used, the actives responsible for effect and the
benefits of such products. Their use in skin care; such as dryness, eczema, acne, free-radical scavenging,
antiinflammatory, antiaging and skin protection effects are explained, and also the use in hair care as hair
growth stimulants, hair colorants, and for hair and scalp complaints such as dandruff. Essential oils when
incorporated into finished products impart many benefits such as a pleasant aroma in perfumery, shine or
conditioning effects in hair care products, emolliency and improving the elasticity of the skin. Copyright ©
2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Keywords: cosmetics; hair care; skin care; essential oils; natural.
INTRODUCTION
According to the consumer products (Safety) Regula-
tions 1989; a cosmetic product refers to ‘any substance
or preparation intended for application to any external
surface of the human body (that is to say, epidermis,
hair system, nails, lips and external genital organs), or
to the teeth or buccal mucosa wholly or mainly for
the purpose of cleaning, perfuming or protecting them,
or keeping them in good condition or changing their
appearance or combating body odour or perspiration
except where such cleaning, perfuming, protecting, keep-
ing, changing or combating is wholly for the purpose
of treating or preventing disease’ (Dweck, 1996).
Novel ‘bioactive’ ingredients are derived from the
sea, the earth and the plant kingdom. Popular ingredi-
ents include Chinese herbs, vitamins, minerals, antioxi-
dants, enzymes, hormones and a multitude of ‘naturals’.
The use of plants is as old as mankind and in the com-
ing years, the market will see many new products
containing natural oils and herbs. Plants were once the
main source and foundation of all cosmetics, before
methods were discovered of synthesizing substances
with similar properties. However, the pharmaceutical
industry also uses a number of plants for drugs that are
not suitable for use in cosmetic products. The 1989
Cosmetic Safety Act listed forbidden plant materials
such as belladonna (Atropa belladona), and foxglove
(Digitalis purpurea) etc (Dweck, 1996).
The use of plant extracts in cosmetic formulation
is increasing, mostly because of the poor image that
animal-derived extracts have acquired during the past
few years. This is due, in part, to news reports regard-
ing bovine spongiform encephalitis (BSE). Some animal-
derived products need to be replaced, but synthetic
chemicals cannot always do this well. Natural molecules
derived from plant extracts offer a particularly exciting
avenue for further research. Plant extracts, however,
are often ill-defined as to the method of extraction,
plant-to-solvent ratio and the content of active ingredi-
ents. Moreover, the stability of the colour, odour, trans-
parency and/or active ingredients with time is also often
a limiting factor. Plant extracts are different in several
respects from purified therapeutic agents. Firstly, they
are more dilute than the pure chemicals that are famil-
iar to us; secondly herbs often contain additional active
principles that may be closely related both chemically
and therapeutically to the constituent primarily respon-
sible for its effects.
Herbal ‘total extracts’ as well as ‘selective extracts’are used in cosmetics. Total extracts are applied mainly
according to the historical tradition of their use. On
the other hand selective extracts are employed more by
reason of investigation into their specific activity. Some
selective extracts are introduced for different areas of
use: licorice for skin irritations; ginkgo as a free radical
scavenger; bearberry for skin lightening (complexion);
walnut for skin tanning; and wheat germ for stimulat-
ing cell proliferation (Marks, 1997). Wherever possible,
the selection of plant materials has been restricted
to those materials where strong ethnobotanical use has
been reported. In many cases, the data released by raw
material suppliers are uncited and often very difficult to
substantiate from official (ethnopharmaceutical, phar-
macognosy or phytotherapeutical) texts (Dweck, 1997b).
It has been said that ‘there is a plant for every need
on every continent’. Remarkably, this statement ap-
pears to be true. For instance looking at natural re-
sources to make soap, soapwort (Saponaria officinalis)
will be found in Europe; yucca (Yucca glauca) in south-
ern USA; soapnut (Sapindus indica) in India; endod
(Phytolacca dodecandra) in Africa and soap bark
(Quillaja saponaria) in South America. It is interesting
to note how these plants differ with the parts used vary-
ing from tree bark to berries.
988 T. ABURJAI AND F. M. NATSHEH
Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Phytother. Res. 17, 987–1000 (2003)
SKIN CARE
Skin forms a remarkable protective barrier against the
external environment, helping to regulate temperature
and fluid balance, keeping out harmful microbes and
chemicals and offering some protection against sunlight.
Skin is a living organ that consists of epidermis, dermis
and subcutaneous layers. The dermis is a connective-
tissue layer that contains many elastin and collagen
fibres, as well as an abundance of blood vessels and
specialized nerve endings. The epidermis consists of two
main parts: the stratum germinativum and the stratum
corneum, the outermost layer ‘horny layer’, which comes
in direct contact with the environment. This horny layer
is not simply a collection of dead cells, but a complex
organism that is a part of a homeostatic system, and
all phenomena occurring at this layer, including the use
of cosmetics, are transmitted to the epidermis and
the inner skin, and the disturbance of the homeostatic
balance, which accompanies aging and rapid changes in
the external environment, clearly affects the epidermis
and dermis (Tranggono, 2000).
Natural remedies have been used for centuries for
treating skin conditions and a wide variety of dermato-
logical disorders, including inflammation, phototoxicity,
psoriasis, atopic dermatitis and alopecia areata. Al-
though they are currently widely accepted by patients,
their scientific respect among dermatologists in particu-
lar is limited. The alternative medications seem prom-
ising, although their true effects are unknown, so further
investigations must be performed to assess clinical be-
nefit. Herbal drugs for topical application also deserve
consideration because of their widespread use and ill-
defined benefit/risk ratio (Hoermann and Korting, 1994).
Human skin manifests conditions ranging from simple
dryness to severe erythema and scaling. These indica-
tions are sometimes accompanied by pruritis, inflam-
mation and also may exhibit an associated oedema that
further increases discomfort. Herbal materials to alle-
viate these symptoms have presumably been selected
by a process of ‘trial and error’. However, scientific
study shows that plants possess a vast and complex
arsenal of phytochemicals that not only calm, restore
and heal the skin, but also stand up to the scrutiny of
clinical trial and pharmacological testing (Passi, 2002;
Orthoefer, 2002; Dweck, 1997a).
A cosmetic formulation, including active principles
of strictly natural origin, is designed to protect the skin
against exogenous or endogenous harmful agents, as
well as to balance again the dermal homeostasis lipids
altered by dermatosis and ageing. It is characterized
by a lipid composition which is close to human sebum.
Thus, treatment of the outermost layers of the epider-
mis with a relatively high amount of phospholipids,
consists of a thin monomolecular layer applied to the
skin, permitting natural hydration. The chemical com-
position of the phospholipids provides antioxidant pro-
tection, natural sun-blocking effects, antiinflammatory
and anti-free-radical molecules which are capable, for
example, of preventing histidine from being decarboxy-
lated to form histamine (Passi, 2002; Orthoefer, 2002).
Emollient natural remedies are often found to con-
tain mucilage, consisting of polysaccharides, complex
sugars and starch derivatives that relieve dryness and
provide a soothing membrane that covers the skin.
Protection of the skin hydration, and producing soften-
ing effects to skin and hair preparations is achieved
using seed oils rich in fatty acids and triglycerides that
reduce transepidermal water loss. Those plants with
antiinflammatory properties often have a high level of
flavonoids; those that are used to firm and tone the
skin are rich in tannins which have an astringent effect;
and for skin healing in the case of infections the use of
plants with a number of antimicrobial and antifungal
biocides is beneficial.
Dry skin treatment
The binding of water in the stratum corneum can
become compromised and ineffective. In this case it
is helpful to reduce the transepidermal water loss by
applying occlusive films. There is no reason why min-
eral oil or petrolatum should not be used; however, the
benefits of a natural vegetable oil may be preferred.
Castor oil. This is obtained from the Castor bean,
Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae). The seeds contain
50% of the fixed oil, which is a viscous fluid, almost
colourless when pure, possessing only a slight odour.
The oil acts as a barrier agent to protect against harsh
climate, and is soothing to the skin. Castor oil forms a
clean, light-coloured, transparent soap, which dries
and hardens well and is free from odour (Matsumura,
2001). Ricinoleic acid and its many derivatives have
skin smoothing and moisturizing qualities, and improve
various skin conditions such as rough skin and acne
(Miyahara and Sanbe, 2002). Hydrogenated castor oil
and/or its esters, are useful as vehicles or carriers, emol-
lients or solubilizers for toiletry, cosmetic, hair and skin
care formulations, and are useful for cleansing and con-
ditioning the skin (Sato, 2002).
Cocoa butter. Cocoa butter, from Theobroma cacao
(Sterculiceae) is particularly soothing after windburn
or sunburn. It is used medicinally as a vehicle in sup-
positories and pessaries. Cocoa butter contains trigly-
cerides consisting mainly of oleic, stearic and palmitic
acids, and about three quarters of the fats are present
as mono-unsaturates. Cocoa butter is used widely as an
emollient and in various topical cosmetic preparations,
and has been reported to be a source of natural anti-
oxidants (Dweck, 1997b).
Mango. A part from its popular edible fruit, Mangifera
indica (Anacardiaceae) also contains kernels that yield
a valuable emollient oil rich in oleic, stearic acids and
triglycerides, and is used in cosmetics (Aikawa, 2002).
Mango kernel oil has been investigated for its suitabil-
ity as an ointment base, and has been observed to
release drugs at a remarkably greater rate than the
standard paraffin-base ointment formulation. Mango
leaves are claimed to possess antibiotic properties and
are used in India to relieve the pain of scorpion stings,
while the unripe fruit is claimed to help heal a wide
variety of skin eruptions, ranging from leprosy and sores
to boils (Dweck, 1997b).
Coconut oil. All parts of Cocos nucifera (Arecaceae)
are useful. The oil from the nuts is valued as an emol-
lient and used as an ingredient in remedies for skin
PLANTS USED IN COSMETICS 989
Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Phytother.Res. 17, 987–1000 (2003)
infections. Coconut oil (or butter) is extracted from
mature coconuts that have fallen to the ground. It is
stable at high temperatures (up to 76.6 °C). Modified
coconut oil containing polyunsaturated fatty acids in
the form of mono-, di- and triglycerides, is useful as a
constituent of a barrier lipid mixture in cosmetic and
pharmaceutical formulations to protect and prevent
drying of the skin. Coconut oil was formerly the main
ingredient in marine soaps because coconut oil soap
was, unlike other soaps, not readily precipitated by
salt solutions. However, because of its alkali laurate
content some coconut oil soaps can irritate the skin
(Dweck, 1997b).
Sunflower oil. Sunflower seeds from Helianthus annuus
(Compositae), contain polyunsaturated fats, rich in
triglycerides of linoleic acid, an essential fatty acid
needed by the body to maintain good skin condition.
Studies indicate that cutaneous application of the sun-
flower oil increases the linoleic acid levels of the skin,
lowers transepidermal water loss, and helps to elimi-
nate scaly lesions common in patients with essential
fatty acid deficiency. Sunflower oil is used for psori-
asis, and on bruises (Dweck, 1997d). A new sunflower-
hybrid oil with excellent oxidative stability and a high
oleic acid content, can be used as a natural and func-
tional raw material in cosmetic preparations (Brown
et al., 1993).
Olive oil. Since ancient times people have used Olea
europaea (Oleaceae) fruit and oil; the ancient Greeks
used to bathe with olive oil. It has been used to mois-
turize dry skin, and as a lip balm, shampoo, hand
lotion, soap, massage oil and dandruff treatment
(Bruneton, 1999). Olive oil contains fatty acids, trigly-
cerides, tocopherols, squalene, carotenoids, sterols,
polyphenols, chlorophylls, volatile and flavour com-
pounds. The extracts of mixtures of olive fruits, leaves
and stems show antiinflammatory and active oxygen
scavenging effects (Tehara and Hachimaki, 2002).
The antiinflammatory effect is exerted by both un-
saponifiable and polar compounds (De la Puerta et al.,
2000), while the free radical-scavenging effect of virgin
olive oil is due to the presence of polyphenols
(Perricone, 2001; Manna et al., 1999). It is applied topi-
cally to treat skin damage, such as contact dermatitis
(particularly diaper area dermatitis), atopic dermatitis,
xerosis, eczema (including severe hand and foot
eczema), rosacea, seborrhoea, psoriasis, thermal and
radiation burns, other types of skin inflammation and
aging (Perricone, 2001). When the oil is topically
applied after UVB exposure it can effectively reduce
UVB-induced skin tumours, possibly via its antioxidant
effects (Budiyanto et al., 2000). Adverse cutaneous re-
actions to topically applied olive oil are seldom reported,
but olive oil is considered in general as very weakly
irritant (Kranke et al., 1997).
Eczema
Eczema or atopic dermatitis is a skin condition charac-
terized by redness, swelling, scaling and itching.
Turmeric. Turmeric is the processed rhizome of
Curcuma longa L. (Zingiberaceae). The rhizome is the
portion of the plant that is used medicinally; it is
usually boiled, cleaned and dried, yielding a yellow
powder. The major component is curcumin, which is
responsible for most of the biological activities. The
literature indicates a great variety of pharmacological
activities of turmeric or curcumin, such as antibacterial,
antiparasitic, anti-HIV (human immunodeficiency virus
effects) (Mesa et al., 2000; Mazumber et al., 1995). It
appears to have a good potential as a wound healing
powder when applied externally to septic and aseptic
wounds (Phan et al., 2001), due to proven anticarcino-
genic (Ozaki et al., 2000; Aruna and Sivaramakrishnan,
1996; Huang et al., 1991, 1988), antioxidant and inhibi-
tion of lipid peroxidation (Phan et al., 2001; Scartezzini
and Speroni, 2000; Unnikrishnan and Rao, 1995; Pulla
Reddy and Lokesh 1994; Sreejayan Rao, 1994) and
antiinflammatory properties with few toxic effects (Rao
et al., 1982). It is also used for prevention, treatment or
control of psoriasis and other skin conditions such as
acne, wounds, burns, eczema, sun damage to the skin
and premature aging, due to inhibiting the activity of
phosphorylase kinase (Heng, 1999).
In Ayurvedic medicine, turmeric is used for the treat-
ment of sprains and swellings caused by injury (Ammon
and Wahl, 1991). The people of Samoa sprinkle the
powdered rhizome on newborn infants to help heal a
recently cut umbilical cord, to prevent nappy rash from
occurring and to keep the skin soft and resilient. The
powder is also used as a paste or poultice to treat skin
ulcers and to help heal extensive skin eruptions (Shah,
1982; Uhe, 1974).
Acne, spots and pimples
Acne is a skin condition that affects sweat glands
and hair follicles, causing inflammation, black heads,
white heads and pustules. If blemishes are deep they
can leave scars and pitting, which can be distressing
and disfiguring.
Artemisia. Artemisia vulgaris and Artemisia absinthum
(Compositae) are used traditionally in Philippines for
skin diseases and ulcerative sores. The entire plant is
made into a decoction and is used as a wash for many
kinds of wounds and skin ulcers. The dried leaves, cut
into small fragments, are used to help induce more rapid
healing of wounds, and are used in eczema, herpes and
prurulent scabies (Dweck, 1997b). Water extracts from
A. campestris L. have antioxidant effects (Aniya et al.,
2000).
Basil. Its Greek name, Basileus, means ‘king’, indicat-
ing its ‘royal’ position among the herbs, and Ocimum
sanctum (Labiatae) is a powerful medicinal plant. The
fixed oil possesses both antiinflammatory and antiulcer
activities, and the linolenic acid present has the capa-
city to block both the cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase
pathways of arachidonate metabolism, which could
be responsible for the antiinflammatory activity of the
oil (Singh and Majumdar, 1999; Singh and Majumdar,
1997). Since antibacterial activity at fairly low dilutions
is known to be present in this family, and in different
basil species (Koga et al., 1999; Lachowicz et al., 1998;
Sivropoulou et al., 1996), basil oil from O. gratissimum
leaf is used as an antibacterial treatment for acne
990 T. ABURJAI AND F. M. NATSHEH
Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Phytother. Res. 17, 987–1000 (2003)
(Orafidiya et al., 2002), O. basilicum has also mildly
antiseptic and antimicrobial activities (Lachowicz et al.,
1998).
Pea. Pisum sativum (Leguminosae) has been used in
the treatment of acne. The seeds contain proteins, leci-
thins, carbohydrates, fats and salts, and are nutritive
and antidermatosis. They are claimed to have effects
on many types of skin complaint, and for example face
masks made from crushed peas are used in cases of
acne and on wrinkled skins (Dweck, 1997c).
Pumpkin. Fatty acids isolated from Cucurbita pepo
(Cucurbitaceae) seed oil, have been used in medicine
for their antiinflammatory properties, and include
mainly linoleic, followed by oleic, palmitic and stearic
acid (Nesterova et al., 1990; Akhtar et al., 1980). The
people of Central America and India rub the oil ex-
tracted from the seeds of pumpkin on herpes lesions,
venereal sores, acne vulgaris and stubborn leg ulcers
which refuse to heal up. Pumpkin leaves are also ap-
plied as a poultice on sprains and pulled ligaments. The
roots are made into an infusion and used on syphilitic
sores, herpes lesions, pimples and blackheads (Morton,
1981).
Onion. The common red onion, Allium cepa (Liliaceae),
has been used traditionally for its beneficial effects when
used externally as a poultice for acne, boils, abscesses
and blackheads to draw out the infection, decrease
inflammation and speed healing. Studies have found
that onions possess antiallergic and antiinflammatory
effects due to the presence of flavonoids (quercetin and
kampferol) (Griffiths et al., 2002; Dorsch, 1996; Dorsch
et al., 1990; Dorsch and Ring, 1984; Middleton, 1984), and
in addition,onion juice has antimicrobial (Dorsch, 1996;
Arunachalam, 1980) and antifungal effects (Conner and
Beuchat, 1984). In Africa, onion juice is applied to burns
and scalds to prevent blistering and infection, and in
East Africa the skin of the onion has been used as a
dressing on facial and body sores (Dweck, 1997c).
Antiaging skin treatment
The primary environmental factor that causes human
skin aging is UV irradiation from the sun (Fisher et al.,
2002). Changes due to aging in the skin, in which degen-
erative changes exceed regenerative changes, are chara-
cterized by thinning and wrinkling of the epidermis
together with the appearance of lines, creases, crevices
and furrows, especially accentuated in lines of facial
expression. The reason for the readily apparent surface
morphological alterations is the result of changes in the
underlying dermis, characterized by the loss of collagen
and elastin fibres, with lessened support of epidermal
layers, and lessened circulatory perfusion. Many so-
called ‘antiaging’ actions of topically applied materials
are nothing more than transient hydrational/moisturiz-
ing effects, which, while lessening the prominence of
undesirable surface defects and blemishes, do nothing
to alter the dermal losses. True ‘antiaging’ actions would
require evidence for the reversal of the regenerative/
degenerative balance, exemplified by increased colla-
gen and elastin synthesis, thereby restoring toward
normal the regenerative/degenerative equilibrium.
Ginseng. Ginseng is an important traditional drug used
for more than 2000 years. Korean ginseng, Panax gin-
seng C.A. Meyer (Araliaceae), is physically and chemi-
cally different from ginseng grown in other countries.
Studies reported that it can activate the skin’s metabol-
ism (Tanaka and Okada, 1991), reduce keratinization
(Kim et al., 1989), provide moisture and soften (Curri
et al., 1986; Gezzi et al., 1986), alleviate wrinkling and
enhance skin whiteness. The major effects are thought
to be due to enhanced skin nutrition as a result of stimu-
lation and increase in blood circulation and cell pro-
liferation, resulting in increased metabolism which
leads to an ‘antiaging’ effect (Lee et al., 1997). Many stu-
dies indicate that the ‘antiaging’ activity is due to free
radical scavenging action of the ginseng saponins
(ginsenosides) and inhibition of lipoperoxidation (Pan
et al., 1993; Liu and Xiao, 1992; Choi and Byun, 1986;
Choi and Oh, 1985; Choi and Oh, 1984).
Free-radical scavenging effects
Most plant extracts that scavenge free radicals contain
phenolic derivatives, such as tannin and flavonoids. The
number and location of the phenolic hydroxyl group
on these chemicals are important factors determining
the level of scavenging activity (Pietta, 2000; Pathak
et al., 1991).
Tea. Camellia sinensis (Theaceae) yields both black
(red) and green tea. Black tea results from tea leaves
that have undergone a fermentation process, while to
produce green tea, the leaves are steamed immediately
after harvest and then dried. Tea contains more than
500 chemical compounds, including tannins, flavonoids,
amino acids, vitamins, caffeine and polysaccharides. The
amount of vitamin C in 100 g of green tea is about
100 mg, which is similar to that found in lemons. In
black tea, however, more than 90% of the vitamin C is
destroyed during the fermentation process. Green and
black teas contain similar amounts of vitamin B6 (nico-
tinic acid), vitamin E and vitamin K (Pietta et al., 1998;
Lee et al., 1997). Tea flavonoids (polyphenols) have
proven antiinflammatory, antioxidant, antiallergic,
antibacterial and antiviral effects, while the tea tannins
have antiseptic and antioxidant effects (Katiyar and
Elmets, 2001; Schreiner et al., 1999). Tea root extract
contains saponins that possess antiinflammatory and
antioxidant effects (Sur et al., 2001).
Green tea. The major active ingredients in green tea
are the polyphenols. Catechins are the most important
polyphenols in green tea; others include flavandiols,
phenolic acids and flavonols. Green tea is now the sub-
ject of a lot of attention for its proven antioxidant prop-
erties (Katiyar and Elmets, 2001; Miyazawa, 2000; Pietta
et al., 1998; Mitscher et al., 1997; Fourneau et al., 1996),
for its ability to repair UV photo-damage and photo-
toxicity (Elmets et al., 2001; Katiyar and Elmets, 2001;
Zhao et al., 1999a; Lee et al., 1997). It is useful also for
the prophylaxis, treatment and/or care of dry skin con-
ditions, by stimulating the formation of ceramides and
sphingolipids in the skin and thus reinforcing the lipid
barrier (Schreiner et al., 1999), and its antiinflammatory
and anticarcinogenic potential can be exploited against
a variety of skin disorders (Katiyar et al., 2000).
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Black tea. Black tea extracts contain polyphenols in
a lower amount, and show a rather weaker protective
effect against free radicals than green tea, but are
still considered to be a good antioxidant (Halder and
Bhaduri, 1998; Yokozawa et al., 1998). Using both oral
and topically applied, standardized black tea extracts
showed a decrease in photochemical damage to the skin.
Studies indicate that when green tea is oxidized to black
tea, the extracts remain beneficial in preventing the early
signs of UV B–induced phototoxic effects, namely, sun-
burn and skin thickness (Zhao et al., 1999b).
Grape seed. The seeds of Vitis vinifera L. (Vitaceae)
and its many varieties contain polyphenolic proanthocy-
anidins, which in turn can bind to each other to form
oligomers known as procyanidins. These procyanidins
are strong antioxidants (compared with vitamin C and
E), by inhibition of lipid peroxidation (Yu et al., 2001;
Pietta et al., 1998; Bagchi et al., 1997; Bombardelli and
Morazzoni, 1995; Maffei et al., 1994), facilitate wound
healing and protect collagen and elastin from degra-
dation (Maffei et al., 1994). Grape seed extracts show
tyrosinase-inhibiting activity, and are useful in anti-
aging and skin-lightening cosmetics (Tokutake and
Yamakoshi, 2001; Lee et al., 2000).
Antiinflammatory effects
The inflammatory response is a common feature in
many diseases, and its control is of relevance in the
treatment of these pathologies. There are several herbal
drugs used for their antiinflammatory properties.
Red clover. The antiinflammatory effect of Trifolium
pretense L. (Fabaceae) is employed traditionally for
multiple skin conditions such as psoriasis, eczema, acne
and rash. Isoflavones from red clover flower applied
topically offer protection from UV irradiation in hair-
less mice after UV exposure, reducing the inflam-
matory oedema reaction, and suppression of contact
hypersensitivity induced by moderate doses of solar-
simulated UV radiation. Lotions containing equol (an
isoflavone from red clover) more readily protect the
immune system from photosuppression than from the
inflammation of the sunburn reaction, even when ap-
plied after exposure, so have a role as a sun-protective
cosmetic ingredient (Widyarini et al., 2001).
Chamomile. German chamomile (Matricaria recutita L.;
often referred to as true chamomile), or the Roman
chamomile (Anthemis nobilis Linn.) are both members
of the family Compositae. Surprisingly, the plants share
a similar spectrum of chemical components, though not
in the same ratios. Extracts of the plant are used in the
form of ointments, lotions and inhalations intended for
local application. Chamomile extract, essential oil and
isolated constituents, possess antiinflammatory effects
and are useful for treating inflammation of skin and
mucous membranes, eczema and as an antipruritic ad-
junct in the treatment and prevention of skin disorders
(Bruneton, 1999; Hoermann and Korting, 1994; Carle
and Gomaa, 1992). Chamomile owes its activity to
the presence of flavonoids in the extracts and in the
essential oil. Apigenin and its glycosides possess anti-
inflammatory, antierythema and antipruriticeffects, and
so reduce itching and improve the speed at which
damaged skin heals by local administration. Alpha
bisabolol (levomenol) and chamazulene contribute to
the antiinflammatory activity of chamomile extract by
inhibiting leukotriene synthesis and additional anti-
oxidative effects (Safahyi et al., 1994; Wagner et al.,
1986). Both German and Roman chamomile are con-
sidered safe, although some allergies have been re-
ported, mainly in people who are sensitive to the pollen
of the flowers or to the Compositae family (Carle and
Gomaa, 1992).
Fenugreek. Trigonella foenum-graeceum L. (Fabaceae)
is a fragrant herb whose seeds have been used medi-
cinally all through the ages, by Egyptians, Greeks,
Romans and among others, for medicinal and culin-
ary purposes. The seeds possess antioxidant effects
(Ravikumar and Anuradha, 1999), and contain a muci-
lage which has emollient properties. In traditional use,
fenugreek treats severe skin inflammations, chapped
lips and mouth ulcers (Dweck, 1997a).
Jojoba. Jojoba oil (Buxus chinensis or Simmondsia
chinensis (Link.) C. Schneider, family Buxaceae), pro-
vides a broad spectrum of fatty acids such as oleic,
linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic, as well as triglycerides
which have good compatibility with the natural sebum
in the skin (van Boven et al., 2000; van Boven et al.,
1997). Jojoba oil is derived from the cold-pressed,
peanut-sized seed of this desert shrub. When the seeds
are expressed, they yield about 50% of liquid wax known
commonly as jojoba oil, which is a rich extract used in
cosmetic preparations, not only acting as a humecant,
but creating a protective film over the skin that keeps
in moisture (Dweck, 1997d). Jojoba oils and hydrogen-
ated jojoba oils may be useful in the preparation of
future skin care products (Arquette et al., 1998), as in
the formulation of creams, lotions, soaps, lipsticks and
other preparations designed to be spread onto the skin
or hair; since it is an effective, non-greasy lubricant.
Screening of the oil revealed that it has a significant
analgesic, antipyretic, antiinflammatory, antioxidant,
antibacterial and antiparasitic properties (Bruneton,
1999; van Boven et al., 1997).
Licorice root. Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Fabaceae) has been
widely used as a drug all over the world. The root con-
tains 5%–10% glycyrrhizin, a sweet tasting substance
with poor solubility in blood compared with saponins
in general. Licorice is a good antiinflammatory agent
(Lee et al., 1997), due to the presence of glycyrrhetic
acid which is mainly used topically for its antiinflam-
matory properties, and for the symptomatic treatment
of moderate inflammation without secondary infection
(Olukoga and Donaldson, 1998). Licorice is also used
for skin irritations and in cosmetics for acne and
sunburn (Marks, 1997).
Skin protection
Aloe vera. One of the most widely used herbal prepa-
rations for the treatment of various skin conditions is
aloe gel obtained from Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. or Aloe
barbadensis Miller. (Asphodelaceae). This is the muci-
laginous gel obtained from the cells making up the
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inner portion of the leaf, and should not be confused
with the bitter yellow latex or juice that is derived
from the pericyclic tubules occurring just beneath the
epidermis of the leaves. The use of aloe gel and pre-
parations containing it has become widespread and
consequently a large industry has developed (Bruneton,
1999; Reynolds and Dweck, 1999). Little is known about
the identity and stability of the ingredients responsible
for these or most of its other effects. Aloe’s benefits
can be attributed at least partly to its nutrients, since it
contains proteins, carbohydrates (including mucopoly-
saccharides), vitamins (including B1, B2, B3, B6, C,
and folic acid) and minerals. These nutrients, although
beneficial individually, may work synergistically to
soothe, heal, moisturize and regenerate the skin (Davis
et al., 1989a; Zawahry et al., 1973).
Aloes gel can be applied topically as an emollient for
burns, sunburn and mild abrasion, and for inflamma-
tory skin disorders (Davis et al., 1994a,b; Shelton, 1991).
It has antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral (Reynolds and
Dweck, 1999; 1990; Klein and Penneys, 1988), antioxi-
dant, antihistamine and antiinflammatory effects (Davis
et al., 1994a; Udupa et al., 1994; Heggers et al., 1993;
Davis et al., 1989b). More speculative is the presence
of salicylates, implicating an aspirin-like effect (Klein
and Penneys, 1988). Aloe gel is also described in the
popular literature as a cleanser, anaesthetic, antiseptic,
antipyretic, antipruritic, nutrient, moisturizer and is
said to promote cell proliferation. Extracts of A. vera
possess activities that reverse the degenerative skin
changes seen with aging by stimulating the synthesis of
collagen and elastin fibres (Davis et al., 1994a). No sun-
screen activity was found, but the effects of exposure
were less deleterious following gel application up to
48 h after exposure and the gel restored the activity
of various epidermal cells that were reduced by UV
exposure (Strickland et al., 1994).
Aloe gel is used externally for its wound healing pro-
perties and is supported by clinical investigation. The
action of the gel as a moisturizing agent is still a popu-
lar concept and may account for much of its effect
(Reynolds and Dweck, 1999; Wenker 1999; Davis et al.,
1994a; Heggers et al., 1993; Shelton, 1991; Meadows,
1980). Acting by various mechanisms, Aloe vera may
keep the wound moist and at the same time allow oxy-
gen to penetrate the wound, adding to regeneration
(Davis et al., 1994a,b; Davis et al., 1989a; Zawahry et al.,
1973). Thus Aloe soothes, cools and seals in mois-
ture, due to its high water and mineral content which
make it ideally suited for use as a skin cream, and it
can be found in a number of commercial beauty aids
and suntan lotions. Its softening powers have recently
been found to be helpful in breaking down calluses and
blisters (Davis et al., 1989a; Zawahry et al., 1973).
Polysaccharides are a group of gel constituents to
which activity has been ascribed (Reynolds and Dweck,
1999; Agarwala, 1997; Davis et al., 1994a,b), and many
studies suggest that the mucopolysaccharides are
responsible for the wound-healing activity of Aloe
gel because they act as a growth factor and stimulate
fibroblasts (connective-tissue cells) to produce more
collagen, which in turn increases the remodelling of the
wound and fills in the wound area (Davis et al., 1994a,b;
Davis et al., 1989a; Zawahry et al., 1973). There have
been a few reports of contact dermatitis and burning
sensation following topical application of A. vera gel
to dermabraded skin, but these reactions could be due
to anthraquinone contaminants (Reynolds and Dweck,
1999; Hoermann and Korting, 1994; Shelton, 1991;
Hunter and Frumkin, 1991).
Oats. People have been eating Avena sativa L.
(Graminae) and oat products since the first century, but
the therapeutic uses of oats are sparsely documented
(Paton et al., 1995). Today, for a specific application,
cosmetic chemists obtain better benefits by using oat
fractions than by using entire oatmeal. These materials
are safe and non-irritating, and have excellent cosmetic
stability. Derived from natural renewable resources,
they protect and repair the skin and hair from damag-
ing environmental effects such as UVA/UVB irradia-
tion, pollution, smoke, bacteria and free radicals and
reduce discomfort, irritation and inflammation of the
skin. They also help to repair damage from other chemi-
cals such as AHA (alpha-hydroxy acids), surfactants
and bleaches (Hart et al., 1998).
Oatmeal has a history of cosmetic use in facial masks
and as an additive in bath soaps to relieve irritation or
itching. It has been suggested for the treatment of geri-
atric dermatosis, eczema and sunburn because of its
hypoallergenic properties (Meister, 1963). Bran is de-scribed as colloidal oatmeal, and the FDA agrees that
there is sufficient evidence supporting the general
recognition of colloidal oatmeal as a safe and effective
skin protectant based on its ability to impart both sooth-
ing, moisturizing and an antiirritating effect. Such prop-
erties may prove useful in skin treatment products, such
as facial masks, facial scrubs and soap-free skin cleans-
ers (Paton et al., 1995). Data from clinical studies indi-
cate that oat extract serves as a powerful antiirritant
against UV and chemically induced irritation. In vitro
studies show that oat extract can significantly reduce
the damage associated with UVA/UVB irradiation
(Hart et al., 1998). Oat flower has a moisturizing effect
due to its lipid content and its hydrating characteristics.
The use of oat oil as an ingredient in personal-care
products is a natural extension of the historical use of
oatmeal and oatmeal fractions for improving the skin.
Prepared from native oats, its ability to emulsify large
quantities of water in oil makes it a powerful vehicle
for hydrating and moisturizing epidermal layers. The
scientific literature suggests that oats contain a number
of naturally occurring antioxidants, and these are
present in oat oil. Phenolic and hydroxyphenolic com-
pounds have been identified in the extracted oil, in
addition to tocopherol isomers (Dull, 1997). Hydrolysed
oat protein, due to its low molecular weight, will pen-
etrate the hair shaft and form a thin protective film on
hair and skin (Hart et al., 1998). It is incorporated in
baby cleansing products (shampoos, lotions, moisturiz-
ing baby bath, etc.), because of its moisturizing and
antiirritant effect (Loncar, 1996). Oat βββββ-glucan is a lin-
ear unbranched high molecular weight polysaccharide,
which can alleviate extrinsic signs of aging, protect
against UV damage, stimulate metabolic activity, acti-
vate collagen synthesis, and improve the tensile strength
of hair (Hart et al., 1998). A combination of the β-
glucan and the hydrolysed oat protein is used to mois-
turize and soothe the skin and to reduce redness from
abrasion. Oat flour is a natural emulsifier that also helps
impart body to the cream, and the β-glucan builds vis-
cosity and moisturizes the skin (Paton et al., 1995).
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Miscellaneous
Cucumber. Cucumber or Cucumis sativa Linn.
(Cucurbitaceae), is cooling, healing and soothing to
irritated skin, whether caused by sun, or the effects of
a cutaneous eruption. In cosmetic preparations for the
treatment of hyperpigmentation, both cucumber extract
and lemon extract are used. These two ingredients do
not appear to interfere with each other, and instead
provide increased lightening capabilities (Majmudar
and Rogers, 1999). Reports indicate the presence of
antioxidant enzymes and superoxide dismutase in the
peeled pericarp of cucumber (Kim et al., 1998a), while
peroxidase (I) activity in fresh cucumber fruit was
highest in the skin, followed by pericarp and then car-
pel tissues (Miller et al., 1990). Although it is frequently
used in cosmetic products, more studies are needed to
assess its healing and antioxidant effects.
HAIR CARE
Plant materials can be used as hair growth stimulation,
hair colorants and dyes, and in a number of hair and
scalp complaints such as dandruff.
Hair growth stimulants
Recently, various plant extracts have been patented
for use in hair-growth or hair-tonic products, and for
the prevention of alopecia. The patents claim that
the effects are due to stimulation of the hair follicle
or scalp metabolism, possibly due to an acceleration
of blood circulation, activation of dermal papilla,
antitestosterone action, or increased nutrition to the
hair follicles through accelerated blood flow, but
the mechanisms are not yet clear (Lee et al., 1997;
Kameyama, 1995).
It was discovered that proanthocyanidins extracted
from grape seeds promote proliferation of hair follicle
cells in vitro and that they possess remarkable hair-
cycle-converting activity from the telogen phase to the
anagen phase in vivo (Takahashi et al., 1998). Studies
suggested that Ginkgo biloba leaf extract also promotes
hair regrowth, through combined effects on prolifera-
tion and apoptosis of the cells in the hair follicle, thus
suggesting potential as a hair tonic (Kim et al., 1998b;
Kobayashi et al., 1993). Other plants such as henna,
aloe, rosemary and sage are claimed to have effects on
hair growth, but still need more study and clinical trials
to substantiate their folk medicine use.
A. vera L. or A. barbadensis gel is used traditionally
for hair loss, and for improvement in hair growth fol-
lowing alopecia (Grindlay and Reynolds, 1986). Aloenin
is the major constituent responsible for promoting hair
growth without irritating the skin (Inaoka et al., 1988).
Aloe vera has been cited as a treatment for brittle hair,
but with no evidence to substantiate this claim.
Henna or Lawsonia alba L. (Lythraceae) has been
cited as a growth accelerator and was used in an
ancient Egyptian formula to cure the loss of hair
(Dweck, 1997b). The incidence of contact dermatitis
appears to be extremely rare with the use of henna
(Garcia et al., 1997), since henna leaf extracts have mild
antiinflammatory and antiallergic action and analgesic
effects (Yonenaga, 2001; Ali et al., 1995).
Sage has been regarded as a healing herb for many
centuries, and there are now over 500 species of Salvia,
the species officinalis being the most important for
culinary purposes. Salvia officinalis L. (Labiatae) also
called ‘common sage’, ‘true sage’ or ‘garden sage’ is
used as a lotion to improve the condition of hair and
skin. Claims of its use, alone or with rosemary, to main-
tain the sheen of dark curly hair, and to strengthen and
stimulate hair growth have been made (Dweck, 1997b).
The major S. officinalis constituents responsible for
the effect on hair are the tannins, saponins, as well as
borneol and camphor (Boiceanu et al., 1986).
Rosemary or Rosmarinus officinalis Linn. (Labiatae)
is an aromatic herb surrounded by tradition and leg-
ends but with important culinary, medicinal and cos-
metic properties. In folk medicine it is used to stimulate
growth of hair as a rinse. The most important constitu-
ents of rosemary are thought to be caffeic acid and its
derivatives such as rosmarinic acid; these compounds
have antioxidant effects (Aruoma et al., 1996).
Dandruff treatment
Dandruff is a major problem, yet little is known about
the underlying mechanism and subsequent biochemical
changes that occur in the scalp skin and lead to its
manifestation. The characteristic flaking and scaling
of the scalp experienced by dandruff sufferers suggests
that the desquamation process is impaired. Dandruff
is also associated with a dramatic decrease in free lipid
levels, with significant decreases in ceramides, fatty acids
and cholesterol. Thus the epidermal water barrier is
impaired in the scalp of dandruff sufferers, and the
perturbed barrier leaves sufferers more prone to the
adverse effects of microbial and fungal toxins, and en-
vironmental pollutants, thus perpetuating the impaired
barrier (Harding et al., 2002).
Traditionally Sage (Salvia officinalis L.) is an old
favourite for dandruff, loss of hair and greasy hair and
skin. An extract of sage massaged into the scalp can
control dandruff, falling hair or loss of hair if the pa-
pilla is dormant and not destroyed. Rosemary is claimed
to be a conditioner for greasy hair, a rinse and a tonic
that gives body and sheen to hair, and infused fresh or
dried rosemary and sage can be used as a daily rinse
for dandruff treatment. Thyme or Thymus vulgaris L.
(Labiatae) is also claimed to inhibit dandruff, and used
in a scalp rub it prevents hair falling out, and rinses
containing rosemary and thyme promote natural hair
health. In folk medicine Garlic or Allium sativum
(L. Liliaceae) lotion can help to control dandruff. It
has beenused since ancient times as a vegetable with
many properties, including antiseptic, tonic, antioxidant,
antiinflammatory (Agiga and Seki, 2000), antibacterial
and antifungal effects (Ankri and Mirelman, 1999;
Hughes and Lawson, 1991). Garlic should not be placed
directly on the skin since it may cause blisters and a
burning sensation in some people or contact dermatitis
and allergic reactions in others (Siegers, 1992). English
Walnut or Juglans regia L. (Juglandaceae), leaves are
used in traditional medicine for external applications
such as eczema, acne, loss of hair, scalp itching, peel-
ing and dandruff; and as an adjunctive emollient and
994 T. ABURJAI AND F. M. NATSHEH
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itch-relieving treatment in skin disorders; as a trophic
protective agent for cracks, abrasions, frostbite, chaps
and insect bites to treat sun burns and for nappy rashes
(Bruneton, 1999). Juglans nigra refers to the Black
walnut, whose bark is used for dandruff and other scalp
problems.
Hair colouring
Vegetable dyes can usually be recommended to pa-
tients sensitized to oxidative dyes, due to their low al-
lergenic power (Garcia et al., 1997). The use of natural
dyes on the hair has not made great progress and this
is due firstly, to the fact that natural dyes are not very
stable in solution, and are prone to oxidation, dis-
colouration, pH colour shift and fading. Secondly, a
single natural dye may not give the right colour, and
only henna or walnut seem to be suitable to colour the
hair. However, many shades can be obtained by mixing
with the leaves of other plants.
The leaves of Lawsonia inermis, known as henna,
has been applied since ancient times for decorating and
dyeing hands and feet, to impart shades of dark red,
and for the treatment of certain skin disorders. The
compound lawsone, a brown powder isolated from the
leaves, is responsible for the red colour in henna. It is
used as a staining agent, due to the strong binding of
lawsone to the hair, probably upon reaction of thiol
groups with keratin (Ali and Sayeed, 1997). If the hair
is dyed with henna and then treated with a hot decoc-
tion of Allium cepa (onion) skin, a coppery colour will
be obtained. The incidence of contact dermatitis from
using henna appears to be rare but possible (Garcia
et al., 1997). A dull golden yellow colour is obtained
using apigenin, a flavonoid which occurs widely in plants,
but is usually obtained from German chamomile flowers,
which is used as a hair rinse for fair hair (Carle and
Gomaa, 1992). Curcumin is the pigment of the spice
turmeric and will also give a range of colour from
yellow to a deep orange. Turmeric contains three major
curcuminoids, of which curcumin is the most signifi-
cant, and these are responsible for the yellow colour
of the herb (Tonnesen, 1992). A red colour is obtained
from the extract of Hibiscus sabdariffa (Malvaceae),
commonly called Karkadeh or red sorrel. Its main
red coloured components, anthocyanidins known as
delphinidin or cyanidin, can be used, but the intensity
of the red colour is a function of pH of the solution
(Nour et al., 1993).
ESSENTIAL OILS
Some natural oils have been mentioned earlier, but
essential oils are very important and have such differ-
ent effects that they need to be categorized alone. Aro-
matic plants and their oils have been used as incense,
perfumes, cosmetics and for their medicinal and culi-
nary applications. Whether they are added to a bath
or massaged into the skin, inhaled directly or diffused
to scent an entire room, these natural aromatic oils
have been used for over a thousand years to relieve
pain, care for the skin, alleviate tension and fatigue,
invigorate the entire body, and to produce a sense of
relaxation which is important if the full benefit of
cosmetics is to be felt (Mangena and Muyima, 1999).
Also, they can be incorporated into finished products
to impart a pleasant aroma, shine or conditioning in a
hair care product and for emolliency or improving the
elasticity of the skin (Purohit and Kapsner, 1994).
Essential oils are extracted from flowers (e.g. berga-
mot tree), grass, herbs, fruit (e.g. anise), peel of citrus
fruits, seeds (e.g. nutmeg), leaves (e.g. eucalyptus), bark
(e.g. cinnamon), rhizomes (e.g. turmeric) and roots –
virtually every part of the plant. They are produced
by a process of ‘expression’ (cold-pressure squeezing of
fruit peel) or distillation, which is slow, laborious and
expensive (Bruneton, 1999; Purohit and Kapsner, 1994).
In general, most plant volatiles are derived from three
main classes of compounds: terpenoids, phenylpro-
panoids including benzenoids, and fatty acid derivatives
which are often greatly modified (oxidized, esterified,
methylated, etc.). Mono- and sesquiterpenes belong to
the terpenoids, the largest group (more than 30 000) of
natural products known. These terpenes are synthesized
from isopentenyl diphosphate (Trapp and Croteau,
2001). Other fragrance components, such as short-
chain alcohols and aldehydes, are formed by metabolic
conversion or degradation of phospholipids and fatty
acids through the concerted action of lipoxygenases,
hydroperoxide lyases, isomerases and dehydrogenases
(Croteau and Karp, 1991).
Although the biological activity of essential oils has
been known for centuries, their mode of action is not
fully understood. Generally, their action is the result of
the combined effect of both the ‘active’ and ‘inactive’
compounds. These ‘inactive’ compounds may influ-
ence resorption, rate of reaction and bioavailability of
the ‘active’ compounds (Colgate and Molyneux, 1993;
Svoboda and Deans, 1995). It is important to recognize
that essential oils have three distinct modes of action
with regard to how they interrelate with the human
body.
Physiological benefits
Many essential oils have antiinflammatory effects, such
as bisabolol, found in chamomile and the volatile oil of
turmeric (Purohit and Kapsner, 1994; Rao et al., 1982).
Essential oils also possess bactericidal effects, such as
the essential oils of Artemisia afra, Pteronia incana
and Rosmarinus officinalis (Mangena and Muyima, 1999;
Baratta et al., 1998a,b; Fyfe et al., 1998; Tassou et al.,
1995; Deans et al., 1992; Deans and Ritchie, 1987),
antiviral (Hayashi et al., 1995), antioxidant (Deans
et al., 1992) and anticancer activities (Aruna and
Sivaramakrishnan, 1996; Hailat et al., 1995). Buchbauer
and Jirovetz (1994) surveyed the uses of fragrances and
essential oils, and found that physiological effects on
humans included brain stimulation, anxiety-relieving
sedation and antidepressant activities, as well as increas-
ing the cerebral blood flow.
Psychological benefits
Traditional aromatherapy often divides aromatic
oils into those which are yin (passive, calming) and
those which are yang (active, stimulating). Although
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this is neither a scientific nor exclusive definition, in
balance, every oil is considered either more stimulating
nor more calming (Purohit and Kapsner, 1994). Studies
describe the effects of odours on memory and mood,
since the fragrance compounds are absorbed by inhala-
tion and are able to cross the blood–brain barrier and
interact with receptors in the central nervous system
(Buchbauer and Jirovetz, 1994; Purohit and Kapsner,
1994).
Cosmetic benefits
Studies have documented that the preservative system
in a cosmetic can be augmented by using a blend of
natural essential oils having antibacterial properties,
but the efficacy of the oils differs and depends both on
the type and concentration of the oil, as well as the
test microbial strain (Mangena and Muyima, 1999;
Purohit and Kapsner, 1994; Muenzing and Schels, 1972).
Essential oils are used in perfumes, skin formu-
lations and hair care products to provide conditioning
and a pleasant aroma and shine (Purohit and Kapsner,
1994). Cosmetics can also contain essential oilsas
cooling agents (e.g. menthol, camphor, mint and euca-
lyptus oil) and menthol derivatives (e.g. menthyl lact-
ate, menthoxypropanediol, menthyl hydroxybutyrate,
menthoxyfuran and menthyl glucoside) which give a
long-lasting refreshing feeling to the skin (Ito and Nagai,
1994).
Safety guidelines
Most essential oils are generally recognized as safe by
the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the United
States, and are classified as natural products. Recom-
mendation on usage levels of essential oils are given
by the Flavour and Extract Manufacturers Association
(FEMA), the British Essence Manufacturers Associa-
tion (BEMA), the International Organization of Flavour
Industries (IOFI), the Research Institute for Fragrance
Materials (RIFM), the International Fragrance Asso-
ciation (IFRA), the International Federation of Essen-
tial Oils and Aromas Trades (IFEAT) and the British
Essential oil Association (BEOA). The International
Standards Organization (ISO) has also issued guide-
lines for the safe handling of essential oils, which covers
packaging, marking and labelling requirements (Barel
et al., 2001; Korwek, 1986).
Perfumery
Perfumery is the main application of essential oils,
concretes, absolutes and other resinoids from plants.
The word perfume is derived from the Latin words ‘per
fumen’ which literally means ‘through smoke’, as this
was how these early fragrances were perceived. His-
torically, a very simple method of obtaining perfume
was to soak flower petals in fat, to produce a perfume
saturated in fat, known as pomade (Barel et al., 2001).
The admiration of flower fragrance rapidly turned vol-
atile substances into a high-impact commercial com-
modity. For many years, research into floral fragrance
focused on its chemical elucidation, coupled with
chemical synthesis to produce the large quantities
demanded by the perfume and food industries. Flower
extracts such as rose, tuberose, narcissus, gardenia and
Lavandula officinalis absolutes and concretes are used
for perfumery, cosmetics and as therapeutic fragrances.
Perfumes are heavily used in two main categories of
products which are toiletries (including personal care
products, fine fragrances, cosmetics, bath products, deo-
dorants, hair products, etc.), and household products
(including air fresheners, laundry products, washing
liquids, surface cleaners and disinfectants).
Perfumery ingredients of natural origin come from
essential oils. Essential oils themselves can be consid-
ered as creative fragrances, as they contain hundreds
of perfectly blended ingredients which, when added to
a fragrance composition, improve the odour. Although
modern fragrance compounds rely heavily on the im-
pact and longevity that can be achieved with synthetics,
many successful fragrance compounds still contain sig-
nificant quantities of naturally occurring essential oils
(Barel et al., 2001).
Hair care
Essential oils when incorporated in a hair care product
will impart shine and conditioning effects. They are used
in a patented permanent waving systems; since certain
oils possessing ethylenically unsaturated bonds, incor-
porated into the neutralizer formula, attach to the hair
during reformation of disulfide (cystine) bonds. This
helps to provide not only hair conditioning and im-
provement in the hair texture, but also a longer lasting
pleasant aroma, which eliminates the negative odour
of the perm lotion (Purohit and Kapsner, 1994). The
hair can also be enhanced by the use of a few drops of
essential oils in the final hair rinse or added straight
to a mild shampoo. Oils such as rosemary, West Indian
bay and chamomile all help to condition and encour-
age healthy hair growth; lavender can be used to repel
lice and fleas; while bergamot and tea tree can help to
control dandruff.
Aromatic skin care
Skin problems are often the surface manifestation of
deeper conditions, such as a build-up of toxins in the
blood, hormonal imbalance or nervous and emotional
difficulties. In this area the versatility of essential oils is
particularly valuable because they are able to combat
such complaints on a variety of levels. Since essential
oils are soluble in oil and alcohol and impart their scent
to water, they provide the ideal ingredient for cosmet-
ics and general skin care as well as for the treatment of
specific diseases. Essential oils are effective when used
topically; they are made up of very small molecules
that actually penetrate through the skin, and act by
means of their lipophilic fraction reacting with the lipid
parts of the cell membranes.
Citrus oils
When fruits are juiced, the peel oils from the rind are
pressed and collected. These oils, whether they are from
996 T. ABURJAI AND F. M. NATSHEH
Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Phytother. Res. 17, 987–1000 (2003)
oranges, grapefruits, tangerines, lemons or limes are
complex mixtures of acids, alcohol, aldehydes, esters,
ketones and hydrocarbons. These components possess
pleasant flavour and fragrance and are used to impart
aroma and taste to a variety of products. The ‘Citrus
spp.’; is a genera within the Rutaceae family which are
among the leaders in the world market for essential
oils, and are widely used in personal perfumes, where
they are used pure or, more frequently, combined
with synthetic molecules. The citrus by-products are
natural, biodegradable and relatively non-toxic. For
all those reasons, the Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) gives d-limonene and citrus oil a ‘generally
recognized as safe’ (GRAS) classification. Given the
versatility and composition of citrus oils, they can
be adapted to the cosmetic industry. Among different
types of citrus oils and aromas collected during the
juice processing, only cold pressed oil, folded oil and
food grade d-limonene are currently used in the cos-
metic industry (Boelens, 1991). D-limonene is found
in all citrus fruit peel oils, and is used in a wide range
of cleaning applications (Dellutri, 1986). Oxidized
citrus oil (R-limonene), is a frequent skin sensitizer,
since d-limonene oxidizes on air exposure and during
handling and storage (autoxidation) and allergenic
oxidation products are formed (Matura et al., 2002;
Skold et al., 2002).
There is evidence that a compound isolated from
lemon (Citrus limonum (L.) Burm. f.) oil, which is
called Lem1, is endowed with a strong antioxidant
activity and that it is capable of inhibiting free radical-
mediated reactions, evaluated by both in vitro and in
vivo biochemical systems (Calabrese et al., 1999). Sweet
orange (Citrus sinensis [L.] Pers.) oil is composed largely
of terpene hydrocarbons which is a source of flavour
and fragrance compounds (Shen et al., 2002), it has more
than 90% limonene and although it is primarily used
in flavours, it does find a use in Eaux des Cologne and
soap fragrances. Grapefruit (Citrus paradisica Macfad.)
oil is chemically similar to orange oil but it has a
distinctive smell which is largely attributed to a ketone
called nootkaton. Grapefruit oil does not find very wide
use in perfumery (Barel et al., 2001).
Chamomile oil
It has been mentioned before that the ability of chamo-
mile to reduce inflammation is one of its most highly
prized features due to the presence of flavonoids. It is
safe for skin care, and it is also credited with a gentle
analgesic effect. Its effects as antiinflammatory, anti-
erythema and antipruritic, at the same time as being
gentle, soothing and antiseptic (Safahyi et al., 1994; Carle
and Gomaa, 1992; Wagner et al., 1986; Aggag and
Yousef, 1972), may help in whitening age spots, take
the soreness out of a boil, minor wound, burn, or an
insect bite, or used for dry skin, windburn, sunburn, or
even chronic skin conditions such as acne and psoriasis
(Carle and Gomaa, 1992).
Geranium oil
Pelargonium graveolens (L.) L Her. ex Ait (Gerania-
ceae), obtained through steam or water plus steam
distillation of shoot biomass, is extensively used in
the fragrance industry and in aromatherapy (Rao et al.,
2002). Geranium oil is acleansing, toning and sharpen-
ing oil and is so helpful with those problems that come
with greasy, over-oily skin, acne, congested skin and
eczema. Care should be taken since there is the possi-
bility of contact dermatitis in hypersensitive individuals.
It is a very important component of high grade per-
fumes due to its strong rose-like odour (Parameswaran
et al., 2000).
Lavender oil
Essential oils distilled from members of the genus
Lavandula have been used both cosmetically and
therapeutically for centuries. It is extensively employed
in all types of soaps, lotions and perfumes, with the
most commonly used species being Lavendula angusti-
folia, L. latifolia, L. stoechas and L. x intermedia. Among
the claims made for lavender oil are that it is antibac-
terial, antifungal and effective for burns and insect
bites (Cavanagh and Wilkinson, 2002; Boelens, 1995).
This oil in the herbal tradition is said to encourage
cell growth and so should be used to help with mending
and regeneration in all kinds of skin ailments: bites,
stings, boils, burns, stretch marks, rashes, spots, cold
sores, sunburns (Bruneton, 1999). Lavender oil inhibits
immediate-type allergic reaction in mice and rats.
Topical and intradermal lavender oil inhibited the
ear swelling response in mice and passive cutaneous
anaphylaxis in rats. Peritoneal mast cells were also
inhibited from releasing histamine or tumour necrosis
factor in vitro when lavender oil was applied (Kim and
Cho, 1999).
Tea tree oil or ti-tree oil
The name was given because early settlers in Australia
brewed its leaves to make a drink, and now the essen-
tial oil of Melaleuca alternifolia Cheel (Myrtaceae) is
distilled from these leaves. Tea tree oil is employed
in personal care products, cosmetics, hair preparations
and skin creams (Priest, 1999) and it has applications
in the treatment of many infections (Weseler et al., 2002;
Saller et al., 1998; Carson and Riley, 1995). Many studies
and clinical trials had confirmed the efficacy of tea tree
oil as a natural preservative for pharmaceutical and
personal care products, and as an antifungal (Weseler
et al., 2002; Hammer et al., 1998; Nenoff et al., 1996),
antiseptic (Budhiraja et al., 1999), antiviral and topical
antibacterial agent (Cox et al., 2000; Shapiro et al., 1996;
Carson and Riley, 1995; Carson et al., 1995; Carson and
Riley, 1994). Tea tree oil is useful in the treatment of
dandruff caused by the yeast Pityrosporum ovale as a
result of its antifungal properties (Satchell et al., 2002)
and it can control hypersensitivity responses in the form
of swellings, due to its antiinflammatory effect (Brand
et al., 2002). It is widely employed in skin care for the
treatment of sores, blisters, spots, rashes, warts (Carson
and Riley, 1995), burns (Faoagali et al., 1997) and acne
(Carson and Riley, 1994; Barnetson et al., 1990).
The allergic potential of low concentrations of tea
tree oil is presumed to be low on healthy skin (Fritz
et al., 2001). In rare cases, tea tree oil can cause an
PLANTS USED IN COSMETICS 997
Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Phytother. Res. 17, 987–1000 (2003)
allergic skin response in susceptible individuals; the
symptoms – reddening and itching of the skin at the
location where oil was applied – usually subside within
a few hours of washing off the oil. There is evidence
that tea tree oil is a mild to moderate irritant at
concentrations of 75% or above, and minimal or non-
irritant at 50% or below. Research has shown the need
to control oxidation to limit the para-cymene content
as this dramatically increases and causes the oil to be
more skin irritant.
Black cumin
The essential oil of Nigella sativa L. (Ranunculaceae)
seeds showed that thymoquinone, carvacrol, t-anethole
and 4-terpineol demonstrated radical-scavenging proper-
ties (Burits and Bucar, 2000). The seed various extracts
and oil have antibacterial, antifungal, (Morsi, 2000;
Khan, 1999; Toppozada et al., 1965), anticarcinogenic
(Hailat et al., 1995), analgesic and antiinflammatory
properties (Al-Ghamdi, 2001; Khan, 1999; Mutabagani
and El-Mahdy, 1997). The low toxicity of N. sativa fixed
oil, evidenced by high LD50 values, suggests a wide
margin of safety for therapeutic doses of N. sativa fixed
oil (Zaoui et al., 2002).
CONCLUSION
Natural ingredients are everywhere and are continually
gaining popularity, and the use of plant extracts in cos-
metic formulation is on the rise. A cosmetic formula-
tion including active principles of natural origin can
protect the skin against exogenous or endogenous harm-
ful agents, and help to remedy many skin conditions. In
addition, natural products can be used in hair care, and
as hair colorants or dyes. Aromatic plants and oils have
been used for thousands of years, as incense, perfumes,
cosmetics, and for their medicinal and culinary applica-
tions. Essential oils impart many benefits, such as a
pleasant aroma, especially in perfumes and to impart
shine or conditioning in a hair care product, and for
emolliency or improving the elasticity of the skin.
In the future, it is possible that many new plants,
extracts and oils of commercial significance will be iden-
tified, and many ethnobotanical uses and claims of many
widespread herbs will be proven, new isolation and
extraction techniques will be shown to give higher qual-
ity products. But this requires the multidisciplinary
cooperation of botanists, preparative chemists, analy-
tical chemists, toxicologists and biologists to assess cos-
metic, rather than just pharmaceutical, activity.
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