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SECTION I I 
DE LA FEDERATION EUROPEENNE DE L4 MANUTENTION 
Secretaire : Madame E. A. Codevelle 
39141, rue Louis Blanc, 92400 Courbevoie 
E3 92038 Paris-La Defense cedex, France 
tel. 33 (0)l 47 17 63 27 - telecopie 33 (0)t 47 17 63 30 
RULES FOR THE DESIGN 
OF MOBILE EQUIPMENT FOR 
CONTINUOUS HANDLING 
OF BULK MATERIALS 
DOCUMENT 2 131 1 2 132 
GENERAL SUMMARY 
chapter 1 Scope and field of application 
chapter 2 Classification and loading of structures 
and mechanisms 
chapter 3 Calculating the Stresses in structures 
chapter 4 Caiculation and choice of mechanisms 
components 
chapter 5 Safety requirements 
chapter 6 Tests and tolerantes 
edition 1997 
Copyright by FEM Section II -Also available in French and German 
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O FEM Section I1 
CHAPTER 1 
SCOPE AND FIELD OE APPLICATION 
CONTENTS 
Foreword and general contents 
Introduction 
Scope 0f the N ~ S 
Field of application 
List of maiii symbols and notations 
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O FEM Section I1 1-3 
1-1 FOREWORD AND GENERAL CONTENTS 
The rules for the design of mobile equipment for continuous handling of bulk materials developd hy tlie 
Technical Committee of FEM Section I1 have always been widely used in many countries throughout the 
world. 
It should be mentioned that, since its January 1978 edition, the document FEM 2 131 - 0111978 has been 
adopted as an ISO international standard under the reference ISO 504911. It shall be proposed for this ISO 
standard a revision to include the corresponding chapters of the present FEM edition. 
The revision done in 1997 does not bring fundamental changes to the 1992 edition. The important 
modifications deal with the following points : 
- fatigue calculation of mechanisms, 
- friction resistances to define drive mecbanisms and braking devices, 
- tables describing cases of notch effect for welded stmcture. 
In order to keep the histoiy of the evolution of these rules which apply to the machines defiiied below in 
the clause "Scope", it has been indicated below what are the adaed values of the 1992 editioii to the 
docurnents : 
a) FEM 2 131, edition January 1978 "Rules for the design of mobile continuous bulk handling 
equipment - chapter I Structures", 
b) FEM 2 132, edition June 1977 "Rules for the design of mobile continuous bulk handling 
equipment - chapter I1 Mechanisms". 
FEM Section I1 had decided to issue the 1992 edition of these design rules with a threefold objective : 
1) to make the periodical revision of the above rules to update them, 
2) to add chapters in pariicular on safety, tests and tolerances, 
3) to h m o n i z e them, as far as possible, with the third edition of the design iules issued by 
FEM Section I in 1988 f o ~ the design of lifting appliances. 
The following comments can be made on the three objectives which are at the origin of the 1992 edition : 
1) Revision of the rules FEM 2 131 - FEM 2 132 
The 1992 periodical revision did not involve fundamental changes, but was aii updating which 
essentially took into account the changes brought in othor standads with regard for exatnple to units, 
welding symbols, etc. 
2) Additions to the urevious edition 
The 1992 edition had been completed with two chapters covering : 
- safety requirements (chapter 5) 
- tests and tolerances (chapter 6) 
It was planned to add an "Electrical" chapter iii a next edition. 
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1-4 O FEM Section 11 
3) Harmonization with the 3rd edition of FEM Section I desisn rules for liftine apnliances 
Design depanments which have to design both handling equipment (FEM Section I1 r u h ) and lifting 
equipment (FEM Section I rules) have sometimes met difficulties due to a cenain lack of consisteiicy 
between the corresponding rules. 
While it should be pointed out that continuous handling equipment and lifting appliances are different 
with regard to the definition of loads and their combinations, it should be noted. on the other hand, that 
the method OS classification of the machines, of their mechanisms or components, and tlie calculaiioii 
of cenain elements, should be similar if not identical. 
The 1992 edition therefore tries to be in harmony with FEM Section I design rules lo the greatest 
possible extent. Sorne differences however remain : it may be possible to reduce them later when tlie 
results of many srudies currently in Progress (calculation for fatigue, definition of rail wheels. 
calculation o i wind effects, ... ) are known. 
4) Maior chanees in the documents FEM 2 131 and 2 132 editions of 1978 and I977 rcsnectivelq: 
It should be stressed that the 1992 version of the design rules for continuous bulk handhng equipment 
does not include any major changes in its coiitent compared 10 tlie previous edition which consisted of 
documents FEM 2 131 and 2 132. 
In particular, the definition of the loads applying on machines and the combination of loads Iiave beeil 
maintained for the most pan. 
The principal changes can be summarized as follows : 
- Classification of the machines. their mechanisms and components 
Groups have been created to facilitate dialogue between User and manufacturer. As far as the whole 
machine is concemed, these groups called A2 to A8 are directly based on the total desired duration 
of utilization. 
Mechanisms can be classified in eiglit groups called M1 to M8, each group being hased on a 
spectrum class on one hand and a class of utilization (i.e. on a total duratioti of utilization) on the 
other hand. 
Structural or mechanism components can be classified in eight groups named EI to E8, each of 
them being based, in the same way as mechanisms, on a class of load spectrum and a class of 
utilization. 
Loads to be taken into account in the calculation of structures 
Clarifications have been made regarding the definition of these loads, in pmicular on the subject of 
wind loads. A load case has been added for special situations which may occur for machincs during 
erection. 
Calculatinp the Stresses in structural comnonents 
A method for selecting the steel grade in relation to brittled fracture has been added : the choice is to 
be made between four quality groups which are distinguished by the impact strength of the 
corresponding steels. 
The cbapter on bolted joints has been reworked and completed. 
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O FEM Section I1 1-5 
The curves giving the permissible fatigue Stresses for structural components have beeil maintained 
and given in relation to the component classification group. 
Checkine and choice of mechanism components 
Wire ropes are chosen on the basis of a practical safety factor which depends on the mechanism 
classification group. The rope breaking strength takes into account the rope fill factor and spinning 
loss factor. 
Regarding the choice of rail wheels, the factor C2 is given in relation to the class of utilization of 
the mechanism and not the classification group, in order to keep the method used so far which is 
fully satisfactory. 
To conclude the Summary of the major changes introduced in 1992 to the previous edition (documents 
FEM 2 131 and 2 132), it is worthwhile noting thai the changes made dunng rhe elaboration of the 
standard ISO 504911 published in 1994 (which reproduced the FEM ~ l e s 2 131), have of Course been 
incorporated in the 1992 edition. 
1-2 INTRODUCTION 
To facilitate the use of these rules by the purchasers, manufacturers and safety organizations concemed, it is 
necessary to give some explanation in regard to the two following questions : 
- How should these rules be applied in practice to the different types of appliance whose construction they 
Cover ? 
- How should a purchaser usetbese rules to define liis requirements in relation to an appliance which he 
desires to order and what conditions should he specify in his enquiry to ensure that the manufacturers can 
submit a proposal in accordance with his requirements ? 
1) First of all, it is necessary to recognize the great variety of appliances which are covered by the design 
niles. It is obvious that a buckct-wheel reclaimer used for very high duty in a stockyard is not designed 
in the samemanner as a small stacker for infrequent duty. For the latter, it may not be necessary to 
make all the verifications which would appear to be requued from reading through the rules, because 
one would clearly finish with a volume of calculations which would be totally out of proportion to the 
objective in view. 
The manufacturer must therefore decide in eacb panicular case which p m s of the new machine, should 
be analysed and which pans can be accepted without calculation. This is not because the latter would 
contravene the requirements of the rules but because, on the contrary, due to experience, the designer is 
certain in advance, that the calculations for the latter would only confinn a favourable outcome. This 
may be because a standard component is being used which has been verified oiice and for all or because 
it has been established that some of the verifications imposed by the mles cannot, iri certain cases. 
bave an unfavourablc result and therefore serve no puipose. 
With the fatigue calculations, for example, it is very easy to see that cenain verifications are 
unnecessary for appliances of light or moderate duty because they always lead to the conclusion that 
the most unfavourable cases are those resulting from checking safety in relation to the elastic limit or 
to the breaking Stress. 
These considerations show that calculations, made in accordance with the rules, can take a veiy 
different form according to the type of appliance which is being considered, and may, in the case of 
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1-6 O FEM Section I1 
a simple machine or a machine embodying smdard components, be in the form of a brief Summary 
without prejudicing the compliance of the machine with the pnnciples set out by tbe design rules. 
2) As far as the second question is concemed. some explanation is first desirable for the purchaser, who 
may be somewhat bewildered by the extent of the document and confused when faced with the variety 
of choice which it presents, a variety which is, however, necessary if one wishes to take account of tlie 
great diversity of problems to be resolved. 
In fact, the only important matter for the purchaser is to define the duty which is to be expected from 
the appliance and if possible to give some indication of the duty of the various individual motions. 
As regards the service to be performed by the appliance, only one factor must be specified, i.e. the 
class of utilization, as defined in 2-1.2.2. This gives the group in which the appliance must be ranged. 
In order to obtain the number of hours which determines the class of utilization, the purciiaser may, for 
instance. find the product of : 
- the average number of hours which tlie appliance will be used each day, 
- the average number of days of use per year, 
- the number of years after which the appliance may be considered as baving to be replaced. 
In the case of mechanisms, the following should also be specified : 
- the class of utilization, as defined in 2-1.3.2, 
- the load spectrum, as defined in 2-1.3.3. 
On tlie hasis of the class of utilization of the appliance as a whole, it is possible to determine a total 
number of working hours for eacli mechanism according to the average duration of a working cycle and 
the ratio between the operating time of the mechanism and the duration of the cotnplete cycle. An 
example of classification of an appliance, its mechanisms and elements is given in 2-1.5. 
As a generai rule, the purchaser need not supply any other information in connection with the design 
of the appliance, except in certain cases : e.g. the value of the out-of-service wind, where local 
conditions are considered to necessitate design for an out-of-service wind greater than that defined in 
2-2.3.6. 
1-3 SCOPE OF THE RULES 
Tbe purpose of these rules is to determine the loads and combinations of loads which must be taken into 
account when designing handling appliances, and also to establish the strength and stability conditions to 
be observed for the vaious load combinations. 
1-4 FIELD OF APPLICATION 
These rules are applicable to mobile equipment for continuous handling of bulk materials, especially to 
rail-mounted : 
- stackers 
- shiploaders 
- reclaimers 1 
- combined stackers and reclaimers / equipment fitted with bucket -wheels or hucket chains 
- continuous ship unloaders 1 
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O FEM Section I1 
For other equipment, such as : 
- excavators, 
- scrapers, 
- reclaimers with scraper chains, 
- tyre or crawler-mounted stackers andior reclaimers, 
the clauses in these design ~ l e s appropnate to each type of apparatus are applicable. 
Ir should be noted thar when a mobile machine includes one or several belt conveyors as conveying 
elements, the clauses of these design rules, insofar as they apply to the macliine in question, are applicable. 
The selection of the conveyors should be made in accordance with the standard ISO 5048 : "Continuous 
meclianical handling equipment - Belt conveyors with cmying idlers - Calculation of operating power aod 
tensile forces". 
On rhe other hand, belt conveyors whicli are not part of a mobile machine are excluded frorn tlie scope of 
these d e s i ~ n mles. 
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1-8 
1-5 LIST OF MAIN SYMBOLS AND NOTATIONS 
O FEM Section I1 
Symbol 
A 
A2 to A8 
Ae 
B 
BOtoB10 
b 
b 
C 
Cf 
C l , Clmax 
C2. C2max 
C , C' 
D 
D 
Dt 
d 
d2 
dt 
E 
E I to E8 
F 
F 0 
f 
Dimen- 
sion 
m2 
m2 
m 
m 
mm 
mm 
mm 
mm 
mm 
mm 
NImni2 
N 
N 
Designation - First mention chapter (...I 
Front area exposed to wind (2-2.2.1) 
Handling machine groups (2- 1.2) 
Enveloped area of lattice (2-2.2.1) 
Belt width of the conveyor (2-2.1.2) 
Classes of utilization of structural members (2-1.4.2) 
Width of the flow of material on the helt (2-2.1.2) 
Useful width of rail in wheel calculation (4-2.4.1) 
Coefficient used to calcuiate the tightening torque of holts (3-2.3) ; 
selection coefiicient for choice of running steel wire ropes (4-2.2.1) 
Shape coefficient in wind load calculation (2-2.2.1) 
Rotation speed coefficients for wheel calculation (4-2.4.1) 
Utilization class coefficient for wheel calculation (4-2.4.1) 
Factors characterising the slope of Wöhler curves (4-1.3.5) 
Symbol used in plate inspection for laniination defects (3-2.2.1) 
Rope winding diameter (4-2.3.1) ; wlieel diameter (4-2.4.1) 
Diameter of bolt holes (3-2.3) 
Nominal diaineter of rope (4-2.2.1) 
Bolt diameter at thread root (3-2.3) 
Nominal holt diameter (3-2.3) 
Elastic modulus (3-2.1.1) 
Groups of components (2-1.4) 
Wind force (2-2.2.1) ; compressive force on meinber in crippling 
calculation (3-3) 
Minimum breaking load of rope (4-2.2.1) 
Fill factor of rope (4-2.2.1) 
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O FEM Section I1 1-9 
Symbol 
S 
H 
Hy 
j 
K - K' . K" 
K' 
KO to K4 
2. 
KL 
k 
kd 
km 
ks 
ksp 
ku 
kuc 
L1 toL4 
1 
lk 
M 
M1 to M8 
Ma 
M s 
Mk 
m 
Dimen- 
sion 
m/s2 
N 
Nimm2 
mm 
mm 
Nm 
Nm 
Nm 
Nm 
Designation - First mention chapter (...) 
Acceleration due to gravity, according to ISO 9.80665 m/s? 
Coefficient depending on group for choice of rope dmnis and pulleys 
(4-2.3.1) 
Horizontalforce perpendiculat to rail axis (2-2.2.6) 
Group number in component groups EI to E8 (4-1.3.6) 
Safety coefficients for calculation of bolted joints (3-2.3) 
Empirical coefficient for detemining minimum breaking strengt11 of 
rope (4-2.2.1) 
Stress concentration classes for welded parts (3-4.5. I) 
Pressure of wheel on rail (4-2.4.2) 
Spinning loss coefficient for ropes (4-2.2.1) 
Size coefficient in fatigue veritication of mechanism parts (4-1.3.3) 
Spectmm factor for mechanisms 12-1.3.3) 
Shape coefficient in fatigue verification of mechanisni pans 
(4-1.3.3) 
Specmm factor for cornponents (2- I .4.3) 
Surface finish (machining) coefficient in fatigue verification of 
mechanism parts (4-1.3.3) 
Corrosion coefficient in fatigue verification of mecliaiiism paits 
(4-1.3.3) 
Spectrum classes for mechanisms (2-1.3.3) 
Overall width or rail head (4-2.4.1) 
Length of parts tightened in bolted joints (3-2.3) 
External moment in bolted joints (3-2.3.4.4) 
Mechanism groups (2- 1.3) 
Torque required to tighten bolts (3-2.3) 
Stabilizing moment for the machine (3-6.1) 
Overturning monient (3-6.1) 
Number of friction surfaces in boited joints (3-2.3.4.2) 
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1-10 O FEM Section I1 
Symbol 
N 
N 
Na 
n 
P 
P1 to P4 
PIO, PI00 
Pmean 1,11,III 
Pmin I, 11, 111 
Pmax I, 11, I11 
Pa 
PL 
4 
4 
R0 
r 
S 
S 
SG 
smean 
Smin 
smax I, 11,111 
s b 
s 
T 
Dimen- 
sion 
N 
kN 
N 
N 
N 
N 
mm 
Nimm2 
NImm2 
NImm2 
mm 
N 
m2 
N 
N 
N 
mm2 
m 
h 
Designation - First mention chapter (...) 
Number of stress cycles (2-1.4.2) 
Extemal force perpendicular to joint plane in holted joints 
(3-2.3.4.3) 
Pennissible additional tensile force for bolt (3-2.3.4.5) 
Number of stress cycles (4- 1.3.5) 
Load on wheel (4-2.4.2) 
Spectrum classes for components (2- 1.4.3) 
Symbols indicating welding tests (3-2.2.1) 
Mean load on wheel in loading cases I, I1 and 111 (4-2.4.1) 
Minimum load on wheel in loading cases I, 11 and 111 (4-2.4.1) 
Maximum load on wheel in loading cases I, I1 and 111 (4-2.4.1) 
Pitch of tliread (3-2.3) 
Limiting pressure in wheel calculation (4-2.4.1) 
Correction factor shape coefficient kS (4-1.3.1) 
Aerodynamic pressure of the wind (2-2.2.1) 
Minimum ultimate tensile strength of the wire of a rope (4-2.2.1) 
Radius of rope groove (4-2.3.2) ; radius of rail head (4-2.4.1) ; 
blending radius (4-1.3.1) 
Maximum tensile force in rope (4-2.2.1) 
Area of material on the conveyor belt (2-2.1.2) 
Center of gravity of dead loads (3-6.1) 
Mean load in beaing calculation (4-2.1.2) 
Minimum load in bearing calculation (4-2.1.2) 
Maximum load in load cases 1,11 or 111 (4-2.1.2) 
Root sectional area of holt (3-2.3.3) 
Span of handling appliance (6-2.2) 
Total duration of nse of handling appliance and its n~echanisms 
(2- 1.2.2) - (2- 1.3.2) 
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1-12 O FEM Sectioii I1 
> 
Designation - First mention chapter (...) 
Friction coefficient in calculaiion of loads due to niotion (2-2.2.5) ; 
coefficient of friction in threads (3-2.3) 
Safety coefficient for calculation of stnictural rneinbers depending on 
case of loading (3-2.1.1) 
Safety coefficient for calculation of mecllanism parts depending on 
case of loading (4-1.1.2) 
Safety coefficient for verification of stability (3-6. I) 
Air density 
Calculated Stress in structures in general 
Apparent elastic limit (3-2.1.1) 
Ultimate tensile strength (3-2.1.1) 
n i e Euler stress (3-3.3) 
Permissible tensile stress for structural nlembers (3-2.1.1) 
Maximum permissible stress in welds (3-2.2.2) 
Compression stress in wheel and rail (4-2.4.2) 
Equivalent stress used in calculating structural members (3-2.1.3) 
Shear suess in general 
Permissible shear suess when calculating structural niembers 
(3-2.1.2) 
Maximum permissible shear stress in welds (3-2.2.2) 
Coefficient of eiongation for calculation of bolts (3-2.3.4.5) 
Slope of Wöhler curve (4-1.3.5) 
Ratio of Stresses at plate edges in buckling calculation (3-3.3) 
Crippling coefficieiit (3-3.1 . I ) 
Symbol 
W 
'JE 
VR 
VK 
P 
U 
"E 
OR 
E 
"R 
Ga 
Oaw 
"CE 
"CP 
T 
Ta 
Taw 
0 
9, 9' 
V 
W 
Dimen- 
sion 
keim' 
Nimm2 
Nimm2 
Nimm2 
Nimm2 
Nimm2 
Nimm2 
Nimm2 
Nimm2 
Nimm2 
Nimm2 
Nimm2 
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0 FEM Section 11 
CHAPTER 2 
CLASSIFICATION AND LOADING OF STRUCTURES AND MECHANISMS 
CONTENTS 
GROUP CLASSIFICATION OF MOBILE EQUIPMENT 
AND THEIR COMPONENTS 
- General plan olclassification 
- Classification of the coinplete handling niachine 
Classification system 
Classes of utilization = groups 
. Load specti-um 
- Classification of complete individual mechanisms 
. Classification systein 
. Classes of utilization 
Loading specirum factor 
Group classification of complete individuai mechanisms 
Guidance for group classification of complete individual meclianisnis 
- Classification of components 
Classification system 
Classes of utilization for coniponents 
, Stress spectrum 
Group classification of components 
- Hamioiiization of classification for the complete machiiie, complete 
mechanisms and components (suucture and niechanisins) 
Compiete machine 
Complete inechanisms 
Coinponents 
- Structural component groups 
- Mectianical component groups 
. An example of the classiiication of a machine aiid its componcnts 
LOADS ENTERING INTO THE DESIGN OE STRUCTURES 
- Main loads 
. Dead loads 
Material loads 
- Material load carried on the conveyors 
- Loads in the reclaiming devices 
- Material in the hoppers 
Incrustation 
Normal tangential and lateral diggiiig forces 
Forces on the conveyor(s) 
Permanent dynaniic effects 
Loads due to inclination of tlie working levei 
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- Additional loads 
Wind action 
- Aerodynamic wind pressure 
- in service wind 
- Wind load calcuiations 
- Shape and shieiding coefficients 
Snow and ice loads 
Temperature 
, Abnormal tangential and lateral digging forces 
Bearing friction and rolling resistances 
Reacrioii perpendiculai- to the rail duc io travelling of the appliance 
Non-permanent dynarnic effects 
- Special loads 
Clogging of chutes 
Resting of the reclaiming device or the boom 
Failure of load limiting devices as in paragrapli 2-2.1.2.1 
Blocking of travelling devices 
Lateral collision with the slope in case of bucket-wheel machines 
Wind load oii rnachines out of service 
Buffer effects 
. Loads due ro eanhquakes 
Loads during erection (or disniantling) of the macliine 
LOAD CASES FOR STRUCTURAL DESIGN 
- Table of load cases T.2-3.1 
LOADS ENTERING INTO THE DESIGN OF MECHANISMS 
- General information 
- Loads definition 
- Friction resistances 
LOAD CASES FOR THE DESIGN OF MECHANISMS 
- Tables of load cases T.2-5.1 (4 tables) 
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O FEM Section I1 2-3 
2-1 GROUP CLASSIFICATION OF MOBILE EQUIPMENT AND THEIR 
COMPONENTS 
2 - 1 .1 GENERAL PLAN OF CLASSIFICATION 
When designing a mobile appliance and its components for the continuous handling o i bulk materials. tiie 
service whicli they are to provide and their utilization should be taken into coiisideraiion. To thai end. a 
group classification is employed for : 
- tlie complete handling machine, 
- the complete individual mechanisms, 
- tlie components of stmcture and niechanisins 
This classification has been established of tlie base of two criteria : 
- tlie duration of use, 
- the load or stress svectrum 
2 - 1 . 2 CLASSIFICATION OF THE COMPLETE HANDLING MACHINE 
2 - 1 . 2 . 1 CLASSIFICATIONSYSTEM 
Complete handling machines are classified in seveii froups respectively designated by the syinhols 
A2, A3, ... A8 as defined in the table T.2-1.2.2 on the basis of seven classes of utilization. 
Imnortant note : The load spectrum which cliaracterizes all the Loads handled by the machine during 
its lifetime is not taken into account for tlie classificalion of tlie coniplete niacliine (see 2.1.2.3). 
2 -1 .2 .2 CLASSES OF UTILIZATION = GROUPS 
The utilization class of a machine depends on its total duratioii of use 
Tbe total duration o i use of a machine is defined as the nuinber of hours during wliicli the machine 
is actualiy in operation during its lifetime. 
The total duration of use is a calculated duration of use, coiisidered as a guide value, coiiiinencing 
when the appliance is put into service and ending when it is finally taken out of service. 
This duration, rneasured by a iiumber of hours of use T, depends on the desired service time in 
years, the average actual number of service days per year and tlie average actual number of service 
Iiours per day. 
On the base of tlie total duration of use, we have seven groups of liandling macliines, designed hy 
the syinbols A2, A3, ... A8. 
Tliey are defined in table T.2- 1.2.2. 
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2-4 O FEM Scctioii I1 
Complete inechaiiical handling machines are niost coniiiionly classified in groups A4 to A8. 
Table T.2-I .2.2 
GROUPS FOR HANDLING MACHINES 
2 - 1 . 2 . 3 LOAD SPECTRUM 
Total duration of usc T 
(h) 
T 5 1 600 
I 600 < T 5 3 200 
3 200 C T < 6 300 
6 300 C T - C 12 500 
12 500 C T - C 2.5 000 
25 000 C T - C 50 000 
50 000 < T 
Handling machines i i i operation are usually loaded close to tlie rated capacities whicli Iiave been 
taken into account in their diniensioning. 
GROUP Syiiibol 
A2 
A3 
A 4 
A 5 
A 6 
A 7 
A 8 
Additionally, the dead weight of the macliincs is usually iniportant conipared to tlie Iimdied loads. 
Thus, a handling machine will nomially be loaded close to thc maxiniuiii design \ d u e tliroughout 
its life. 
Tlie load spcclrum is therefore not taken into account for tlie classificatioii of coiiiplete handling 
machines. 
2 - 1 . 3 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPLETE INDIVIDUAL MECHANISMS 
2 - 1 . 3 . 1 CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM 
Individual complete mechanisms are classified in eight groups, designated respectively by tlie 
symbols M I , M2, ..., M8, on the hasis of ten classes of utilization (T0 to T9) and fourclasses 
of loading spectrum (L1 to L4). See 2-1.3.4. 
2 - 1 . 3 . 2 CLASS OF UTILIZATION 
Tlie class of utilization of a mechanism depends on its total duration of use. Tiiis is defined as tlie 
time during which the mechanism is actually in inotion during tlie life time of the rnacliine. 
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C FEM Sectioii I1 2-5 
The total duration of use of a mechanisni is a calculated duration considered as a guide \,alue and 
takes into account the fact that the mechanisni may be designed tobe replaced a nuinber o l tiines in 
the total life of the niachine. 
The total duration of use of a mechanism is expressed in terms of hours, T. cälculated on ihe basis 
of the average nuinber of service hourslday, the number of actual service daysiyeai aiid tlie required 
duration in tems of years before replacement. 
011 this basis, we liave teil classes of utilization. T0, T l , T2, . . , TY, rhe inost coninion classes 
being T3 to TY. Tliey are deiined in table T.2-1.3.2. 
Table T.2-I .3.2 
CLASSES OF UTILIZATION 
2- 1 .3 .3 LOADING SPECTRUM IIACTOH 
Utilization class 
symbol 
T0 
T1 
T2 
T 3 
T4 
T 5 
T 6 
T 7 
T 8 
T 9 
L 
The loading spectrum factor characterizes the magnitude of the loads acting on a inechaiiisni during 
its total duration of use. There is a distribution function, expressing tlie fractioii of the total 
duration of use (see table T.2-1.3.2) for which tlie inechanisni is subjccied to a load attaining a 
fractioii of the maximum rated load. 
Toräl duration of use T 
(11) 
T < 200 
200 < T S 400 
400 C T < 800 
8 0 0 C T - C 1 600 
1 600 < T - C 3 200 
3 200 < T - C 6 300 
6 300 < T - i J2 500 
12 500 < T - C 25 000 
25 000 < T - i 50 000 
50 000 < T 
An example of a loading spectruni is given in iigures 2-1.3.3.1 a and b. 
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Figure 2-1.3.3.1 a. Figure 2-1.3.3.1 b. 
S i = loading 
= maximum admissible load 
ti = duration for which the loading is at least equal to Si 
T = total duration of use 
Each spectrum is assigned a spectrum factor km, defined by : 
For the purposes of gtoup classification, exponent d is taken by convention as equal to 3. 
In many applications the function S(t) may be approximated by a function consisting of a certain 
number of steps r (see fig. 2-1.3.3.21, of respective durations t l , t2, ..., tr, for which the loadings 
may be considered as practically constant and equal to Si during the duration ti. If T represents the 
total duration of use and Smax the greatest of rhe loadings S I , S2, ..., S„ there exists a relation : 
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O FEM Section I1 2-7 
and in approximated form : 
3 3 
h m = ( ~ ) l . ~ + ( ~ ) i + , , , + ( ~ ) "lax Sm L .L= T 2 i = , (5) ,L 
mnx T 
- .5 t 
5 -. 
I,@ 
Q6 
o i 
02 
0 
I , I < I : , I I I , > > . ------ & ------ - T . 
/ I 1 
t r t z t a t r - 
T T T T 
Eig. 2-1.3.3.2 
Depending on its loading spectrum, a mechanism is placed in one of the four spectrum classes L I , 
L2, L3, L4, dehed in table T.2-1.3.3, the most common classes generally being L3 and L4 for 
the main mechanisms. 
Table T.2-1.3.3 
SPECTRUM CLASSES 
2- 1 .3 .4 GROUP CLASSIFICATION OF COMPLETE INDIVIDUAL 
MECHANISMS 
Spectrum class 
symbol 
L1 
L2 
L 3 
L 4 
Depending on their class of utilization and spectrum class, complete individual meclianisms are 
classified in one of the eight groups MI, M2, ..., M8, dehed in table T.2-1.3.4. The groups 
generally chosen for the main mechanisms are M4 to M8, a result of the commonly selected 
classes of utilization and spechum factors. 
Specmm factor km 
km 5 0.125 
0.125 < km < 0.250 
0.250 < k , 5 0 .500 
0 . 5 0 0 < km < 1 .000 
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Table T.2- 1.3.4 
MECHANISM GROUPS 
2- 1 .3 .5 GUIDANCE FOR GROUP CLASSIFlCATION OF COMPLETE 
INDIVIDUAL MECHANISMS 
Class of load 
specvuni 
L1 
L2 
L 3 
L 4 
Since appliances of tlie saine type niay be used in a wide variety of ways, accordiiig to tlie nietliod 
of working foi. instance, i i is not really possible to pre-determine ilie group of a i~iecliuiiisiii 
exactly. 
The classification possibilities are panicularly wide for niechanisnis wliicli caii bc eitlier working 
rnechanisins or only positioning mechanisms. 
Class of utilizatioii 
Further discussion relating to the Iiarmonization of classcs and groups is givcn i n cliapter 2-1.5, 
along with a typical example of classification of a niacliine and its components. 
T0 
M1 
M1 
M1 
M2 
2 - 1 . 4 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPONENTS 
2- 1 . 4 . 1 CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM 
Coniponents, both siructurai and inechanical, are classified i n eight groups, desigiied irspecii\,ely 
by the symbols EI, E2, ..., E8, on the basis of eleven classes of utilizatioii B0 to ß I0 and 
Cour classes of stress spectruin P1 to P4. 
TI 
MI 
M1 
M2 
M3 
2- 1 . 4 . 2 CLASSES OF UTILIZATION FOR COMPONENTS 
T 3 
M? 
M3 
M 4 
M 5 
T2 
MI 
M2 
M3 
M4 
The class of utilization of a cotnponent depends on its total duration of usc, wliicli is defined as tlie 
number of stress cycles 10 which the component is subjected during the lifetime of tlie iiiacliine. 
A stress cycle is a complete sei ofsuccessive Stresses, commencing at the moment wlicii the stress 
underconsideration exceeds the stress om defined in fig. 2-1.4.3 and ending at the nioineiit when 
this stress is, for the first tiine, about to exceed again 0, in the saine dircctioii. Fig. 2- 1.4.3 
therefore represenu tlie fluctuations of tlie stress o over a duration of use equal to five stress 
cycles. 
T 4 
M3 
M4 
M 5 
M 6 
The total duration of use of a component is a calculated duration, considered as a guide value a?d 
taking into account thc fact tliat the coinponent may be designed to be replaced a nun~ber OE tiiiies 
in the total life of the machine. 
T 5 
M4 
M5 
M 6 
M 7 
T 6 
M5 
M6 
M 7 
M 8 
T 7 
M6 
M7 
M 8 
M 8 
T 8 
M7 
M8 
M 8 
M 8 
T 9 
M8 
M8 
M 8 
M 8 
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O FEM Sectioii I1 2-9 
In tlie case of structural components the number of Stress cycles is proportioiial to thc nuiiiher of 
typical Iiandiing sequences. Certain components inay be subjected to se\,eral stress cycles duriiip a 
typical sequence depending on their position in tlie structure. Hense tlie ratio in question nia? difCer 
iroiii one component io another. Once tliis ratio is known. tlie total duration of use for the 
component is derived from the total duration of use determined by tlie dass of utilization of tiic 
appliance. 
For mechanical components, the total duration of usc is derived froni tlie total duratioii of usc of the 
mechanism to which that pmicular component belongs taking into account its speed of rotation 
andlor otiier circumstances affecting its operation. 
Based on this total duration of usc. we liave eleven classes of utilization, desipiiated respccti\,ely hy 
the symbols RO, BI. ..., BIO. They are defined iii tahle T.?-1.4.2. Tlie inost usual classes arc B5 
to B10 for the main components. 
Table T.?-I .4.2 
CLASSES OF IJTILIZATION 
Uiilization class 
symbol Total duration a i use iiieasured by numhcr N of stress cycics 
B 9 
B I O 
2- 1 . 4 . 3 STRESS SPECTRUM 
The stress spectmm characterizes the magnitude of the loads acting on tlie conipoiient duritig its 
total duration of use. There is a distribution fuiiction, expressing tlie fraction of the total duration of 
use (see 2-l.4.2), during which the component is subjected to a stress attainirig at least a iiactioii of 
the inaximuni stress. 
Each stress spectrum is assigned a spectruin factor ksp defined by : 
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Wherein the exponent C is dependant on tlie propenies o i tlie material concerned. the sliape and size 
ofthe component, its surface roughness and its depree ofexposure to corrosion. 
- For strucuiral comnoncnts : unless otherwise specified, the valuc of C sliould norrnally he takcn 
as 3 for welded parts. Higher values for some configurations may be used i n soine 
circumstances, but these should be used with care. 
- For mechanical comnonents : tlie calculation of C values is given in cliaptcr 4-1.3.5 aiid 
Annex A.4- I .3. 
In many applications the function o(n) may be. approximated hy a function consisting of a cenain 
number r of steps, comprising respectively n ] , n2, ..., n, siress cycles ; the stress ff iiiay k 
considered as praciically constant and equal to ffi during iii cycles. 1 fN represeiits the total number 
of cycles and omax the greatest of the Stresses 0 1 , 02, ..., f f , , there exists a relation : 
we gei an approximated form : 
in which summation is tnincated for the first ni 2 2.106. Tliis ni is taken as 11,. and repiaced by 
nr = 2.10%ycles. 
Depending on its stress spectrum, a componcnt is placed in one of the spectruiii classes P I , P2, 
P3, P4, defined in table T.?-1.4.3, ihe iiiost usual classes being P3 arid P4 for niain coriiponents. 
Table T.2-I .4.3 
Spectruni class Spectrutn iactor ksp 
synibol 
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O FEM Section I1 2-11 
For structursl components, the stresses to be taken into consideration for determination of the 
spectrum factor are the differentes osup - G m between the upper stresses and the average 
stress crm, these concepts being defined by fi;. 2-1.4.3 representin; the variation of the stress 
over time during five stress cycles. 
Fig. 2-1.4.3 - Variation of stress as a function of time during five stress cycles 
osup = upper suess 
oup max = maximum upper stress 
owp min = "nimum upper stress 
oinf = lower stress 
Gm = arithmetic mean of all upper and lower stresses dunng the total duration of use 
- In the case of mechanical components, om can be assumed to be Zero and the suesses inücduced 
into the calculation of the spectrum factor are then the total stresses occumng in the relevant 
section of the component. 
Note : Stress changes with values less than 10 % of the maximum stress are not to be considered 
for the calculation of the spectrum factor for structural or mechanical components. 
These small stress changes, as proved by experience, have no noticeable effect on the working life. 
2 - 1.4 .4 GROUP CLASSIFICATION OF COMPONENTS 
On die basis of their class of utilization and their suess spectrum class, components are classified 
in one of the eight groups E l , E2, ..., E8, defined in table T.2-1.4.4. 
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Considering the most common classes of utiiization and stress spcciruiii classcs. thc groups 
generally used ior rnain cornponents are E5 to E8. 
Tabie T.2-1.4.4 
COMPONENT GROUPS 
2 - 1 .5 HARMONIZATION OF CLASSIFICATION FOR THE COMPLETE 
MACHINE, COMPLETE MECHANISMS AND COMPONENTS 
(STRUCTURE AND MECHANISMS) 
Stress 
spectrum 
class 
P1 
P2 
P 3 
P4 
2 - 1 .5 .1 COMPLETE MACHINE 
The classification of the various mechanisiiis or components (of structurc or iiiechanisriis) 01' a 
given handliiig rnachine is denved irom tlie expected TOTAL DURATION OF USE (expressed in 
hours) of the macliine during its IiSetime whicli defines its GROUP. 
Class oS utilization 
The total duration of use (expressed i n hours) of the coinplete iiiachitie is tlic product of the threc 
following estirnated factors : 
- averagc number of actual service hours per day, 
- average number of actual service days per year, 
- number oidesired service years. 
B0 
EI 
E1 
EI 
EI 
2 - 1 .5 .2 COMPLETE MECHANISMS 
B2 
EI 
EI 
E2 
E3 
B1 
EI 
E1 
Ei 
E2 
From the total duration of use o i the machine the duration of use o i eacli complctc inechanisin is 
deiennined. This duration obviously depends on the operating iiiodc o i tlie macliinc aiid of tlie 
mechanism involved, and coi~esponds to a class ~Sutilization (T0 to T9). The conihination o i this 
class of utilization with tlie load spectrum class (L1 to L4) defines the niechanisiii group (MI 
to M8). The most commonly used groups will nornially be M4 to M8 ior tnain iiieclianisiiis. 
2 - 1 .5 .3 COMPONENTS 
B3 
EI 
E2 
E3 
E4 
The groups for structural or mechanical cornponents are dctermined as follows : 
B4 
E2 
E3 
E4 
E5 
B 5 
E3 
E4 
E 5 
E 6 
B 6 
E4 
E5 
E 6 
E 7 
B 7 
E5 
E6 
E 7 
E 8 
B 8 
E6 
E7 
E 8 
E 8 
B 9 
E7 
E8 
E 8 
E 8 
B I O 
E8 
ER 
E 8 
E 8 
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O FEM Section I1 2-13 
2-1.5.3.1 STRUCTURAL COMPONENT GROUPS 
On the basis of the frequency o i operating cycles (and tlierefore of rcpetition cycles) aiid tlic total 
duration of use of the machine, it is possible to calculate tlie total iiuinber o i tlie stress repetiiion 
cycles expected in the lifetinie of tiie machine and therefore to classify tlic structural coiiiponeiit iii 
one of the classes o i utilizaiion (B0 10 B 10). This is used. along with the spectruiii class (PI 
to P4) to select rhe component group(EI to Es). 
2-1.5.3.2 MECHANICAL COMPONENT GROUPS 
Dependant on tlie class o i uiilization of a coiiiplete mechanisiii to wliich a particulür coiiiponent 
belongs, the total number of stress cycles to whicli this componcni will he suhjccted iii tlie 
duration oiuse of tlie ineclianism caii be deteniiiiied. 
1t is iiot possible to give a general method ior detenniniiig tlie nuiiiher of stress cycles F ior a 
incchanical component, as the nuinber of stress cycles greatly depends upon tlie type o i load 2nd tlie 
fuiiction of tlie coiiiponent in a given ineclianisin. 
This applies to mechanism elements whicli. for eacli operating cycle. underpo stress variations 
corresponding to a cenain inultiple of the operatiiig cycle, ior exaiiipie. cai~iage wlieel axlcs, 
slewing hearings for rotating parts of tlie unit. 
In this case the nuniber of cycles per hour is : 
where : 
S p = nuniber of working cycles per opcrating hour 
ka = the iactor by which the number of operating cycles is multiplied wlien tlie meclianisiii 
element is subjected to several stress cycles for each operating cycle. 
Ex-mple : carriage wheel axle of a reclaiming uni1 where one working cycle includes tlie iollowing - 
rnovenients : 
I - iorward inoveiiient o i tlie uni1 with wheel load 
2 - slewing the booni 
3 - forward moveiiient of the unit with altered wheel load 
4 - boom return. 
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2-14 C FEM Section 11 
In this case : ka = 2, for a fixed axlc as tlie stress ciianpes only when the booin is slewed 
This group contains all rotating mechanism parts whicli are stressed by rotatiiig-bendiiig and 
shearing Stresses. l t also applies ro the bending and Hertzian siresses on toothcd geai-s. 
In rhese cases : 
Fh = ka . nill . 60 
where : 
nm = number of revolutions per niinute 
For tlie Hertzian stress of toothed gears, whose flanks are used oii botli sides. C.:. undcr-cariiages oi- 
slewing iiieclianisrns, it shall be coiisidered : 
From the nurnber of stress cycles to whicli tlie tnechanical coniponeiit will be subjected, a class of 
utilization (B0 to B10) can be deterniined. This is used, along with the speciruni class (PI to P4), 
to seleci thc component group (EI to E8). 
In this manner, all components or sets of coniponeiits are classilied in CROUPS repi-esenting the 
anticipaied service to be provided by ihose components. 
2-1 .5 .4 AN EXAMPLE OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF A MACHINE AND 
ITS COMPONENTS 
The classiiication and values given in this chapter niust only be considered as aii example. 
Tlie assumptions relating to particular design requireiiieiits and operating inethods are specific to 
Chis example and will vary according to the detailed design of tlie iiiacliinc, site cotiditions, working 
method, etc. 
This example is based on a combined stackeribucket-wheei reclaimcr for tlie handling o i ore aiid 
coal. 
Stacking capacity : 
Reclaiming capacity : 
Ore handling : 
Coal handling : 
3000 1/11 of ore - 2000 tlh «f coal 
2000 Uh of'ore - 1000 tih of coal 
213 of total tonnagc 
113 o i total tonnage 
Desired duratioii of use : 50,000 Iiours, i.e. CROUP A7 for the inachine as a wliolc 
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O FEM Sectioii I1 2-15 
Fron1 these parameters i t can be calculated that the niacliine will be used in the followiiig way : 
- Ore stacking = 10,500 Ii approx. (31.5 Mt) 
- Coal stacking = 7,900 h approx. (15.8 Mt) 
- Ore reclaiminf = 15.800 Ii approx. (31.5 Mt) 
- Coal reclaiming = 15.800 h approx. (15.8 Mt) 
= 50.000 h 
EXAMPLE OF GROUP CLASSIFICATION OF MECHANISMS AS A WHOLE 
*(I) Assuming : 31,600 Ii for reclaiming operation 
+ 1,900 h during 10 C/o of stacking operati«n 
*(2) Assuiniiig : 7,900 h continuous travel during coal stacking to ensure preliminary 
blending 
1,100 h travel during 10 C/o of stackiiip operation (iron ore) 
3,200 h travel during 10 70 of reclaim operation (5-6 secondslminute 
for advance) 
TOTAL : 12,200 h 
rounded to 12,500 21. 
*(3) Spectrum factors must be calculated on rhe basis of tlie loads applied during tlie wliole or 
relevant parts of the four rnain Service phases, i.e. ore stacking, coal stackiiif, ore reclaiming, 
coal reclaiming. 
Class oS 
utilization 
T8 
T8 
T8 
T5 
T6 
Spectrum 
Sactor 
I<,,] * (3) 
i.e. 0.76 
i.e. 0.45 
i.e. 0.80 
i.e. 1 
i.e. I 
Mechanism 
Reclaiming 
unit 
Booin 
conveyor 
Slewing 
Lifiing 
Travelling 
Total duration 
of use 
(11) 
3 1,600 
50,000 
33,500 
*(I) 
5,000 
12.500 
* (2) 
Spectruiii 
dass 
L4 
L3 *(4) 
L4 
L4 
L4 
GROUP 
M8 
M8 
M8 
M7 
M8 
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2-16 O FEhl Sectioii 11 
For the reclaiming unit for instance, if the loads created by coal reclaiming ariiount to 80 C/c 
of the loads created by ore reclaiming (corresponding to a maximurn load) for equal servicc 
times for ore and coal, factor km will be 0.5 + 0.8' . 0.5 = 0.76 approx. 
It shouid be noted that the most common spectrum class for these appiiances is ciass L4. 
*(4) Assuming a reversible boom conveyor, thc different duration of utilizatioii in rclatioii to thc 
total duration of utilization of the machine will be as follows : 
Storage o i iron ore = 0.21 out of a total of 
storage of coal = 0.158 1 50,000 Iiours of 
reclaiming ofiron ore = 0.316 1 scheduled utilization 
reclaiming of coal = 0.316 j 
If we consider that the mechanisin will be loaded at the niaximum valiie of I for tiie storage 
of iron ore, the ioads on the mechanism for the three otlier operations are for instance : 
0.74 for storage ofcoal and reclaiming OE iron ore 
0.53 for rcclaiming coal at the capacity o i 1000 tlh 
we have tlierefore : 
kn, = 0.449 and spectruin class L3 
It must be noted that, for a booin conveyor with a variable inclinatioii i t would be possible, 
for eacli of the four kiiids of utilizatioii, to calculate an average load for the driving 
niechanism as ii is obvious tliat the maximuiii loadiiig wlien staking material is supported 
only when the elevation of the handled product is inaximurii, i.e. witii tiie boom i n the 
highest position. 
Nevertheless, the. iiiteresr of this study appears only if it is possible to g« froni a stress lactor 
spectrum to a sinaller one, which is not the case for the exarnple above. 
When cliosing some components of the inechanism sucli as the gear box reducer. 
cotisideration may be given to the fact that tlie boom convcyor is reversible, whicli nieans 
that the reducer will be used 18,400 hours driving in one dircction and 31,600 hours in the 
opposite direction. 
CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURAL AND MECHANICAL COMPONENTS 
For structural coinponents it is necessaiy to detemiine tlic nuinber OE stress cycles to wliicli a givcn 
component will be subjected during the 50,000 h use of tiie machiiie. 
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O FEM Section I1 2-17 
A stmctural component will therefore belong to a group (generally E5 to E8) depending esscntially 
on its position in the machine. 
As regards mechanical components, it is also necessary to determine the number of stress cycles to 
which each part will be subjecred during the use of the mechanism as a whole, e.g. thc sleu, drive 
pinion can be classified as follows : 
- given rotating speed 2 rpm, hence F = 112 . 2 . 60 = 6011i 
number of hours of utilization = 33,500 
hense expected stress cycles = 33,500. 60 = 2.01 . 10" 
class of utilization = B8 
spectrum class = P4 
(according to spectrum factor of approx. 0.8, siiiiilar to spectruiii factor OS slewitig iiiechaiiisiii) 
hense group classification EX. 
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2-18 G FEM Section I1 
2-2 LOADS ENTERING INTO THE DESIGN OF STRUCTURES 
Tliestructural calculations shall be undenaken to determine tlie Stresses developed i n an appliance duriiig 
its operation or when out of ser~rice witii maximuni wind conditions. These strcsscs shall he calculated oii 
tlie basis o i the loads defined below. 
Dependinf on their frequency, the loads are divided into three difierent load catcgories : iuain loads. 
additional loads and special loads. 
a) The main loads include all the pemianent loads which occur wlien tlie equipment is used under iioriiial 
operating conditions. 
They mainly are : 
- dcad ioads, 
- material loads, 
- incrustation, 
- iiorinal tangential and lateral digging forces, 
- iorces on tlie conveyor(s), 
- peniiatient dynamic effects, 
- inclination of the working level. 
h) n i e additional Ioads are loads [hat can occur intermittently durinp operation OS tlic equipiueiit oi- wlieti tlie 
equipment is not working ; these loads can either replace certain inain loads or he additional io tlie iiiain 
loads. 
They are. among othcr : 
- wind load for inachine in service, 1 
- snow and ice loads, 1 climatic efiects 
- temperature eifects, J 
- abnonnal tangential and lateral diggiiig forces, 
- bearing iriction and rolling resistances, 
- reactions pependicular to the rail due to uavelling (skewing efiect), 
- non pernianent dynaniic effects. 
c) The special loads comprise those loads which should not occur during and outside tlie operatioti o i the 
equipinent but the occurence of whicii is not to be excluded. 
They include : 
- clogging of chutes, 
- resting of the reclaiming device or the boom, 
- iailure oiload limiting devices (see 2-2.1.2. I), 
- hlocking of travelling devices, 
- lateral collision of the buckei-wheel with the slope, 
- wind load on niachines out of service, 
- huifer effects, 
- loads due to earthquakes, 
- loads during erection (or dismantling) of tlie machine. 
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O FEM Section I1 
2 - 2 . 1 MAIN LOADS 
2 - 2 . 1 . 1 DEAD LOADS 
Dead loads coiisist of all loads of constant niagnitude and position on the inacliine. wliicli aci 
pcmanently on the siructure or memher heing designed. 
N«le : It sliould be noted tliat stairs. platforms aiid gangways on whicii equipiiient caii he placed 
inust he calculated to bear 3 kN of "patch load" (on an assuminf area of 0.5 x 0.5 m). Access and 
garigways only used as passage ior people are calculated to bear 1.5 hNIiii, and tIie railinfs and 
guards to stand 0.3 kN of liorizontal load. 
When higher loads are to be supponed temporarily by platforiiis, the latter niust bc designed aiid 
sized accordingly. Platforms of large size niust be vcrified with a load o i at least I hNini2. 
Dead loads inciude tlie structure of stairs, gangways, ctc, but exclude loads «n stairs, gangways, etc. 
wliich are to bc considered as local loads for tlie dcsipn OS tlicse stairs. gangways, etc. but no lor 
the desipn of tlie structure as a wliole. 
2 - 2 . 1 . 2 MATERIAL LOADS 
Tlie material loads camied on con\,eyors aiid reclaiiiiing deviccs are to bc considered as follows : 
2-2.1.2.1 MATERIAL LOAD CARRIED ON THE CONVEYORS 
These loads a e detennined from the design capacity (iii~lli) and tiie iiiaxiniurn corresponding bulh 
density specified by the custoiner. 
I) Units with no hiiilt-in reclaimine device 
a) Wliere the belt load is limited by autoniatic devices, tlie load on tlie conveyor \r,ill be assuined to be 
that which results froiii the capacity thus iimilcd. 
b) Where there is no capacity limiter, the design capacity is tliat resulting froiii the iiiaxiinum 
equivalent cross sectional area of the material oii tlie conveyor multipiied by thc conveyiiig Speed. 
Uiiless otherwise specified in the contract, this cross sectional m a sliall be detemiined assuming a 
surcharge angle 8 = 20' and considering a surcliarge a e a according to 1SO 5048 "Continuous 
mechanical handling equipment - Belt conveyors witli canying idlers - Calculatioii of operating 
power and tensile forces". 
The diagrams 2-2.1.2.1 Iiereafier give the cross sectional a e a to be considered for dilTerent belt 
conveyor designs. 
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Fig. 2-2.1.2.1 - Belt convevor cross-sections 
a ) With one carryiny idier 
b) With two carryiny idiers 
i_ 13 J 
C ) With three carrying idiers 
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O FEM Section I1 2-21 
c) Where tlie design capacity resulting from b) on tlie upstream units is lower tlian tliat of 
downsiream units, the downstream units may have the sanie capacity as the upstream iinits. 
2) Units fitted with bucket-wheel or buckei chain as reclaimino device 
a) Where there is no capacity limiter, the design volumetric capacity shall be takeii as I .5 tiiiies tlie 
iiominal filling capacity of the buckeis niultiplied hy tlie maximuiii nunibcr of discliarges. 111 tlie 
case of bucket-wheels, the factor 1.5 (wliich takes into account tlie volumes wliicli ca i~ he filled i n 
additioii to the buckets), can be replaced by taking into account the actual fill value additioiial to ilie 
bucket volurne. 
b) Where there are automatic capacity limiters, the design capacity shall be ihe capacity tlius liiiiited. 
Where the uni1 is to be used to convey materials OE different bulk densities (1.01 exaiiiple coal anti 
ore) safcty devices shall be provided to ensure that thc calculated loads will 1101 be exceeded witli the 
heavier material. 
3) Dvnamic load factor 
To account for the dynainic loads with can be appiied to tlie conveyor iii transporting the material. 
the material loads defined above must he multiplied by tlie factor 1 .I 
2-2.1.2.2 LOADS IN THE RECLAIMING DEVICES 
To take into account the weight of the n~aterial to be conveyed i n ihe reclaiiiiing de\,ices i t can be 
assumed tliat, typically : 
a) for hucket-wheels : 
- 114 of all availahle buckets are full ai 100 %, 
b) for bucket-chains : 
- 113 of alt the buckets in contact with the Sace are 33.3 5% full, 
- 113 of all the buckets in contact with the Sace are 66.7 '% Sull, 
- all other buckets up to the sprocket are I00 '% full. 
2-2.1.2.3 MATERIAL IN THE HOPPERS 
The weight of the material iii hoppers is obtained hy rnultiplying thc bulk density of thc inatcriai 
by the volume (filled to the brim). 
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2-22 O FEM Sect~oii 11 
Wliere the weiglit of the niateriai is limited by reliablc aulornatic controls; deviation froiii the 
above-mentioned vaiue is pemissible. 
2 - 2 . 1 . 3 INCKUSTATION 
The d e g w of incrustation (din accumulaiion) depends on the specific iiiaterial aiid operating 
conditions prevailing in each given case. 
The data which follow are to be takeii as a guide. and are generally applicablc t« stockyards 
machines. 
For cxcavating equipmenr they ai'e to be taken as iiiinimuni values. 
Unless experience in particular cases or customer's requirenicnts specify otlierwise. tlic loads due to 
dirt accumulaiion that should be taken into account are : 
a) on the conveying dcvices 10 % ofthe material load calculated according to 2-2.1.2, 
b) for bucket-wlieels the equivalent weiglit of a 5 cni thick layer of inaierial o i iiiaxiniuiii specified 
bulk density on the centre of the bucket-wheel considered as a solid disc up to the curtiiig circle, 
c) for bucket-cliaiiis 10 W of the design material load calculated accordin~ to 2-2.1.2, uniforiiily 
distributed over the total lengtli ofthe ladder. 
2 - 2 . 1 . 4 NORMAL TANGENTIAL AND LATERAL DIGGING FORCES 
Tliese forces are to bc calculated as concencated loads, i.e. on bucket-whcels as acting at tlie most 
uniavourable point of tlie cutting circle, on bucket-cliains as actiiig at a point oiie-third «f tlie way 
along the part of tlie ladder in contactwith the face. 
a) Normal tangential digging force 
For excavators and, in general, for machines for which the digging efiort is largely uncertain, the 
normal digging forcc acting tangentially to the wheel cutting circle or in tlic direction of tiie 
bucket-chain is obtained from the nominal rating of the drive rnotor, the efficieiicy of tlie 
transniission gear, the circumferential speed of the cutting edge, and the power iiecessai-y to lift 
the material, and in the case of bucket-ladders from tlie power iiecessar)' to iiiove tlie loaded 
bucket-chain. 
To calculate the lifting power, thc figures indicated in 2-2.1.2.2 inust be used 
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O FEM Section I1 2-23 
For Storage yard applications, tlie above method of calculation inay be ignored if tlie digpiiig 
resistance of the material is accurately known as a result of tests and if it caii be guaianteed that 
this digging resistance will not be exceeded during normal operation. 
b) Normal lateral digging force 
Unless otherwise specified. the normal lateral digging force can be assumed as 0.3 tiiiies tlie values 
of tlie nonnal tangential digging force. 
2 - 2 . 1 . 5 FORCES ON THE CONVEYOR(S) 
Belt tensions, cliain tensions, etc. must be taken iiito consideration for tlie calculatioii as Par as tliey 
Iiave aii effect oii the structures. 
2 - 2 . 1 . 6 PERMANENT DYNAMIC EFFECTS 
a) In generai tlie dynamic effect of the digging rcsistances. tlic falliiig iiiasses at thc transfcr poiiits. tlie 
rotating pans of machinery, the vibratinp feeders, etc. need only be considered as aciiiig locally. 
h) The inertia forces due to acceleration and braking of rnoving structural parts must bc takeii into 
account. These can be neglected for appliances workiiig outdoors if tlie acccleratioii and deceleration 
are < 0.2 mis'. 
If possible tlie drive iiiotors and brakes must be designed in sucli a way tliat tliis acceleration value 
0.2 mis? is not exceeded. 
If the number of load cycles caused by inertia forces due to acceleration and braking is lower tlian 
2 x IO'during tlie lifetime of the machine the effects sliouid be coiisidercd as additional loads (sec 
2-2.2.7). 
2 - 2 . 1 . 7 LOADS DUES T 0 INCLINATION OE WORKING LEVEL 
Iii cases where the working level is inclined, dead loads acting vertically sliould be resoived into 
components aciing perpendicularly aiid parallel to tlie working plane. 
The slope related loads should be determined for the maxiiiium slopc contractually defined and rlieii 
increased by 20 % for the calculation purposes. 
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2 - 2 . 2 ADDITIONAL LOADS 
2 - 2 . 2 . 1 WIND ACTION 
This clause relates to wind loads on the structure of handling machines 
11 gives a siniplified method of calculation and assumes tliat the wind can hlow horizontaliv fiom 
aiiy direction, that the wind blows at a constani velocity and that thcre is a static rcaction to tlic 
Ioadings it applies io the cran structure. 
Tlie wind effects shall be considered for the macliine in service (sec 2-2.2.1.2) aiid for tlic iiiacliinc 
out of servicc (2-2.3.6). Uniess otherwise specified due to local c«iid~ti«iis. tfie dcsign wind s~xed 
given in tliese chapters should he used. 
2-2.2.1.1 AERODYNAMIC WIND PRESSURE 
Tiie aerodynamic wind pressure q, in relation wiih tlie air derisity and ilie wind specd Vs. is giveii 
hy tlie forinula : 
q = the aerodynamic pressure Nini' 
Vs = the design wind speed in ids . used for tlie calculation and depending oii tlie load case 
p = air density in kglm, 
Uiider normal conditions, will) p = 1.225 kplnfi tlie forriiula becoines : 
2-2.2.1.2 IN SERVICE WIND 
a) Maximum in service wind 
Tliis is the maximum wind in which the inachinc is desifned to operate. Tlie wind loads m 
assunied to be applied in the least fa\rourable direciion in conibination with tlie appropriate service 
loads. 
For calculation and unless specified otherwisc, a inaximum desigii wind speed 
V, = 20inIs = 72 knilh (coiistant over the heighi of the machine) shall be assumed for ihe 
machine in operation. 
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O FEM Section 11 2-25 
Tlie corresponding pressure q is 250 Nimi ( 1 j 
b) Eauivalent averaoe iii service wind 
For wear or fatigue calculations on mechanisnis for exaniple, an aerodynamic wind pressure equal to 
of the maximum working aerodynamic pressure should be assuiiied. 
This equivalent aerodynaniic pressure is assunied to he applied during the wliole design lifetiiiie of 
thc mechanisni and to cause the sainc wear or fatigue effects as the actual effects of service vr~irids 
whose aerodynamic pressures will v a v between 0 and the maxiinum workins acrodynaiiic 
pressure. 
It should be noted that tliis equivalent aerodynamic prcssure for wear calculations corrcspoiids to a 
wind speed equal to approximately 60 Cn of the design maximum peniiissible spced of tlic service 
wind. 
C) Start-up must always be possible agairist maximuin in service wiiid, but it is assuiiied thai tlie 
operating speeds aiid nominal accelerations are not necessarily reaclied under rnaxiiiiuiii in seivicc 
wind conditions. 
dj Under certain circumstances, an appliance niay Iiave to go back, uiiloaded. to "out of service" 
anclioring positions. In such cases, travelling meclianisms should be diriiensioned in relation to tlie 
maximuni permissible aerodynamic wind pressures defined in thc specifications for tliis load case, 
and dependant on the niacliiiie surface exposed to the wind, tlie inacliine niay need to bc placed in a 
configuration designed ior such transfer. 
2-2.2.1.3 WIND LOAD CALCULATIONS 
a) The nlane of tlie exnosed parts nlaced nemendicularlv to tlie wind direction 
For most coinplete or part structures, md individual riieinhers uscd iii structurcs, tlie wind load is 
calculated from : 
F = A . q . C r 
for a wind blowing perpendicularly to the exposed plane ofthc componeiits. 
( 1 ) Where a wind speed measuring device is to be attacbed to an appliance, it sliall normally he pkaced 
at the niaximuni height. In cases where tlie wiiid speed at a different levcl is more significant to tlie 
safety of the appliance, the iiianufacturer shall state tlie heigt at which tlie device shall be placed. 
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where : 
F is the wind load in N 
A is the effective frontal area of the part under consideration in m' 
q is the aerodynamic wind pressure corresponding to the appropriate design condition in N/m2 
Cf is the shape coefficient for the part under consideration. 
Note : shape coefficient is differently named in some docurnents, 
The total wind load on die structure is taken as the sum of the loads on its component pans 
In determining strength of the appliance and safety requirements against ovenurning and drifting the 
total wind load shall be considered (see 3-6 and 3-7). 
b) n e plane of the exnosed parts ~ laced non perpendicularlv to the wind direction (inclined boom for 
m&c& 
Where the wind blows at an angle 0 to the longitudinal axis of a member (see fig. 2-2.2.1.3) : 
The load in the duection of wind is : 
F = A . q . C f . s i n 2 0 
- The load in the diiection perpendicular to the wind diiection is : 
F 1 = A . q . C f , sin 0 . cos 0 
The load in the direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the member is the resultant of 
F and F 1 and is : 
fig. 2-2.2.1.3 
wind 
__f 
A' = L.b or L.D 
L = lenght 
b = width 
D = diameter 
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2-28 6 FEM Seciioii I1 
Tlie wind load on single lattice girders iiiay be calculatedon tlie basis of the coefficients for the 
individual members given in the top part of table T.2-2.2.1.4.1. In this case thc acrodyriaiiiic 
slendemess of each inernber shall be takeii into account. Alternatively the overall coeficients for 
latrice girders constructed of flat sided and circular sections givcn i n ilie iniddle part of tlie table iiiay 
bc used. 
Wliere a lattice girder is niade up of flat-sided or circular sections. or of circular scctioiis iii botli 
flow regimes (D . V s < 6 mils and D . V s 2 6mlis) tlie appropriate sliapc cocificieiits 
applied to the ci~rrespoiiding frontal areas. 
Wliere gusset plates oE normal size are uscd in weldcd latticc construction no allowaiice Tor tlic 
additional area prcsenred by thc plates is necessmy, provided the iengths of indi\,idual iiienibeis an: 
taken between the ccntres of iiode points. 
Shape coefficients obtained from wind-tunnel or full-scalc tests iuay also be used. 
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T.2-2.2.1.4.1 
SHAPE COEFFICIENTS 
* see figure 2-2.2.1.4.2 
Type Description 
Rolied sections J ] 
Rectangular hollow 
sectioiis up to 356 mrn 
Square 
and 254 X 457 min 
rectans!ulai. 
Single 
lattice 
güders 
Machinery 
houses 
etc. 
Aerodvnamic slenderness Ilb or IID * 
< 5 
1.15 
1.4 
1.05 
Flat-sided sections 
Circular sections where 
D.Vs < 6 m2/s 
D.VS 2 6 in2/s 
Closed rectangular 
structures 
I .60 
1.10 
0.80 
1.30 
10 
1.15 
1.45 
1.05 
20 
1.3 
1.5 
1.2 
30 
1.4 
1.55 
1.3 
40 
1.45 
1.55 
1.4 
I 
50 
1.5 
1.55 
1.5 
>SO 
1.60 
1.6 
1.6 
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2-30 O FEM Section I1 
Figure 2-2.2.1.4.2 
DEFINITIONS : AERODYNAMIC SLENDERNESS SOLIDITY RATIO SPACING RATIO 
AND SECTION RATIO 
(I) Aerodynamic slendemess = 
lenpth of member 1 - - * I 
breadth of section across wind front - b 
or - * 
D 
* In lattice construction the lengths of individual members are taken between the centres of 
adjacent node points. See diagram below. 
area of solid pans A 
(U) Solidity ratio = 
enclosed area A, , 
(111) Spacing ratio = 
distance between facing sides a - - a 
breadth of members across wind front - b Or B 
for "a" take the smallest possible value in the geometry of the exposed face. 
(N) Section ratio = breadth of section across wind front b - - 
depth of section parallel to wind flow - d 
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O FEM Section I1 2-31 
b) Sliieldins factors for multiple eirders or inemhers 
Where parallel girders or memhers are positioned so tliat shielding takes place, tlie wind loads on 
the windward girder or member, and on the unsheltered pans of those behind it. are calculated usiiig 
the appropriate force coefficients. The wind load oii the sheltered parts is multiplied by a shieidiiig 
factor q given in table T.2-2.2.1.4.3. Values of q vaty witli the solidiiy and spacinf ratios as 
defined in figures 2-2.2.1.4.2. 
Tahle T.2-2.2.1.4.3 
SHIELDING COEFFlCIENTS q 
Wliere a number of identical girders or members ase spaced equidistantly beliind each otlier in such a 
way that each girder shields those beliind it, the shiediing effect is assumed to iiicrease up to tlie 
ninth girder and to remain constant thereafter. Tlie wind loads ase calculated as follows : 
Spacing ratio 
ab 
0.5 
1 .0 
2.0 
4.0 
5.0 
6.0 
On the Ist. girder F ] = A.q.Cf 
On the 2nd. girder F2 = q.A.q.C{ 
Solidity ratio A/Ae 
On the nth girder FI1 = q ( ] i - l ) . ~ . ~ . C ~ 
(where n is from 3 to 8) 
0. I 
0.75 
0.92 
0.95 
1 
1 
1 
On the 9th and 
suhsequent girders Fg = q!A.q.Cf 
The total wind load is thus : 
0.2 
0.4 
0.75 
0.8 
0.88 
0.95 
1 
Where there are up to 9 girders Ftotal = [ l + q + q b q 3 + +.. + ] A.q.Cf 
= A.~.C~*) 
1 - ? 
in N 
0.3 
0.32 
0.59 
0.63 
0.76 
0.88 
I 
0.4 
0.21 
0.43 
0.5 
0.66 
0.81 
1 
0.5 
0.15 
0.25 
0.33 
0.55 
0.75 
1 
2 0.6 
0. I 
0. I 
0 .2 
0.45 
0.68 
1 
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2-32 O FEM Section I1 
Where tliere are more ihan 9 girders Ftotal = [I + + q' + q3 + ... + V % (11 - 9)11" 1.q.Cf 
= ~ . q . ~ f [ @ ) i ( n - 9 ) q ~ ] in N 
1 - r l 
Note : - 
The lern] used in the above formula is assumed to have a iou~es limit o i 0.10. 11 is tahen as 0.10 
when ever 
I.attice towers 
For calculating the "face-on" wind load on square towers in the abscnce of a detailed calculatioii. tlie 
solid area of the wiiidward face is iiiultiplied by the following overall Force coefficient : 
For towers composed of flat sided sections l.7.(1 tq) 
For towers composcd of circular sections 
where D.Vs < 6 m21s l . l . ( l + q ) 
where D.Vs 2 6 m21s I .4 
The value of q is takeii from tablc T.2-2.2.1.4.3 ior alb = 1 according to the soiidity ratio of tlic 
windward face. 
The maximum wind load on a Square tower occurs when tlie wind blows on to a corner. In tlie 
absence of a detailed calculation, this load caii be considercd as I .? tiilies tliat dcvelopd uritli 
"face-oii" wind on one side. 
2-2.2.2 SNOW AND ICE LOADS 
For teinperate areas, normal snow and ice loads can be assunied to have been included in tlie 
allowances for incrustation calculated in section 2-2.1.3. 
For niachines in a rea with severe cliiiiatic coiidiiioiis, or whese specified by ihe purchaser, 
consideration should be given to the additional loads arising fiom snow arid ice. 
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O FEM Section I1 2-32 
2 - 2 . 2 . 3 TEMPERATURE 
Temperature effects need only by considered in special cases, e.g. for areas with extreme climatic 
conditions or when using matedals with different expansion coefficients witliiii tlie sanie 
component that are not free to expand or contract separateiy. 
2 - 2 . 2 . 4 ABNORMAL TANGENTIAL AND LATERAL DIGGING FORCES 
The abnormal digging force acting tangentially to tiie bucket-wlieel or in tlie direction of the 
bucket-cliain, is calculated from thc staning torque of the drive motor or from the cut-off torque of 
the built i n safety coupling taking into account tlie more unfavourable of the two cases listed 
below : 
a) If the wheel or chain is not loaded : 
In this case no account is taken of the power necessary to liil andlor niove rlie material and tiie load 
due to the staniiig or cut-off torque of 1Iie motor is coiisidered as a digging load. 
b) If the whcel 01 chain is loaded according to 2-2.1.2.2, in this case tiie digging power caii be ieduced 
hy the power required to lift andlor move the material. 
The abnormal lateral digging force is calculated as in 2-2.1.4.2 (b) thereby coiisidering a load of 
0.3 times tlie abnomial tangential digging force. 
If appropriate, this load can be calculated from tlie working lorque of aii existing cut-out device of 
the slewing or travelling mechanism and which should bc at least equal to 1 . I times the suin of the 
torques due to the inclination of the macliine (see 2-2.1.7) and to wind load for machiiies in 
operation (see 2-2.2.1.2). 
Where a torque limit device is installed on the slewing inechanism; the iiieclianisni niust bc 
equipped with a locking device preventing the slewing pari rotating when out of service (due to 
wind force) if this rotation is dangerous. 
2 - 2 . 2 . 5 BEARING FRICTION AND ROLLING RESISTANCES 
a) Frictional forces need only to be calculated where they influence tlie size of structural coinponents. 
Foilowing friction coefficient can be used in default of inore precise vaiues bascd oii suppliers' 
specifications : 
- for pivots aiid ball bearings 
- for structural pans with sliding frictioii 
- on wheels of rail-mounted machines 
- on wheels of crawler-mounted macliines 
- hetween plate base and ground (crawler, shiftable conveyors) 
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2 - 2 . 2 . 6 REACTION PERPENDICULAR T 0 THE RAIL DUE T 0 
TRAVELLING OF THE APPLIANCE (LOAD CAUSED B Y 
SKEWING) 
For appliances oii rails account must be takeii of tlie reactioiis resulting froiii tlie traveliiiig 
movement of the unit under a skewin: angle, giving rise io a Iioriz«ntal guidc Force H! directcd 
perpcndicularl)~ lo tlie rail. 
The force Hy caii act on any guidin; device (flange O E wlieei oi- scpzate guiding wlieel) aiid is ii i 
equilibriuni witli the horizontal friction forces acting heiween u~heels aiid rails. 
To calculate the force Hy tlie relevant systein propcrties sliall he iahen into account (see ISO 8686 
clause 6.2.2 and annex F). 
If no accuratc calculaiioii can be effected tlie force Hy sliould be takeii as : 
wliere Vy is tlie inaxiinum vertical load O E the wheel or bogie 
2 - 2 .2 .7 NON-PERMANENT DYNAMIC EFFECTS 
Inertia forces (due to tlie acceleration and braking of moving structural paits) w,liicli «ccur less tlian 
2 . 10' titnes during the lifetime OS the appliance should he cliecked as additional loads. Tlicy triay 
be disregarded if tlieir effect is less tlian the wind force during operation as defiiied i n 2-2.2. I 
If the inertia forces arc sucli tliat they have 10 bc takeii iiito account, tlic wind effect caii Ix 
disregarded. 
Note : As these f«rces are, in practice, present at tlie same tiine as tlie wind effects, it inust be - 
noted that actual accelerating and braking times are not tlie saine as whcti still conditiotis prevail. 
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O FEM Section I1 
2 - 2 . 3 SPECIAL LOADS 
2 - 2 . 3 . 1 CLOGGING OF CHUTES 
The weight of material due to clogging should be calcuiated using a load wliich is equivalcnt to the 
capacity of the chute in question, with due reference to the angle of repose. The actual bulk dcnsity 
inust be taken for calculation. 
2 - 2 . 3 . 2 RESTING OE THE RECLAIMING DEVICE OR THE BOOM 
Where safety devices arc installed such as a siack rope detector for rope suspensions or pressurc 
switches for hydraulic Iioists, wliich prevent the full weight o i tlie reclainiiiig device or the booiii 
from coming to rest, the permissible resting force is to he calculared as a special load at 1.10 times 
the value sei by the safety device. 
Where such saiety devices ai.e not provided, the special load is to be calculatcd witli tlic full resting 
weight. 
2 - 2 . 3 . 3 FAILURE OF LOAD LIMITING DEVICES AS IN PARAGRAPH 
2 - 2 . 1 . 2 . 1 
In tlie case of iailure on thc part o i an auioinatic load liinitiiig to liinit tiie useful loads on tlic 
conveyors, the output can be calculated as follows : 
a) iii the case o i appiiances withoui reclaiming device according 10 paragrapli I) (61, of iteiii 
2.2.1.2.1, 
b) in the case of appliances witli built-iii reclaitning device according ia paragrapli 2) (a), of iteiii 
2-2.1.2.1. 
For this purpose account need not be taken of the dynaiiiic iactor 1.1 
2 - 2 . 3 . 4 BLOCKING OF TRAVELLING DEVICES 
The design of rail-mounted equipment must take into accouiit the likelihood of bogies being 
blocked, e.g. by derailment or rail fracture. For tlie loads occurring under such conditions, tlie 
coefficient of friction between driven wheels and rails should be calculated as = 0.20 provided 
that the drive motors can generate sufiicient torque. 
For equipment mounted on fixed rails, a wheel can be considered as blocked which cannot rotate but 
slides on the rail. 
For equipment mounted on relocatable rails, blocking of a canying wlieel or bogie should bc 
assumed as resulting froin derailment or rail fracturc. The maximum motive force is then 
determined by tlie non blocked wheels aiid it cannot exceed tlie force transferable by raivwheel 
friction. 
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O FEM Section I1 2-37 
The calculation procedure is detailed in chapter 2-2.2. I. I (in service wind) 
Where machines are to be permanently installed or used for extended penods in areas wliere wind 
conditions are exceptionally severe, the above figures may be niodified by agreement between the 
manufacturer and purchaser in the light of local meteorological data. 
2 -2 .3 .7 BUFFER EFFECTS 
For horizontal speeds below 0.7 mis no account sliall bc taken of buffer effects. For speeds i n 
excess of0.7 ni/s account must be taken of the reaction on tlie structure by collisions witli buffers. 
when buffering is not made impossible by special devices. 
It shail be assuined that the buffers are capable of absorbing tiie kiiietic energy of the machine with 
operating load up to a certain fraction of tlie rated traveliing speed V, ; this fraction is iixed at 
minimum 0.7 V,. 
The resulting loads on the structure sliall be calculated iii tertns of the deceleratioii itnparted to tlie 
macliine by the buffer in use. 
2 -2 .3 .8 LOADS DUE T 0 EARTHQUAKES 
In general tlie süuctures of handiing appliances do not have tobe cliecked for seisniic effects. 
However, if local regulations or particular specificatioiis so prcscribe, special rules oi 
recommendations must be applied in areas subject to earthquakes. 
The supplier shall be advised of this requiremeiit by the User of the iiistallation who shall also 
provide the corresponding seis~nic spectra. 
2 -2 .3 .9 LOADS DURING ERECTION (OR DISMANTLING) OF THE 
MACHINE 
In general, the loads during erection are less than tbey will be For the iiiaciiine in operation 
Nevertheless, in some particular situations, according to the erection process, it can be iiecessary to 
check some structural (or mechanical) parts for a cenain stage of the erectioti. 
The checking is made by taking into account the actual supporting conditions and the eventual 
anchorages of the given structural pari. 
The permissible Stresses are : 
- stress allowed in case I for no wind condition 
- stress allowed in case 111 for out of service wind condition 
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2-38 0 FEM Section 11 
2-3 LOAD CASES FOR STRUCTURAL DESIGN 
Tiie inain, additional and special loads mentioned in chapter 2-2 niusi be combined in load cases I. I1 üiid 
I11 according to table T.2-3.1 hereaiter. 
Loads should only be combined that can occur simultaneously to piovide the higliest rcsultaiii siresscs. 
We shall retain for case I11 the most unfavourable combination. 
2 - 3 . 1 TABLE OF LOAD CASES 
(see table on iollowing page). 
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O FEM Section I1 2-41 
2-5 LOAD CASES FOR THE DESIGN OF MECHANISMS 
In order to take the load fluctuations into account, we consider the two following load cases : 
-Se': 
Load combinations which may appear simultaneously during normal operation. 
Load combinations in which additional or Special loads. which may arise occasioiially, are takeri in10 
account (in service or out of service). 
2 - 5 . 1 TABLE OF LOAD CASES T.2-5.1 (*) 
Tlie load cases to be considered i n cases I and I1 for the following ~irechanisiiis. are found i n table 
T.2-5.1 : 
. reclaiming component mechanism, 
belt conveyor mechanism, 
siewing inechanism, 
. travelling inechanisin (on rails or crawlers), 
iifting or luffing mechanism. 
* n i e iiuinbers of the corresponding loads refer to chapter 2-2 "structures". 
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2-42 O FEM Section 11 
Table T.2-5.1.1 
(*) = referrcd to tlie niaximuni allowahle iorque 
Mechanism or 
mechanisin parts 
reclaiming unit 
mechanisrn 
helt coiiveyor 
ineclianisni 
Loads 
2-2.1.1 dead loads 
2-2.1.2.2 material loads in rcclainiing 
device 
2-2.1.3 incrustation 
2-2.1.4 normal tangential and lateral 
digging forces 
2-2.1.5 tension of bucket-chaiii. helt, ... 
- friction resistance of thc 
material between the hucket- 
wlieel or buckct-cliaiii and tiie 
ciiute 
2-2.2.4 abnormal tangential and lalerai 
diggiiig iorces 
2-2.3.2 resting of bucket-wheel or cliaiii 
on ground or face 
2-2.3.5 lateral collision of huckct-wlieel 
witli the slope 
2-2.1.1 dead loads 
2-2.1.2. I material ioads on conveyor 
(without dynamic coefiicient) 
helr conveyor motion 
resistances (according to 
ISO 5048) 
2-2.1.5 heit tcrision (accordiiig to 
ISO 5048) 
2-2.3.3 abnormal niaterial loads on 
conveyors (witliout dyiiaiiiic 
coefficieiit) arising from i'ailu~e 
of load liiniting devices as i n 
2-2.1.2.1) 
if tlie output aiid clevation vary, take this 
into account when calculating tlie fatigue 
strengtii 
Case 1 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
Casc I1 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X ('*I 
s 
X 
X i*) 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
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Table T.2-5.1.2 
SLEWING MECHANISM 
Note ( I ) : unless otherwise specified, in service wind pression value q given in section 
2-2.2.1.2 and out of service wind pressioii value q given in seciion 2-2.3.6 shall 
be used. 
Note (2) : where a torque limit device is installed the loads when working are limited to the 
adjustment of the torque limiler, whicli will be at a minimum equal to the 
following vaiues : 
Part of the 
mechanism 
sun~orting 
comnonents 
(tracks witli ball 
or roller bearing) 
drive comnonents 
(driving unit and 
ring gear) 
- if there is a separate locking device for the slewing part : 
1.1 (2-2.1.7 + 2-2.2.11 
- if there is no separate locking device aiid wiiere a lock is to be effected by the 
brake of thc driving unit : 
1.1 (2-2.1.7 + 2-2.3.6) 
Loads 
2-2.1.1 dead loads 
2-2.1.2 material loads (witliout dynaniic 
factor) 
2-2.1.3 incruslation (without dynamic 
factor) 
2-2.1.4 normal tangential and lateral 
digging forces 
2-2.1.7 loads due to inclination of the 
working level 
2-2.1.6 permanent dynanuc 1 * 
effects i 
2-2.2.1 in service wind : 
q iii Nliii' 
I 
(1) (3) J * take the least favourable load 
2-2.2.4 abnormal tangential and lateral 
digging forces 
2-2.3.6 wind load on machine out of 
service (1) (3) 
2-2.3 special loads (when urorking) : 
2-2.3.1, 2-2.3.2, 2-2.3.3, 
2-2.3.4, 2-2.3.5, 2-2.3.7, 
2-2.3.8 (take tlie load giving the 
least Edvourable combination) 
2-2.1.4 normal tangential and lateral 
digging forces 
2-2.1.6 pemianent dynainic effects 
(forces due to acceleration and 
braking - slewing motion) 
2-2.1.7 loads due to incliiiation of the 
working level 
2-2.2.1 in service wind : q13 N/m2 
2-2.2.1 in service wind : q in Nliii' ( I ) 
(3) 
2-2.3.6 wind load on macliine out of 
service (1) (3) 
2-4.2.1 friction resistances 
Note (3) : to take into account the non unifonn aerodynaniic pressure of the wind on the 
total area of tlie machine, wind Force will be decreased by 50 lo on one side of 
the slewing axis wlien calculation is least favourable. 
Case I 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
(2) 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
~ U Q , 
""'L"" 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
- 
Casc 11 
workinf 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
(2) 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
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2-44 C FEM Section 11 
Table T.2-5.1.3 
TRAVELLING MECHANISM (ON RAILS OR CRAWLERS) 
Note ( 1 ) : uniess otherwise speciiied, in service wind pression value q given i n sectioii 
2-2.2.1.2 aiid out of service wind pression value q given in seciion 2-2.3.6 shall 
be used. 
Part of the 
mechanism 
sup!~orting 
cotnnoncnts 
(wliecls, pins 
equalizcrs ,...) 
inO\'illn. 
comnonents 
(driving unit) 
Note (2) : loads conespoiiding to slipping of rail wlieels i n case 2-2.3.4 with fi.iction 
coefficient between wlieel and rail p = 0.2. 
Note (3) : in the out of service situation, the brake of the driving unit and (eventually) thc 
locking device (rail clamp for instance) have to preveiit tlie iiiacliiiie froiii 
drifting (see 3-7). 
Loads 
2-2.1.1 dead loads 
2-2.1.2 iiiaterial loads (u,ithout dynamic 
factor) 
2-2.1.3 incrustation (withoui dynaiiiic 
faciorj 
2-2.1.4 normal tangeiitial and lateral 
diggiiig forces 
2-2.1.7 loads due to incliiiation of tlic 
working level 
2-2.2.1 in service wiiid : 
q i n N/ni2 ( 1 ) 
2-2.2.5 bcaring friction and rolling 
resistaiices 
2-2.2.6 reactions peipendicular to tiie 
rail duc to iiiovciiiciit of 
appliance 
2-2.3.6 wind load on niacliiiie out of 
service (1) 
2-2.3 special loads (wlien working) : 
2-2.3.1, 2-2.3.2, 2-2.3.3, 
2-2.3.4, 2-2.3.5, 2-2.3.7, 
2-2.3.8 (take the load giving tlie 
least favourable conibiiiation) 
2-2.1.4 iionnal tangential and lateral 
digging forces 
2-2. I .6 permanent dyiiainic cffects 
(forces due to acccleration and 
brakiiig - travelling motionj 
2-2.1.7 loads duc to incliiiatioii of tiie 
working level 
2-2.2.1 in service wind : ql3 N/iii2 
2-2.2.1 max. in service wind : 
q in Nlrn? (1) 
2-2.2.6 reactions perpcndicular to tiic 
rail duc to rnovement of 
sppliance 
2-2.3.4 hiocking of tra\~elling dcvices 
(on rails) 
2-2.3.6 wind load on inacliinc out of 
service ( 1 ) 
2-4.2.1 friciion resistances 
Case I 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
,not 
"0"""" 
X 
X 
X 
X 
(3) 
X 
X 
X 
Case I1 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X (2) 
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Table 2-5.1.4 
LUFFING MECHANISM 
Note (1) : unless orherwise specified, iii servicc wind pi-ession value q givcn in section 
2-2.2.1.2 and out of scrvice wind pressioii value q pivcn iii sectioii 2-2.3.6 sliall 
bc used. 
"11 soine circumstances, the case 11 working load combinatioii niay be resiricted by load limiting 
devices (10 bc noted that machine must stay stablc, but, uiider overload. booiii niay descend aiier 
tlie limiting device has taken action). 
Mechanisin 
(cable windiiig 
mechanisms, 
hydraulic lifting 
mechanisms, 
screw lifting 
inechanisms) 
Where there is no sucli device, as when the machine is oiii of servicel tlie least Cavourable load 
coiiibination must be considered. 
: Precautioiis to be taken iii the event o i tIie failure of load Iiniiting devices sliall bc 
specifiedby the manufacturer (see chapter 5 : "Safety"). 
Loads 
2-2.1.1 dead loads 
2-2.1.2 material loads (ufithout dyiiamic 
coefiicient) 
2-2.1.3 incrustation 
2-2.1.4 normal tangential aiid lateral 
digging forces 
2-2.1.6 pemianeiit dynamic effets 
2-2.1.7 incliiiation of the workiiig level 
2-2.2.1 wind in operation : 
i n Nlm' (1) 
2-2.2.4 abnormal tangential arid lateral 
digging forccs 
2-2.3.6 wind out of service (1) 
2-2.3 special loads (when working) : 
2-2.3.1, 2-2.3.2, 2-2.3.3 (take 
the load giving tlie least 
favourable combination) 
2-4.2.1 friction resistaiices 
11<>1 
"0"""" 
X 
X 
X 
X 
Case 11 
Case I 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
\,,orkino 
X 
X 
s 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
* 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
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% FEM Scction I1 
CHAPTER 3 
CALCULATING T H E STRESSES IN STRUCTURES 
CONTENTS 
Pace - 
INTRODUCTION 
SELECTION 01; STEEL T 0 RESIST BRITTLE FRACTURE 
- Asscssiiient of the factors wliich influence brittle fracture 
A Coiiibined cffect of longitudinal residual tensilc stresscs and teiisile 
stresses fioni dead Load 
B niickiiess ofmembei 
C Influence of cold 
- Deieniiination of the required steel quality group 
- Quality of sicels 
- Special rulzs 
CHECKING WITH RESPECT T 0 THE ELASTIC LIMIT 
- Simctural niembers 
. Meiiibers suhjected to simple ieiisioii or coiiipressioii 
Meinbei-s subjected to shear 
Meinbers subjected to combined stresses - Equivaleni siress 
- Welded joints 
Weld qualities 
. Maximum peimissible stresses 
. Compleiiientary infomiation on stresses in wclded joints 
- Bolted joiiits 
Geiieral 
- Definitions 
- Design 
- Controlled tightening 
- Maximum perinissible stress 
Ordinaq bolts 
- Definitions 
- Application 
. Highei- grade bolts : precision bolts 
- Precision bolts in tensioii 
- Precision holts in sliear 
- Precision holis in conibined tensioii arid sliear 
- Precision bolts in hearing 
- Permissible working stresses for bolts 
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C! FEM Sectioii I1 
High tensile steei bolts with controlled tiglitening for friciioii grip joints 
- General 
- External loads acting in the plane of the joini (type T) 
- External loads acting perpendicular to tlie plane of ihe joint (type N) 
- Joints with exlernal force couple (type M) 
- Conibiiied external loadiiigs on friction grip joints 
- Guy and stay ropes 
CHECKING STABILITY OF PARTS SUBJECT T 0 CRlPPLlNG 
AND BUCKLING 
- Buckling of struts and coiumiis (crippling) 
- Lateral buckling 
- Buckling ofplates arid sliells 
CHECKING MEMBERS SUBJECTED T 0 FATIGUE 
- Predicted nuinber of cycles and stress spectium 
- Material used and notch effecr 
- Deteriiiination o i the inaximuin stress olllax 
- Ratio K betweeii rhe extrenie stresses 
- Calculating iiieliibers subject to iatigue 
Structural elenients 
- Tensile and compressive loads 
- Shcar stresses in the material of structural parts 
- Combined loads in tension (or conipression) and slicar 
Joints (welds and bolts) 
- Welds 
- Bolted joints 
- Cases of notch effect 
Pemiissible fatigue stresses 
CHECK ON "AS BUILT" STRUCTURE 
SAFETY AGAINST OVERTURNING 
- Checking for stability 
- Additional precautions 
SAFETY AGAINST DRIFTING 
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0 FEM Section I1 
The stresses set up in the various structural members are detennined for the three load cases defiiied iii 
sectioii 2-3, and a check is made to ensure that, when compared u'itli tlie criticai stresses. tlie facior 01' 
safety V is adequate ior the following three possible causes of failure : 
- exceeding the elastic Iimit, 
- exceeding the critical crippling or buckling load. 
- and, eventually, exceeding the liinit of endurance to faLigue 
The grade of the steel used must be stated and tlic physical properties, clieiiiical coiiiposition and 
weldability inust be guaranteed by the manufacturer of the material. 
Tlie petmissible stresses for the materials used should be detennined as stipulated in clauses 3-2, 3-3. 3-4 
and 3-5 hereunder, based on the critical stresses for the material. 
Tlie crirical stresses are those which correspond eitiier to the elastic liniit or the stress con.cspondiiig to tlie 
critical limit ior elongation as appropriate, or to the critical stress Tor crippling or huchliiig. or; in the case 
of fatigue. to the stress for which the probahility of sur\'ivai, under tests. is Y0 F. 
Tlie suiiability of the selected material to resist brittle fracture should be assessed as outlined i n section 
3-1. 
The stresses in t l ~ e structural members should be caiculated on tlie basis of ihe difiereni load cases as 
deiined in section 2-3 by applying conventional strengt11 of materials calculation procedures. 
Tlie sections of metal to be considered shall be the gross sections (i.e. witiiout deducting tlie areas of Iioles) 
ior all parts wtiich are subjectcd to conipression loads ( I ) , and the net seciions (i.e. witli the areas o i lioles 
deducted) for all parts subjected to tensile loads. 
In the case of a member subjected to bending, a haif.net sectioii sliould be assumed. takiiig tlic net sectioii 
in parts under tension and the goss section in parts under compression. To siinl~lify the calculations. 
however, one may use either tlie section modulus of tlie riet section or thc sectioii iiiodulus computed for 
tlie ha1f.net section, usiiig as centre of gravity of tlie section !hat of the gross scction. 
( I ) Tlie area of Ilie holes shall be included in the cross-sectioiial area only wlien they are filled by a rivet or 
a holt. 
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3-4 G FEM Scctioii I1 
3-1 SELECTION OF STEEL T 0 RESIST BRITTLE FRACTURE 
Tlie usual calculations required by tlie design rulcs to assess tlie safety of the structure againsi yiclding. 
crippling. buckling and fatigue failure do not puarantee safety against brirtle fraciure. 
In order to obtain sufficient safety against britile fracture. a steel grade has to hc clioseii io suit oii tlic 
conditions influencing brittle fracture. 
3 - 1 . 1 ASSESSMENT OF THE FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE BRITTLE 
FRACTURE 
Tlie iiiost iniportant influences oii tlie sensiti\,ity to hrittlc fracture in steel structures are : 
A. Combined effect of longitudinal residual tensile stresses with stresses rrorii dead luad. 
B. Thickness o f the membcr. 
C. lnfluence 01 cold. 
Inlluences A., B. and C. are evaluated wir11 cocfficients ZA. ZB and ZC respecti\rely. The requii-ed sieel 
quality is tlicn deterniined froiii oii tlie suni of tliese coefficieiits. 
LOAD 
Equations for lines 1, 11. 111 in figure 3-1.1.1 
Line : no welds, or only transverse welds 
valid oiily for GG 2 0.5 . 0, 
I.ine : longitudinal welds 
Linc : accumulation of welds 
where : 
oa = pemissible tensile stress with respect to tlie elastic liniit, loadiiig casc I 
a G = tensile stress from permanent load 
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O FEM Section I1 3-5 
The likehood of brittle fracture is increased by high stress concentrations, in particular by ?-axial 
tensile Stresses, as is the case with an accumulation of welds. 
If members are stress relieved after welding (approx 600 - 650°C) line I can be used for all types of 
welds. 
Figure 3-1.1.1 
ZA IN TERMS OF STRESSES AND WELDS 
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3-6 
3 - 1.1 .2 INFLUENCE B : TBICKNESS OF MEMBER 
O FEM Section I1 
where t = thickness of member in mm 
Thickness of member 
t 
inm 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
12 
15 
Figure 3-1.1.2 
ASSESSING COEFFICIENT ZB = f ( t ) 
For round, square or rectangular solid sections an equivalent thickness t' is tobe used. This is : 
for round sections : d t ' = - 
1.8 
0.1 
0.15 
0.2 
0.25 
0.3 
0.4 
0.5 
0.8 
for square sections : t t' = - 
1.8 
for rectangular sections : b t ' = - 
1.8 
4rn 
16 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 
45 
50 
55 
0.9 
1.45 
2.0 
2.5 
2.9 
3.2 
3.5 
3.8 
4.0 
mm 
60 
65 
70 
75 
80 
85 
90 
95 
100 
ZB 
4.3 
4.55 
4.8 
5.0 
5.2 
5.4 
5.6 
5.8 
6.0 
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G FEM Secrion I1 3-7 
where b represents the larger side of the rectangle and the ratio of the side b/t < 1.8. Fot hit > 1 .E , 
t ' = t. 
3 - 1 . 1 . 3 INFLUENCE C : INFLUENCE OF COLD 
The lowest temperature at the place of erection of the appliance detemines ihe classiiication. Th'is 
temperature is generally lower than the working temperature. 
Temperature in 'C 
Figure 3-1.1.3 
ASSESSING COEFFICIENT ZC = f (T) 
3 - 1.2 DETERMINATION OE THE REQUIRED STEEL QUALITY GROUP 
It is the sum of assessing coefiicients from paragraph 3-1.1 which determines the minimum quired 
quality for the steel structure. 
Tahle T.3-1.2 shows the classification of the quality groups in relation to the sum of the assessing 
coefficients. 
If the sum of the assessing coefficients is higher than 16 or if the required steel quality cannot be obtained, 
special measures must be taken to obtain the necessary safety against brittle fracture. 
This should be done in conjunction with the steel suppliers and metallurgical experts 
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3-8 G FFEM Sectioii 11 
Tabie T.3- 1.2 
3 - 1.3 QUALITY OE STEELS 
Suni of the assessing coefficients from 
paragraph 3- 1.1 
L Z = Z A + Z B + Z C 
Tlie quality of steels in these design rules is tlie propcny of steel to exhihit a ductile bclin\'ioui- at 
dcteimined teinperatures. 
Quality group correspondiiig in tüble T.3- 1.3 
Tlie steels ai-e divided into four quality groups. Tlie group in wliicli tlic steel is ciassified. is obtaitied irom 
its notch ductility in a giveii test and tciiiperaturc. 
Tabie T.3-1.3 coniprises the notcli ductility vaiues and lest teinperntures ior tlie four quality groups. 
The indicated notch ductilities are minimuin values, beiiig tlie mean values froin tlirec tests, whcre no 
value must be below 20 Nmlcm?. 
The notcli ductility is to be detennined i n accordaiice with V-iiotch impact tests to 1SO R 148 an<l 
Euronorm 45-63. 
Steels of differents quality groups can be welded together 
Tc is the test temperature for the V-notch impact test 
T is the temperature at the piace of erection of tlie appiiance 
Tc and T are not directly comparable as the V-notch impact lest imposcs a inore unii\,ourable condition 
than the loading on the appliance in or out of service. 
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G FEM Section I1 
Table T.3-1.3 
QUALITY GROUPS 
* Tlie lest requiremcnts of steels to BS 4360 do not i n all cases correspoiid witli tlie 1SO aod othcr 
national standards, and tlie guaranteed impact lest properties for steels to BS 4360 iiiay be different to 
other steels in rhe same quality group. Impact lest properties are stated in BS 4360 aid wliere thc 
requirements are different from those guwanteed in BS 4360, agreenient iiiust be obtained froni tlie 
steel suppliers. 
(I) In thc present rules. steels are designed by the ISO syiiibols, essentially Fe 360, Fe 430, Fe 510. 
Quality 
group 
I 
2 
3 
4 
Notch ductility 
measured in ISO sharp 
notch lest ISO R 148 
in Nnilcni? 
35 
35 
35 
Test 
ternpe- 
rature 
Tc O C 
(F 
- 20°C 
Steels correspondiiig 
to the quality group 
desig~iatiori oisteels ( I ) 
Fc 360 - A 
Fe 430 - A 
st 37 - 2 
Sr 44 - 2 
E 2 4 - I 
43 A * 
Fe 360 - B 
Fe 430 - B 
F c 5 1 0 - B 
R St 37 - 2 
St 44-2 
E 2 4 - 2 
E 2 8 - 2 
E 3 6 - 2 
40 B 43 B 50 B 
Fe 360 - C 
Fe 430 - C 
Fc 510 - C 
SI 37 - 3N 
Si 44 - 3N 
Si 52 - 3N 
E 2 4 - 3 
E 2 8 - 3 
E 36 - 3 
4 0 C 4 3 C * 
50 C 
Fe 360- D 
Fe 430 - D 
F e 5 1 0 - D 
St 37 - 3N 
St 44 - 3N 
Si 52 - 3N 
E 2 4 - 4 
E 2 8 - 4 
E 36 - 4 
40 D 43 D e 
50 D 
Stand& 
1SO 630 
DIN 17100 
NF A 35-501 
BS 4360 1986 
ISO 630 
DIN 17100 
NF A 35-501 
BS 4360 1986 
ISO 630 
DIN 17100 
NF A 35-501 
BS 4360 1986 
ISO 630 
DIN 17100 
NF A 35-501 
BS 4360 1986 
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3-10 G FEM Sectioii I1 
3 - 1 . 4 SPECIAL RULES 
Iii addiuon to tlie ahove provisions for tlie choice o i the sied quality. ilie follou,iiif riiles aic tci k 
(~bscrved : 
1) Non kilied sieels of group I shall bc used for load canyinf siruciures otily iri case o i rollcd scctioiis 
and tubes not exceeding 6 nini wall thickness. 
2) Menibcrs of more than 50 mm thickiiess. shall iiot be used for weldcd load ciu~yiiif struciures uiiless 
tlie nianufacturer has a cotnprehensive expericnce in tlie welding of tliick platcs. Tlie steel quüliry tuxl 
its testing has in tliis casc to be deterinined by speciaiists. 
3) If parts are cold hent with a rddiusiplate rliickness ratio c 10. rhe steel qualiiy has io be suiiable Tor 
folding or cold flanging. 
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G FEM Section I1 3-11 
3-2 CHECKING WITH RESPECT T 0 THE ELASTIC LIMIT 
For this check, a distinction is made betwcen the actual iiieiiihers of rlic structure and tlie welded or boited 
joints. 
3 - 2 . 1 STRUCTURAL MEMBERS 
3 - 2.1.1 MEMBERS SUBJECTED T 0 SIMPLE TENSION OR COMPRESSION 
I ) For steels wliere the ratio between the elastic liinit OE and tlie ultimate tensile sti-ciigtli 5~ is 
< 0.7. tlie computed stress a must not exceed the iiianiiiiuiii perinissihle stress oa ohiaiiicd hy 
dividi i i~ the elastic limit stress 5 E hy a coefficient VE whicii depeiids upoii tlic loüd case as deiined 
uiider seciion 2-3. 
'i'lie values o f v ~ and tlie peniiissihlc stresses are : 
For cunently iiianufactured carhoii sieels of :i-adcs USO) Fc 360 - Fe 430 - Fe 510. tlie critical 
stress OE is convcntionally takeii as tliat whicli coirespoiids to a peniiaiient eloii~aiion of 0.2 %.. 
Load case 
"E 
perniissihle 
stresses oa 
* Note : For Iiandling maciiines, v~ = 1.2 in case 111, urliile tliis coeflicieiit is equal to 1 . I for 
lifting appliances in tlie saine case I11 (see FEM rules - Section 1). 
Characteristic values for steels ofcuneiit iiianufacture 
I 
1.5 
OE - 
I .5 
U 
1.33 
GE - 
1.33 
U1 
1.2 
GE - 
1.2 
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3-12 0 FEM Sectioii 11 
Table T.3-2.1.1 
VALUES OF OE &Q oa FOR STEELS Fe 360 - Fc 330 - Fe 5 i 0 
2) For sreels witli Iiigh elastic liinit, where rlie ratio OE I o~ is greatcr tliaii 0.7. tlic use or tlie \,E 
coefficients does iiot ensure a sufficicni margin of safcty. 111 this case a cliech Iias to be inade tliat 
tlie pennissible stress aa giveii by tlie forrnula belciw is not exccedcd : 
Steel pade 
Fe 360 
Fe 430 
Fe 510 
Oa = 
OE + OR 
oE(Fc 5 10) + OR (Fe 5 10) oa(Fe 5 10) 
where 
Elasric liniit 
OE 
Nlmni' 
240 
280 
360 
OE arid a R are tlie elastic Ii i i i i r and tlie ultiiiiaie teiisile s~sciigtli of the stcel 
considercd 
~ E ( F ~ 5 10) a1d o~ (i;e 5 10) tl~ese same stresses h s steel Fe 5 10, i . e 360 Nliniii' aiK1 
520 Nlriiiii? 
Maxiinum pemiissible stresses oa 
oa(Fe 5 10) tiie permissible srress ibr steel Fe 5 10 iii tiie case of loadiiig 
consideird 
Case I 
Nlmiii' 
160 
187 
240 
3 - 2 . 1 . 2 MEMBERS SUBJECTED T 0 SHEAR 
Tlie pesmissible stress in shear ra has tlie following value : 
Case I1 
Nlnirn: 
180 
210 
270 
o, being ihe permissible tensile sircss 
Casc I11 
Nliiiiii: 
200 
233 
300 
3 - 2 . 1 . 3 MEMBERS SUBJECTED T 0 COMBINED STRESSES - 
EQUIVALENT STRESS 
CI, and ay beiiig respectively the iwo rionnal stressesand .rxy the sliear siress at a given point, a 
check sliall be inade : 
I) tliat each of ihe two stresses a, and oy is less than oa and tliat rxy is less than 7, 
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G FEhl Section I1 3-13 
2) that tlie equivalent stress ocp is less than 0,. i.c. : 
When usinf this formula, a simple metliod is to take the niaximuiii values G,. 0 , and T);,,. But. in 
Fact. sucli a calculation leads to too great aii equivalent stress when it is hipossibje for the 
maxirnuin values of each of the three stresses io occur siiiiultaiieously. 
Neveriheless, this simple calculation method, being conscr\,ative, is always acceptable 
If the equivalent stress is to be calculated inorc precjsely, i t is necessary to deteniiine tlic iiiost 
unfavourahle practical combination that may occur. Tliree cliecks niust tlien be iiiade by calcuiatin; 
successively the equivalent stress resulting froin tlie tliree following coriibinations : 
a and tlie corresponding stresses oy and ixy 
oy and the corresponding stresses 0, and sxy 
T X y inax and tlie col~esponding stresses sx and 
NQ& : I1 should be noted that wheii two out of tlie three stresses arc approxiiiiateiy of the same 
valuc, m d geater than half the pennissible stress. the most unSa\'ourable combination of tlie 
Iliree values may occur in different loading cascs froin tliose correspondiiig to tlie iiiaxiiiiuiii of eacli 
of the three stresses. 
Special case : 
- Tension (or compression) coinhined with siiear 
Tlie followlng f o m u l a should be checked : 402 + 3 r ? 5 aa 
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3 - 2.2 WELDED JOINTS 
3 - 2.2.1 WELD QUALITIES 
The types of weld most comrnonly used for handling appliances are butt welds, double bevel butt 
welds (K welds) and fillet welds, of o r d i n q or special quality (S.Q.) as specified below. 
Weld testing is also stipulated for certain types of joint 
Table T.3-2.2.1 
WELD OUALiTlES 
Type o i weld 
Weid tesring 
of symbols I """ I 
fdlet welds in the angle 
iormed by two pans 
K-weld in angle formed 
by two pans with bevel 
on one of the pans to bc 
joined at iocation of 
seam 
special 
necessay 
ordinary 
qualiry 
is free fiom lamination 
(for exarnple ultrasonic 
examination) 
ordinary 
q u w 
special 
quality 
(S.Q.) 
1) weld symbols are taken from ISO 2553, this symbol W means root of weld scraped 
1001 of weld scraped (or 
trimmed) before malting 
weld on other side. Weld 
edges without undeicutting 
and ground if necessary. 
Fuli peneuation w i d s 
width c lea of weld 
penetration between the 
two weids < 0.2 e with 
a 
check !hat for tensile loads 
the pivte perpendicular to 
thc direction of the forces 
is free fiam lamination 
(for exarnple uitrasonic 
examination) 
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O FEM Section I1 3-15 
3 - 2.2.2 MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE STRESSES 
Iii welded joints, it is assumcd thar the deposited nletal Iias ai least as good cliaracterisiics as ilic 
adjacent parent metal. 
It must he verified thai tlic stresses de\'eloped. in the cases of longitudinal teiision aiid c«inpressioii. 
aiid equivalent stresses do not exceed the pemiissible stresses G„, giwn in table T.?-22.2. 
For shear in ihe welds, the pennissihle stress T„, is given hy : 
Howe\,er, for cenain types of loading, panicularly transverse stresses 111 tlie welds. tlie iiiaxiiiiuiii 
pemissihle equivalent stress is reduced. 
Table T.3-2.2.2 suinmarizes tlie iiiaximum permissible values. for certain steels. accordiiig 10 tlic 
type of loading (and thc load casej. 
Tahle T.3-2.2.2 
MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE STRESSES IN WELDS o „ ~ (N/iilm?j 
STEELS Fe 360 - Fe 430 - Fe 5 10 
Coniplementary inforination on welded joints is given hereafter 
Types oC loading 
LONGITUDINAL 
AND EQUWALENT 
STRESSES FOR 
ALL TYPES OF 
WELDS 
TRANSVERSE 
TENSILE 
STRESSES 
1) butt-welds(S.Q. 
or C.Q.) and 
special quality 
K-welds 
2) ordinaryquality 
K-welds 
3) fillctwelds(S.Q. 
or C.Q.) 
TRANSVERSE 
COMPRESSIVE 
STRESSES 
I) bun-weldsand 
K-welds (S.Q. or 
C.Q.) 
2) fillet welds (S.Q. 
or C.Q.) 
SHEAR 
(S.Q. OR C.Q.) 
care lll 
200 
200 
175 
141 
200 
163 
141 
case 111 
233 
23.1 
204 
165 
233 
189 
165 
care I 
240 
240 
210 
170 
240 
195 
170 
case I 
160 
I60 
140 
113 
160 
130 
113 
care I 
187 
187 
164 
132 
187 
152 
132 
Fe 360 
CBSC II 
180 
180 
158 
127 
180 
146 
127 
Fe 430 
cnse I! 
210 
210 
184 
149 
210 
171 
149 
Fc i i o 
Casi. ll 
270 
270 
236 
191 
270 
220 
191 
tnrc lli 
300 
300 
263 
212 
300 
244 
212 - 
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0 FEM Section I1 3-17 
Therefore, in general rhe Stresses amin and alnah for tlie iacgue strength caicuiations for tiie pareiii 
meta1 heside the weld seani. niust he computed using the classic~l iiiethods for calculatinp tlie 
strengt11 of inaterials. 
In order to verify tiie fatigue strengih of tlie weld itself. i t is gencrally Iield tiiat i t is sufSicieiii 10 
confirm tliat rhe weld is capable of iransniitting the sanie loads as tlie adjaceiit parent nictal. 
Tliis ruie is not obiipatoiy Iiowever when the pans joinied are generously diiiieiisioned i i i relatioi, i i i 
tlie forces actually transrnitted. Wlien tiiis is the case tlie wcld seani need oiiiy be diiiii.nsioiied iii 
accordance with those forces. with the proviso that a fatigue clieck siiould ilien bi: pcrSoi?iied iii 
accordancc witli chapter 3-4.5.2.1 
Whatever tlie case it is enipliasised [hat thc size o f a weld sliould iii\'ariably he i i i proportioii to rlic 
thickness of the asseiiibled parts. 
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3 - 2 . 3 BOLTED JOINTS 
3 - 2 . 3 . 1 GENERAL 
3-2.3.1.1 DEFINITIONS 
Mobile equipiiient for continuous handling of bulk materials includcs a large rarige oS hoili sizes aixi 
types oSsuucture which, in turn, can be subjected to a wide vai-iety ofloads. 
Various structural and meclianicai engiiieering disciplines have e\,olved sinipliiied mies and c&cs «I 
practice for tlie use ofbolts witli the types of structure and loadines niost comnionly encouiitered in 
each panicular iield. 
Bulk material handling macliiiies ofien iiiclude desigii deiails OS iiiaiiy types. aiid i t is tlic 
rcsponsibiiity of the designing eiigineer to apply existing codcs ofpractice only wlicre ~ippi-opriatc. 
Natioiial siaiidards and codes of practice. thougli ofien siniilar, do \'iiry coiisiderahiy in detail betwecii 
countries. Wliere National smndards exist, tliese iiia)' be used iii order I« coiiiply with local 
regulations and to suit the bolts, nuts, etc available in tlie country o l iiianufaciure aiid use. 
In aii attempt to avoid problems aristing from particular national intcrpretatioiis ofceriain ieriiis and 
phrases, sonie definitians are giveii in the followin: cliapiers. 
111 this section, thc terin "bolt" iiiay be taken to includc all 1SO iiietric bolts. scrcws. studs and 
threaded fasteners. In evety case, for each type and giade of bolt. the appropriate nui aiid waslicrs 
sliould be used. 
3-2.3.1.2 DESIGN 
Bolted joints should be designed on rlie basis of a realistic assuiiipiion of tlic distributioii 01' internal 
forces, liavingregard to relaiive stiffnesses. Sucli an assuinptioii should conespoiid with tlic diiect 
load paths through the eleiiients of connections. 
Where nieinbers are coniiected to the surface OS the web or flangc of a sect ioi~ tlie local ability of 
the web or flange to transfer tlie applied forces should be cliccked and stiffening providcd wlierc 
iiecessary. 
Ease of fabiicationand erection should be considered in tlie design of joiiits arid splices. Attention 
should be paid to clearances necessary for tighteniiig Sasieners, weldiiig procidures, subsequeni 
inspection, surface treatment and maintenance. 
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0 FEM Section I1 3-19 
The ductility of steel assist the distribution of forces generated within a joinl. Therefore residual 
Stresses need not usually be calculated. 
When different forms of fasteners are used, or when welding and fasteners are combined to camy a 
shear load, then one form of connection should normally be designed to camy the total load. 
High dutv bolted ioints 
For high duty bolted joints, especially under fatigue loading, where pretension is critical and 
embedding of the mating suriaces and local joint design details have a significant effect. a more 
rigorous analysis of the joint and bolt Stresses may be required. 
Ciearances 
The recommended clearance for bolts in holes is based on ISO 273. Values for the more common 
bolt diarneters are tabulated below for reference. 
Notes : Where necessary 10 avoid interierence between the edge of the hole and the under-head fillet 
of the bolt, a chamfer is recommended. 
niread diameter 
dr (mm) 
12 
16 
20 
24 
30 
36 
Clearance hole Dt (mm) 
fine 
13 
17 
2 1 
25 
3 1 
37 
medium 
13.5 
17.5 
22 
26 
33 
39 
come 
14.5 
18.5 
24 
28 
35 
42 
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3-20 G FEM Secii«ii 11 
Espccially for higher grade bolts under tensioii in mcdiuiii and coarse clearaiicc iioles. i t iiiny hc 
necessluy to check the bexing stress in thc plate material under the bolt liead aiid iiui. usiiig 
hardened steel wasliers as ncces sq . to lransfer tlie load. 
Tolerantes for fitted bolts 
Wlicre fitted bolts are used, tlic holes niust be drilled and reaiiied. Tlic tolcrance lur tlic Iiolc sliould 
beHI1 . 
Note : The tenn "Fitted bolt" is used to refer to aiiy bolt in a close littin: hole. In soiiie couritries 
special bolts are inade for use iii close fitting Iioies (e.:. DIN 7968 + DIN 7999) arid thcse sliould 
be used if appropriate. 
3-2.3.1.3 CONTROLLED TIGHTENING 
Joints tightened by controlled means iiiust not be placed uiidcr externally appiicd structur;iI Ioad 
until the joiiiting process is compietc. Tliis niay include the tigliteiiiiig of iiiore ihnn oiie joiiit. 
Care sliould be taken to ensure that bolts are correctly tizlitened and !hat tlie preload iiiduccd iii tlic 
first bolts in a joint is not lost as the rest of tlie bolts are tighteiied. 
Tlie use ot' spring or bite type lock washers is not recoiiiiiieiided for holts tiplitencd by cootr«lled 
iiieans. Tlic extra friction and joint scttleiiient involved causes uiipredictnble results aiid lass of 
preload. 
Each systeiii of controlled tightening lias its associated tolcrance raiigc. arid hotli tlic dcsigiier iuK1 
User must be aware of this to ensure that tlie holt is iieitlier »\,er-ieiisioned nor tlie joiiii undcr- 
tensioncd and liable to slip or fatigue. 
During controlled torque tighteniiig, considcration iiiust bc given to the effects of tliread aiid iiut facc 
friction. Under the combined elfect of tension and torsional loading. tlie iioininal iensile stress 
sliould not exceed 80 % of thc elastic limit io take account oi" tlic sciirter ii l the tigliteniiig process. 
3-2.3.1.4 MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE STRESS 
The niaximum perniissible stress, Ga, lor the bolt material sliould be calculated iii accordaiicc with 
section 3-2.1.1 
Tlie permissible working Stresses for bolts grades 4.615.618.8 aiid 10.9 x e suiiiinarized in 
table T.3-2.3.3.5. 
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O FEM Section I1 
3 - 2 . 3 . 2 ORDINARY BOLTS 
3-2.3.2.1 DEFINITIONS 
Ordinary bolts, often referred to as hlack bolts. ai.e carbon stec! holts witli widc $eoiiietric 
tolerantes, nornially of the lower strcngth grades (e.g. DIN 601, BS 4190 aiid ISO 4016). 
Note : the tenn "hlack" no ionger relaies io the appearances of tlie product. whicli niay I o d eiiliei- 
hlack or briglit in its finished state. 
3-2.3.2.2 APPLICATION 
Ordinary or black holis are nornially used in mediuiii oi- coase clearance lioles iii secoiidai? ,joiiiis 
that do not transiiiit heavy loads. 
Thcv niust not hc used in ioiiits suhieci to Faiioue loadiiig. 
The calculated siresses must iiot exceed : 
oab = 0.625 cr, in iension 
Noie : Tlie perinissible stress in bcarinf sliould be bascd on tlic yield stress oftlie holt or tlie platc - 
material, wliiche\'er Iias ihe lowcst value. 
Wlierever tliere is a risk of nuts or bolts coiiiiiig loose, tliey sliould be securcd by tlie use of lockiiig 
wasliers or equivalent. 
3 - 2 . 3 . 3 HIGHER GRADE BOLTS : PRECISION BOLTS 
Higher grade bolts, sometimes called precisioii bolts, are turiied or cold firiislied I» close ioleraiices 
(?.E. DIN 931, BS 3692 aiid ISO 4014). 
3-2.3.3.1 PRECISION BOLTS IN TENSION 
Rolts in tension can be used in Fine, medium or coarse clearance holes, as rcquircd. 
A) Bolts - tiolitencd bv not contn>lled ineans 
This simple tightening mcthod sliould oiiiy be used oii secotidary joints. 
Tlie niaxinium calculated teiisile stress shall not exceed 0.625 oa. 
Under fluctuating or revcrsing loads, tlie stress range (oniaX - crlllin) niusi be less thaii 10 % of tiie 
ultiiiiate stress BR, with a iiican stress level less tlian 15 % 013. 
Bolts under other cyclic loading conditions should be tighiened by controlled ineans. 
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3-22 % FEhI Scctioii I1 
Note : Spring or bite-type lock wasliers are not nonnally effective wlien used u,itli bolts 01 - 
grade 8.8 and abovc, where the liardness of tlie boll is similar to or peaier tlian (hat of tlie lock 
waslier. 
B) Bolts - tizhtened by conirolled nieans 
C. aie . sliould . be taken to ensurc tliat tiie joint is not subjected 10 sliear Ioadiiig unless ilic coiiditions 
in section 3-2.3.4 are mei. 
a) T_igh$e~i@.wfihomt~htcnin$ !oi%e 
Tlie maximuni tensile strcss o b sliall not exceed 0.8 OE. 
Ob < Gab = 0.8 OE 
b) Tighieniz.with Lw-! 
Tlie maxiiiiuin combincd Stress ob shall be cliecked as follows : 
op = tlieoretical tensile stress undcr tlie tigliteniiig effect 
~b = torsional stress undcr the tightening effect 
d2 = diameter of the root of the thrcad 
dl = iioininal diameter of the boll 
pa = thread pitch 
p = friction coefficient in the threads * 
OE = elastic liniit of tiie holt meta1 
* It is necessaiy to get (iroin tlie inanufacturcr for insiance) tlie actual value of p . Jusi foi. 
infonnation, the friction coefficient is normally between 0.10 and 0.18. 
C) Maximum allowable external loads 
Under iiiaximuni loading F1 the following two cliecks must be satisficd : 
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C3 FEM Section I1 3-23 
and check that : 
where 
F1 = load on joint 
Sb = bolt area at root of thread 
K.K' = safety coefficients given in section b) : table T.3-2.3.3.1 below 
where 
A l = shonening of the elements being tightened 
Al2 = lengthening of the bolt under the action of the tightening force 
op, Tb = as defined above 
: For assembled steel parts, the equivaleni section Seq to be considered for Al1 should be : 
where 
D1 = bearing diameter under bolt head 
ik = iength of tightening 
Dt = diameter of bolt holes 
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3-24 O FEM Section I1 
2 For bolts whose shank diameter diffus significantiy frorn the root diameter of tlie tluead, 
or where there is an appreciable threaded length contained within the holt siretcli lengtli, a compleie 
calculation of Al2 should be made. 
wliere 62 = 1 . 1 to allow for10 % rolerance in tensioning equipment 
Safety coefficieiits K, K' and K : 
K depends on the surface finish of tlie mating parts (K = I for machiiied surface) 
K' factor of safeiy on elastic limit (see tebie T.3-2.3.3.1) 
K" factor of safely on joint separation (see table T.3-2.3.3.1) 
Tabie T.3-2.3.3.1 
: The coefficients K' and K should be applied to the most unfavourable condition arising 
froin the scatter in applying the initial tightcning effort. 
K' 
K' ' 
3-2.3.3.2 PRECISION BOLTS IN SHEAR (BOLTS IN FITTED HOLES ONLY) 
Preferably used (with or without preload) forjoints subject to non-fluctuatine loads. 
Where fatigue loading occurs, iriction grip joints should be used. See scction 3-2.3.4. 
case I 
1.5 
1.3 
case I1 
1.33 
1 
case I11 
1.2 
I 
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O FEM Section I1 3-25 
A) Bolts in fine. medium or coarse clearance holes 
The calculated shear stress must not exceed 0.5 oa as for ordinary bolting, 
Note : The pennissible stress in bexing should be based on the yield stress of the holt or plate 
material, whichever has the lowest value. 
B) Bolts in fitted holes 
The calculated shear stress T must be : 
for single shear T < 0.6 aa 
for double shear T < 0.8 oa 
single shear double shea 
3-2.3.3.3 PRECISION BOLTS IN COMBINED TENSION AND SHEAR (BOLTS IN 
FITTED HOLES ONLY) 
A check shall be made that : 
in tension o < 0.625 oa 
in single shear T < 0.6 oa 
in double shear z < 0.8 B, 
and t h a t d a l + 3T2 < 0.625 da 
3-2.3.3.4 PRECISION BOLTS IN BEARING (BOLTS IN PITTED HOLES ONLY) 
The bearing capacity of a bolt in any joint shall be taken as the lesser of the beanng capacity of the 
bolt and the connected plates. 
A bolt can only be considered to be effective in bearing when none of the threaded portion is in 
contact with the joint plates. 
However, care must be taken to ensure that there is stiii sufficient threaded length to enable the joint 
to be correctly tightened. 
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O FEM Section I1 
Bearine ca~acity, 
The bearing pressure shall not exceed : 
1.3 0, for fitted bolts in single sbear 
1.75 0, for fitted bolts in double shear 
The bearing area for the bolt shall be considered as : 
Ab = dt . t 
where 
dt = nominal bolt diameter 
t = the thickness of the connected plate less half the depth of the chamfer, if appropriate 
The beaing area for the plate shail be considered as : 
where dt and t are as above and e is the edge distance from the cenae of the bolt hole to the nearest 
plate edge in the direction in which the bolt will shear. 
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0 FEM Section 11 3-27 
Table T.3-2.3.3.5 
PERMISSIBLE WORKlNG STRESSES FOR ORDlNARY AND HIGHER GRADE BOLTS - 
SUMMARY 
* : bearing Stress exceeds elastic limit of plate material Fc 360 steel ( i . e 240 Nli1iiiiZ) 
X : bearin: srress exceeds elastic limit of plate material Fe 510 steel (i.e. 360 Nimm? 
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3-28 0 FEM Section I1 
3 -2 .3 .4 HIGH TENSILE STEEL BOLTS WITH CONTROLLED 
TIGHTENING USED FOR FRICTIOK GRIP JOINTS 
3-2.3.4.1 GENERAL 
This type of joint is recommended for joints subject to fatigue where the priinary loads are parallel 
to the joint faces. 
The joint is made usirig high tensile steel bolts. i n conjunction witli high strength nuts and 
hardened steel washers. These elemenis are tightened to a specified inininium shanh teiisionso that 
loads can be transfe~~ed buween connected parts by friction and not by shear or beiiiing on the bolt. 
At the time of assembly, the mating surfaces must be free from paint, oil, dirt, loosc rusi or scale 
and any burrs and other defecü which would prevent solid seatinf of the joint faces aiid intcriere 
with the developrnent of friction between them. 
Where specific National codes or Standards exist these niay be used in place of tliis section 
3-2.3.4.1.1 BOLT QUALITY 
Bolts used for this type of joint must have a high elastic limit, and tlie ultirnate teiisile strcngth o~ 
musi be greater than the values given hereunder : 
1SO bolt 
The diameter of the bolt hole sliall bc no more than 2 mni larger tlian that of tlie bolt 
3-2.3.4.1.2 TENSILE STRESS AREA 
When determining the stress in the bolt, the tensile stress ma sliall bc calculated by taking the 
arithmetic mean of the core (ininor) diameter and the effective thread diameter. Tliese values are 
given in the following table : 
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O FEM Section I1 3-29 
3-2.3.4.1.3 WHASHERS 
A friction grip joint with high tensile steel bolts inust always include two hard steel washers, one 
under the holt hea.d, oiie under thc nur. Ll'iiere these u~liasliers Iiave a 45" bevel on tlie iiiternal rini, 
this must be turned towards tlie bolt head or i iu t . Thz wasliers inust iiave heen Iieat treated so tliat 
tlieir hardness is at least equal to those of tlie bolt rnatcrial. 
nominaldiameter 
(mm) 
tensile stress area 
(mm:) 
3-2.3.4.1.4 BOLT TIGHTENING 
12 
84.3 
Tlie valiie of the tcnsion induced in the holt riiust reach the \,aliie detennined by calculation aixi 
miist be applied by an acciirltely controlled meihod. 
8 
36.6 
\Vhere a controllzd torqiie metliod is used, the torquiiig dzvice must he regularly calihrated against a 
known standard for esch sizi of bolt used. 
10 
58 
l 'he torqus required, M„ can he derived from tiie cquation : 
14 
115 
dt is the iiominal holt diametci 
16 
157 
F is the claniping force to he induced in the bolt 
18 
192 
C is a cocfficient which includes tlie effects of uiread Eorrii and tliread mid nut/liead to washcr 
friction. l t is necessary to get (froin the supplier for iiistance), ilic actual value of C to take i t 
into account in the calculation of the tightening iorqiie. 
20 
245 
Note 1 : The use of p a s e in the ihread and hetween nuüh-ad aiid wasiier decreases the value o i 
coefficient C and allows for a hetter idea of the exact vaiue of this coefficient. But it is absolutely 
necessary to ensure that no grease is present between the plates to he joined. The use of MoSz 
grease (molykore for instaiice) is strongly recommeiided because. MoS, sticks and stays whcre it has 
heen applied to, while other lubrirants tend to creep and enter hetween the plates to he joined. 
Furthermore the used of MoS2 leads in iowest friction values for bolt tightening. 
22 
303 
Note 2 : Where corrosioii prohlems are anticipated, hol galvanized or sherardised bolts can he used. 
In that case, brittlcriess due to galvanizing has to be considered. 
24 
353 
27 
459 
30 
561 
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3-30 G FEM Section I1 
3-2.3.4.1.5 DETERMINATION OF THE STRESSES IN TUE MEMBERS JOINED 
For members suhject to compression, the suess is calculated on the goss section (cross-sectionai 
area of the holes not deducted). 
For members subjected to tension there are two cases : 
Ist: bolts set in a single row, perpendicular to the direction of the load ; the following 
conditions must be checked : 
a) the total load on the gross section 
b) 80 % of the total load on the net section (cross-sectional area of holes deducted) 
2nd : severai rows of holts petpendicular to the direction of the load 
The most heavily loaded section (conespondig to 
row 1 for the member A - see figure) must be 
analysed and the following two conditions i ? j 
checked : 1 . . . J + + + I 1 
a) the total load on the gross section 
b) on the net section, the total load from the 
otherrows (i.e. in the case of the figure, 213 
of the total load of the joint) to which 80 % 
of the load taken by row 1 isadded. 
This assumes that the load within a row is equally divided amongst all die bolts and that the number 
of rows of bolts is small because if there are too many, the last bolts cany little load. It is therefore 
recommended that not more than two rows of bolts shouid be used or exceptionaily three. 
3-2.3.4.2 EXTERh'AL LOADS ACTWG IN THE PLANE. OF THE JOINT (LOAD 
TYPE T) 
The pennissible load per bolt, Ta, whicil can be transrnitted through the joint is de tedned by the 
equation (Ta values are given in tables T.3-2.3.4.5.4) : 
where 
p is the friction coefficient from table T.3-2.3.4.2 
F is the clamping force in the joint per bolt given in tahles T.3-2.3.4.5.4 
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O FEM Section I1 3-3 1 
VT is the safety coefiicient against slipping : 
1.4 for the case I loading 
1.25 for the case I1 loading 
1.1 for the case Iii loading 
m is the numher of fnction surfaces (see iig. 3-2.3.4.2) 
Fig. 3-2.3.4.2 
I\WMBER OF EFFECTiVE FRICTION SURFACES 
1 friction surface m = 1 
1 , I > 
2 friction surfaces m = 2 
3 Giction surfaces m = 3 
Table T.3-2.3.4.2 : Joint friction coefficient 
The coefticient of friction used for each joint depends on the method of preparation of the joint 
surfaces. 
Before assembly, the surfaces must be thoroughly cleaned of all paint and oil. Loose rust, dia and 
mill scale must be completely removed by thorough brushing with a clean wire brush. 
Where surfaces have been machined, meta1 sprayed or othenvise treated, the coefficient of friction 
must be determined by test. 
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Table T.3-2.3.4.2 
VALUES OF U 
(I) such a special preparation is recommended for Eriction grip joints 
(2) if coated by non slip paint, the vaiue of 1 is 0.5 
joined material 
3-2.3.4.3 EXTERNAL LOADS ACTING PERPENDICULAR T 0 THE PLANE OF THE 
JOINT (LOAD TYPE N) 
The load distributioti within the joint must be evaiuated and the effect of aiiy exteriial axial loads oii 
the boirs must be checked in accordance with section 3-2.3.3.1 
nomally prepared sudaces 
(degreasing and bmshing) 
3-2.3.4.4 JOINTS WlTH EXTERNAL FORCE COUPLE (LOAD TYPE M) 
(I ) specially prepared suriaces 
(for example flaiiie-cleaned, 
shot or sand-blasted or coated 
by non slip paint) 
If the bolted joint is subjected to an extemal couple of forces, tlie increased tensile loading witliin 
the joint must be determined and the stress in the highest loaded bolts added to tiie existing tensile 
(type N) load. 
3-2.3.4.5 COMBINED EXTERNAL LOADINGS ON FRICTION GRIP JOINTS 
For coinbined loading (load type T, N & M) two checks must be made : 
a) That, for the most highly stressed bolt, the suni of the tensile stresses due io N and M loadings 
remains less than the permissible tensile stress as defined in 3-2.3.3. This requireineni is met where 
tlie external tensile force doesn't exceed the values giveii in table T.3-2.3.4.5.1. 
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O FEM Section I1 
Table T.3-2.3.4.5.1 
PERMISIBLE ADDiTiONAL Nadd.perm TENSILE FORCE PER BOLT 
where F i s the clampint force per bolt 
load case 
b) That the mean load T per bolt which is transmitred by friction is less than the following value : 
bl) T < (0.2 + Nadd.perm - rea . 0.8) Ta 
Nadd.perm 
m 
0.8 F 
I 
0.6 F 
where Ta is the admissible load per bolt if there is no additional external tensile force (3-2.3.4.2) 
Ta values are given in table T.3-2.3.4.5.4. 
n 
0.7 F 
The additional tensile force N increases the bolt Stress after tighteiiiiig by a certain suin which 
depends on the elasticity of the bolt and of the compressed inembers. This relation can be taken iiito 
account by the "coefficieiit ofelongation" whicii depends, for solid steel plates and for the types of 
bolts normaliy used in construction engineering, on the length of tiglitening lk and tlie diametcr of 
the bolt dt. 
For the normal case where the bolt is pretightened with : 
the permissible additional tensile force Na can be calculated with the followiiig formula : 
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i n which 
OE = clastic Iiniit of the bolt inetal 
va = safety coefficient for the load cases (val = 1.5 ; vail = 1.33 ; valli = 1.2) 
0 = coefficient of elongation on tlie basis of tlie ratio l]ildi according to table T.3-2.3.4.5.2 
Fs = stress section of the bolt (see section 3-2.3.4.1.2) 
Table T.3-2.3.4.5.2 
COEFFICIENT OF ELONGATION 
lk = length of tightening dt = diaincter of thc bolt 
Table T.3-2.3.4.5.3 gives permissible additional tensile forces Na for different bolls materials, 
diameters and load cases. 
The following table, T.3-2.3.4.5.4, gives per bolt and per friction surface. tlie values of tlic 
transmissible forces in the plane parallel to that of tlie joint ior various iiictioii coefficients lor tlic 
steels Fe 360, Fe 430 and Fe 510. 
To üpply ihese values, the number oi efiective friction surfaces as iiidicated iii 3-2.3.4.2 must be 
determined. 
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O FEM Section I1 
Table T.3-2.3.4.5.3 
PERMISSIBLE ADDITIONAL TENSILE FORCES K a m 
FOR BOLTS AFTER TIGHTENING WITH CLAMPING FORCE F IN kN 
Bolt material : ISO grade 8.8 
an = 800 Nlmml 
tightening Oa = 0.7 OE(0.2) 
Bolt material : ISO grade 10.9 
o R = 1,000 N/mm2 
OE = 900 Nltnm' 
tightening Oa = 0.7 o ~ ( 0 . 2 ) 
tightening 
leiigth 
lk (mm) 
10 
20 
30 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 
100 
tightening 
length 
lk (mni) 
d t = 16mm 
F = 70 kN 
load case 
di = 20 miii 
F = 110kN 
load case 
I 
18.8 
19.6 
20.9 
22.3 
24.5 
25.9 
27.5 
29.8 
31.2 
32.9 
I 
29.2 
29.9 
31.4 
33.0 
34.8 
38.0 
39.2 
41.8 
43.3 
46.5 
dl = 24 inrii 
F = 158kN 
load case 
di = 16 min 
F = 99kN 
load case 
I l n l m 
I 
42.7 
44.1 
45.9 
48.0 
50.2 
54.0 
55.9 
5 8 . j 
60.9 
II 
21.2 
22.1 
23.5 
25.2 
27.7 
29.2 
31.0 
33.6 
35.2 
37.0 
U 
32.9 
33.7 
35.4 
37.2 
39.3 
42.9 
44.2 
47.2 
48.8 
52.4 
d, = 20 nlm 
F = 154 kN 
load ca.e 
l l n l m 
m 
23.5 
24.5 
26.1 
27.9 
30.7 
32.4 
34.4 
37.2 
39.0 
41.0 
~n 
36.5 
37.3 
39.2 
41.3 
43.6 
47.5 
49.0 
52.3 
54.1 
58.1 
U 
48.2 
49.7 
51.8 
54.1 
56.6 
60.8 
63.0 
65.8 
68.7 
d, = 24 mrn 
F = 222 kN 
load case 
I l u I m . 
m 
53.4 
55.1 
57.4 
60.0 
62.8 
67.4 
69.9 
72.9 
76.2 
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3-36 O FEM Sectioii I1 
Table T.3-2.3.4.5.4 
'iR.4NS~1ISSlßl.E -- FORCFS IN '1'11E I'L.4St OF 'I'HF 10x 
ALL I-ORCFS GI\'FI\' PLK ROl.'I -\ND PFR T~RICl'ION SI'IIFr'CF T , !1\lS 
bolts to ISO class 8.8 - o~ = 800 Nimm' - OE = 640 N/inm' 
* C = 0.14 is used only as an example value. Where this coefficient is known or given by the 
supplier, the values of Applied Torque must be adjusted accordingly. 
boli 
dia- 
mtm 
dt 
mm 
10 
12 
14 
16 
18 
20 
22 
24 
27 
30 
bolts to ISO dass 10.9 - CSR = 1000 Nimm2 - OE = 900 Nlmni' 
In the above tables, 0, is lirnited to a maximuni value of 0.7 OE 
boll 
dia- 
m<er 
d1 
mm 
I0 
12 
14 
16 
18 
20 
22 
24 
27 
30 
In some circumstances, higlier values based on a maxiiiiuiii of 0 .8 can be used, but tliere is a 
higher risk of holt failure, and bolts tightened 10 0.8 OE must not he additionaliy loaded in tension 
by an extemal load. 
lensile 
sircas 
Fs 
mm2 
58 
84.3 
115 
157 
192 
245 
303 
353 
459 
561 
For bolts with lower strength grades, the values given above may be muitiplied by ttie ratio OE their 
yield or 0.2 % proof stresses. 
fenrile 
slress 
m 
Fs 
mm' 
58 
84.3 
115 
157 
192 
245 
303 
353 
459 
561 
clm- 
ping 
force 
F 
kN 
26 
37 
52 
70 
86 
110 
136 
158 
205 
249 
appiied 
force 
C-EO.IA 
Ma 
Nm 
40 
68 
112 
172 
238 
336460 
584 
852 
1,150 
clam- 
ping 
foree 
F 
kN 
37 
53 
73 
99 
121 
154 
191 
222 
289 
350 
noimally preparcd 
suifaccs 
"ring stcelr 
Tc 360. Fe 430. Fe 510 
iiormally prepared 
surfaces 
uiinp sleeii 
Fe 360. Fe 430. Tc 510 
upi>lied 
force 
r .=U. l i 
Ma 
Nm 
57 
98 
157 
244 
335 
474 
647 
820 
1,200 
1,617 
speciaiiy picpared suifaces 
I 
7.9 
11.4 
15.6 
21.2 
25.9 
33.0 
40.9 
47.6 
61.9 
75.0 
specially prepared surfaccs 
1 
5.6 
7.9 
11.1 
15.0 
18.4 
23.6 
29.1 
33.9 
43.9 
53.3 
M = 0.30 
u i i i ~g rleilr 
Fe 360. Fc 430. Fc 1 0 
p = 0.30 
Y S ~ S rieelr 
Fe 360. Fe 420. Fe 510 
8.9 
12.7 
17.5 
23.8 
29.0 
37.0 
45.8 
53.3 
69.4 
84.0 
13.2 
18.9 
26.1 
35.4 
43.2 
55.0 
68.2 
79.3 
103.2 
125.0 
urmg steelr Fe 510 
li = 0 5 5 
11 
6.2 
8.9 
12.5 
16.8 
20.6 
26.4 
32.6 
37.9 
49.2 
59.7 
I 
9.3 
13.2 
18.6 
25.0 
30.7 
39.3 
48.6 
56.4 
73.2 
88.9 
iising sleels 1-c ,I0 
U = 0.55 
I I ~ I 
10.1 
14.5 
19.9 
27.0 
33.0 
42.0 
52.1 
60.5 
78.8 
95.5 
14.5 
20.8 
28.7 
38.9 
47.5 
60.5 
75.0 
87.2 
113.5 
137.5 
m 
7.1 
10.1 
14.2 
19.1 
23.5 
30.0 
37.1 
43.1 
55.9 
67.9 
I 
10.2 
14.5 
20.4 
27.5 
33.8 
43.2 
53.4 
62.1 
80.5 
97.8 
1 i=O50 
ii = 0.50 
U 
10.4 
14.8 
20.8 
28.0 
34.4 
44.0 
54.4 
63.2 
82.0 
95.6 
14.8 
21.2 
29.2 
39.6 
48.4 
61.6 
76.4 
88.8 
115.6 
140.0 
U 
16.3 
23.3 
32.1 
43.6 
53.2 
67.8 
84.0 
97.7 
127.2 
154.0 
m 
11.8 
16.8 
23.6 
31.8 
39.1 
50.0 
61.8 
71.8 
93.2 
113.1 
n 
11.4 
16.3 
22.9 
30.8 
37.8 
48.4 
59.8 
69.5 
90.2 
109.5 
I I I L I I 
16.8 
24.1 
33.2 
45.0 
55.0 
70.0 
86.8 
100.9 
131.4 
159.0 
m 
18.5 
26.5 
36.5 
49.5 
60.5 
77.0 
95.5 
111.0 
144.5 
175.0 
UI 
13.0 
18.5 
26.0 
35.0 
43.0 
55.0 
68.0 
79.0 
102.5 
124.5 
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0 FEM Section 11 3-37 
3-2 .4 ROPES (GUY AND STAY ROPES) 
Only static ropes are tobe considered here, i.e. guy and stay ropes without any puileys or sheaves (fixed or 
mobile on the ropej. 
The safety of these ropes must be ensured againsi the risk of hrcaking for the forces of case I1 of loading 
(main and additional loadsj with a safety coefficient of minimum 3 against the breaking load of the ropc. 
Winch ropes with pulleys and sheaves and requiring replacement in the event of wearing (active ropesj an, 
examined in chapter 4 Mechanisms. 
Ir must be noted ihat static ropcs with one or more equalizing sheaves for example are to be considered as 
active ropes (running ropes, see 4-2.2) and their safety coefficient must be 6 or abo\'e. 
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3-38 O FEM Section I1 
3-3 CHECKTNG STABILITY OF PARTS SUBJECT T 0 CRIPPLING AND 
BUCKLING 
3 - 3 . 1 CHECKING STABILITY 01; STRUTS AND COLUMNS SUB-IECT T 0 
BUCKLING 
The guiding pnnciple shall be that parts subject to crippling must be designed with the same safety margin 
as that adopted for the strength calculation ; in other words, having determined the practical crippling 
stress, the inaximum pemissible stress shall be the crippling stress dividcd by the appropriate coefficicnt 
1.5 or I .33 or 1.2 specified in 3-2.1.1. 
The choice or a practical method of calculation is left to tlie manufacturer who must state the origin of the 
tnethod chosen. 
Where the metliod chosen invalves muliiplying the computed stress by a crippling coefficicni o dependaiii 
upon the slendemess ratio of the member and then checking that tliis amplified stress reiiiains lcss tlian a 
certain allowable stress, the value to be chosen for this allowable stress shall be as specified in 3-2.1.1. 
The values of 61, as a function of the slenderness ratio L, are fiven in the tables below ior ihe followitig 
cases : 
Table T.3-3.1.1 : rolled sections in Fe 360 steel 
Table T.3-3.1.2 : rolled sections in Fe 510 steel 
Table T.3-3.1.3 : tubes in Fe 360 steel 
Table T.3-3.1.4 : tubes in Fe 510 steel 
Determination of effective lenzths for calculatino the slenderiiess ratio 1, 
1 - In the ordinary case of bars pin joined at botli ends and loaded axially, the effective letigtli is taken as 
the length between hetween poinis of articulation. 
2 - For an axially loaded bar encastered at one end and free at the other the effective length is taken as twice 
the length of the bar. 
3 - For intermediate cases where uncertainty exists ai present about tlie effecl of fixity on niembers in 
compression, the effects of fixity are ignored and the meiiiber should be designed as if i t were pin 
jointed al both ends, with the effective length being takeii as the lengtli betweeti points of intersection 
of axes. 
The case of bars subiected to comnression and bending 
In the case of bars loaded eccentrically or loaded axially with a moinent causing bending in the bar : 
either check the following two formulae : 
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where : 
F is the compressive load applied io the b a ~ 
S is the section area of the bar 
Mf is thc bending moinent at the section considered 
is the distance of the extreme fibre from the neutral axis 
I is the moment of inertia 
or perform the precise calculation in terms of the deformations sustained by tlie bar under the combined 
effect of bending and compression, the necessary calculation being effected either by integration or by 
successive approximations. 
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3-40 G. FEM Section 11 
Table T.3-3.1.1 
VALUE OF THE COEFFICIENT w IN TERMS OF THE SLENDERNESS RATIO 7, 
FOR ROLLED SECTIONS IN Fe 360 STEEL 
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O FEM Section I1 3-41 
Table T.3-3.1.2 
VALUE OF THE COEFFICIENT w IN TERMS OF THE SLENDERNESS RATIO ;. 
FOR ROLLED SECTIONS IN Fc 5 10 STEEL 
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3-42 G FEM Section I1 
Table T.3-3.1.3 
VALUE OF THE COEFFICIENT w IN TERMS OF THE SLENDERNESS RATIO ?, 
FOR TUBES IN Fe 360 STEEL 
Table T.3-3.1.4 
VALUE OF THE COEFFICIENT o IN TERMS 01; SLENDERNESS RATIO h 
FOR TUBES IN Fe 5 10 STEEL 
h 
20 
30 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 
100 
110 
Note: The values of o in tables T.3-3.1.3 and T.3-3.1.4 are valid For an axially loaded bar 
consisting of a single tube whose dianleter is equal to at least six tinies its 
thickness. 
3 
1.00 
1.04 
1.08 
1.14 
1.21 
1.31 
1.42 
1.58 
1.79 
2.16 
takc the 
0 
1.00 
1.03 
1.07 
1.12 
1.19 
1.28 
1.39 
1.53 
1.70 
2.05 
h 
20 
30 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 
4 
1.01 
1.04 
1.09 
1.15 
1.22 
1.32 
1.44 
1.59 
1.83 
2.20 
foi. h > 90, take tlie values of w from tahle T.3-3.12 
1 
1.00 
1.03 
1.07 
1.13 
1.20 
1.29 
1.40 
1.54 
1.73 
2.08 
for 7, 
0 
1.02 
1.05 
1.11 
1.18 
1.28 
1.42 
1.62 
2.05 
3 
1.03 
1.07 
1.13 
1.21 
1.32 
1.47 
1.75 
values O E w fronl table T.3-3.1.1 
2 
1.00 
1.04 
1.08 
1.13 
1.20 
1.30 
1.41 
1.56 
1.76 
2.12 
> 115. 
4 
1.03 
1.07 
1.13 
1.22 
1.33 
1.49 
1.79 
5 
1.01 
1.05 
1.09 
1.15 
1.23 
1.33 
1.46 
1.61 
1.87 
2.23 
1 
1.02 
1.06 
1.11 
1.19 
1.30 
1.44 
1.66 
5 
1.03 
1.08 
1.14 
1.23 
1.35 
1.51 
1.83 
7 
1.02 
1.05 
1.10 
1.17 
1.25 
1.35 
1.48 
1.64 
1.94 
6 
1.01 
1.05 
1.10 
1.16 
1.24 
1.34 
1.47 
1.63 
1.90 
2 
1.02 
1.06 
1.12 
1.20 
1.31 
1.46 
1.71 
8 
1.05 
1.10 
1.16 
1.26 
1.39 
1.57 
1.97 
6 
1.04 
1.08 
1.15 
1.24 
1.36 
1.53 
1.88 
9 
1.05 
1.10 
1.17 
1.27 
1.41 
1.59 
2.01 
8 
1.02 
1.06 
1.1 1 
1.17 
1.26 
1.36 
1.50 
1.66 
1.97 
7 
1.04 
1.09 
1.16 
1.25 
1.38 
1.55 
1.92 
9 
1.02 
1.06 
1.1 I 
1.18 
1.27 
1.37 
1.51 
1.68 
2.01 
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O FEM Section I1 3-43 
3 - 3.2 CHECKINGELEMENTS SUBJECT T 0 LATERAL BUCKLING 
The manufacturer is free to choose the method ior checking the strength of structural elements subiect to 
lateral buckling. He must justify the origin of the method selected and apply it judiciously to load cases I, 
LI and In. 
The following lisl is not exhaustive, but, among the most commonly used methods, there are : 
1 - in Germaiiy, DIN 4 114 
2 - in Belgium tbe regulations NBN 1 
3 - in France the rules CM 1966 
4 - in United Kingdom, BS 2573 
3 - 3.3 CHECKING PLATES SUBJECT T 0 BUCKLING 
In determining the new buckling safety coefficients, stated below. i t was considered that flat plates wider 
coinpressive stresses equally distributed over the plate width are exposed to a greater danger of buckling 
than plates under stresses changing from compression to tension over the plate widtli. 
In consequeiice, safety against buckling was made dependant on the ratio oistresses at the plate edges Y. 
In addition it was found necessary to determine the critical buckling stress for circular cylinders and the 
spacing and moment of inertia of tlie iransverse stiffeners in order to avoid too great divergentes in the 
effective safety due to the used of highly divergent data in technical literature. 
It shall be verified that the calculated stress is not bigher than tlie critical buckling stress divided by the 
following coefficients V, : 
The edge-suesses ratio Y varies between - 1 and + 1. For the definition of v v , Y corresponds to the 
plate to be stiffened. 
buckling of plane members 
buckling or curved memhers 
circular cylinders 
(e.g. : tubes) 
load c z e 
I 
U 
In 
I 
U 
m 
buckling safety vv 
1.70 + 0.175 (Y - I) 
1.50 + 0.125 (Y - I ) 
I .35 + 0.075 (Y - 1) 
1.70 
1 .SO 
1.35 
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3-44 O FEM Section I1 
From a theoretical standpoint, the criticai buckling stress o:r is regarded as a multiple of the Euler Stress 
and is given by the fomula : 
representing the critical buckling stress for a strip of thickness e, having a width equal to b, this being the 
plate dimension measured in the direction perpendicular to the compression forces (see sketch below). 
In this fomula, E is the modulus of elasticity and q Poisson's Ratio. 
For normal steels in which E = 210,000 Nlmrnz and q = 0.3, the Euler Stress becomes : 
V 
The critical buckling stress Ger must be a multiple OE this value, whence, for compression : 
For shear the critical buckling stress is : 
The coefficients Ko and KT known as the buckling coefficients, depend on : 
a - the ratio a = - of the two sides of the plate 
b 
- the manner in which the plate is supported along the edges 
- the type of loading sustained by the plate in its own plane 
- any reinforcement of the plate by stiffeners. 
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O FEM Section I1 3-45 
Values of coeficients Kg gd KT 
Without wishing to enter into the details of this problem, which is the subject of specialized w«rks and of 
particular Standards, typical values of Ko and Kr are given hereafter (see table T.3-3.3.1). 
For more complex cases, reference should be made to specialized literature. 
Combined comnression and shear 
Taking 0 and T to be the calculated stresses in coinpression and in sliear tiic critical comparison 
V 
stress acr,c is determined from the expression : 
Y being defined in the table T.3-3-3.1 
\, 
Iinßortant note : It is essential to note that the formulae above giving the critical stresses a 
aiid oir, r 
apply only when the values determined thus are below tlie limit of proportionality (i.e. 160 Nimm' ?or 
Fc 360 steel, 290 Nimm2 for Fe 510 steel). 
V 
Similary, the formula giving zcr applies only when the value 6 T' is below tlie limit of Cr 
proportionality. 
Whenever the formulae give values above these limits, it is necessary to adopt a limiting critical value, 
obtained by multiplying the calculated critical value by the coefficient p giveii in tlie table T.3-3.3.2, 
\I \, wliich also indicates the reduced values corresponding to various calculated values ol'ocr aiid T,, . 
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3-46 O FEM Section I1 
Table T.3-3.3.1 
V L U E S OF THE BUCKLING COEFFICIENTS K, AND K, 
No. 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
case 
Simple uniform compression 
Non-uniform cornpression 
Pure bending Y = - 1 or 
bending with tension 
preponderant Y < - 1 
C""" 
1 
T e n s . 3 
Bending with compression 
preponderant - 1 < Y < 0 
Tens 
4.W Lu 
Pure shear 
a 
a = b 
a $ l 
a < l 
a > 1 
a-1 
2 
2 
a 5 3 
Ko 01 KT 
K,=4 
1 2 Ka=(a+;) 
K, = 8.4 Y + 1.1 
1 2 2.1 
Kd=(ai-). 
a Y + 1.1 
Ka = 23.9 
Kd = 15.87 + - + 8.6 al a2 
Ko = (1 + Y) K - Y K" + 10 Y (1 + Y) 
E ' Z i u e of K~ for = o in case no, 2 
K" = value of K, for pure bending (case no. 3) 
a > i 
a 5 1 
4 
KT = 5.34 + - 
a1 
5.34 
KT = 4 + - 
Cl1 
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O FEM Section I1 
Table T.3-3.3.2 
VALUES OF o AND THE REDUCED CRITiCAL STRESSES 
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3-48 O FEM Cection 11 
Detemination of ~ermissible bucklino stresses 
After the critical buckling stresses have been determined as indicated above, the permissible suess is 
obtained by dividing the critical suess by the coefiicient vv (from clause 3-3.3). 
The calculations are then performed as follows : 
The maximum stresses are determined for each load case and a check is made to ensure that these caiculated 
shesses do not exceed the permissible shesses determined as indicated above. 
\, 
Note: In the case of combined compression and shear, tbe critical comparison stress must k 
compared with the equivalent stress calcuiated from the fonnula in clause 3-2.1.3 : 
Examole of a check for buckling 
Take the case of a plate girder in Fe 360 steel, having a span of 10 m, a depth of 1.50 m. a web thickness 
of 0.010 m, a uniformly dismbuted load of 162 kNIm and stiffeners 1.25 m apart. 
Reactions on Supports : A = B = 810 kN 
Moment of inertia of the beam I = 1 419 000 cm4 
Selected at section MN, located 0.625 m from A 
Bending moment at MN : 
Upper stress (compression) : 
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O FEM Section I1 
Lower stress (tension) : 
These Stresses are caiculated ar the upper and lower edges of the web. 
Shear siress : 
8 1 0 . 10 ' - 1 6 2 . 0 . 6 2 5 . 10' =47Nlmn,l 
1 0 . 1,500 
Bending -. (with compression preponderant = case no. 4 in table T.3-3.3.1.) : 
giving K, = (1 + Y)K' - '1' K" + 10 Y ( I + Y ) 
1 2 2.1 1 ' 2.1 in which K' = (CX +--) , G = (0.83 , yy = 7.90 
and K" = 23.9 
whence KO = (I - 0.79) 7.90 + 0.79. 23.9 - 1 0 . 0.79 ( I - 0.79) = 18.88 
The Euler Stress : 
giving a critical buckling stress : 
V 
,CI 
= K,. G: = 18.89 . 8.4 = 158.6 NIinm2 
Shear : - -. 
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G FEM Section I1 
Tlie critical comparisoii stress then hecomes : 
Conclusion -. : 
Tbc comparison Stress in Ihe case of tension (or compression) conibined with shear is given in ~lause 
3-2.1.3 : 
This value is smaller than the admissible buckling stress (calcuiaied wiih V,. = 1.386) i.e. 
Y = 121 Nimm2 for loading case I. 
1.386 
The perniissibie buckling stress is therefore not exceeded in load case 1. 
Naturally, a check must also be madc to ensure that tiic permissible buckling Stresses are not exceedcd in 
load cases I1 and 111. 
Checkinz for buckline in circular cvlinders : 
Thin wall circular cylinders such as, for example, largc tubes, which are subjeci to central of eccentric axial 
compression have to be checked for local bucklingif : 
where : 
t = thickness of the wall 
r = radius from the middle of the wall thickness 
OE = elastic limit of the steel type. as in tabie T.3-2.1.1 
E = inodulus of elasticity see 3-2.1.1 
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O FEM Section I1 3-51 
v 
The "ideal" buckling siress oi can be determined from : 
v 
In all cases where U. 1s situated above the limit of proportionaiity of the stnictural steel, the "ideal" 
buckling stress G: das to be reduced to UV by means of the factor p. 
At a maximum spacing of 10r, transverse stiffeners have to be provided whose moment of inertia has to be 
at leasl : 
the moinent of inertia is calculated from the following formuiae : 
1 - Central disposition of the stiffener(s) F (cenire of gravity of the stiffener section in the median plane 
of tbe wall thickness) 
2 - Eccenmc disposition of the stiffener F2 (centre of gravity of the stiffener section F2 outside the median 
plane of the wall F1) 
V 
It is accepted that in the caiculation of U. and ov account is taken of geomeirical divergence due to 
t local conshuction defects between the r ed and the ideal cyiinder surfaces up to a maximum of - 
2 ' 
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 3-54 © FEM Section II 
 .../ 
In order to classify the importance of these notch effects, the various joint details are divided into 
categories as follows : 
 
 
Unwelded parts : 
 
These members present three classes of notch effect : 
 
Case W0 concerns the material itself without notch effect. 
 
Cases W1 and W2 concern perforated members (see tables T.3-4.5.2.3). 
 
 
Welded parts : 
 
These joints are arranged in order of the severity of the notch effect increasing from K0 to K4, and relate 
to structural parts located close to the weld details. 
 
The table T.3-2.2.1 gives some indications as to the quality of the welding required and the weld 
classification and tables T.3-4.5.2.3 give the various types of joints that are most often used in the 
construction of handling appliances. 
 
 
 
 
3-4.3 DETERMINATION OF THE MAXIMUM STRESS σmax 
 
The maximum stress σmax is the highest absolute stress (i.e. it may be tension or compression) which 
occurs in the member in load case I (see clause 2-3.1). 
 
When checking members in compression for fatigue the crippling coefficient, ω, given in clause 3-3 
should not be applied. 
 
 
 
 
3-4.4 RATIO κ BETWEEN THE EXTREME STRESSES 
 
This ratio is determined by calculating the extreme values of the stresses to which the component is 
subjected under case I loadings. 
 
The ratio may vary depending upon the operating cycles but it is on the safe side to determined this ratio κ 
by taking the two extreme values which can occur during possible operations under case I loadings. 
 
Where σmax and σmin are the values of these extreme stresses, σmax being the extreme stress having the 
higher absolute value, the ratio κ may be written : 
 
 
κ = 
σmin
σmax 
 or, in the case of shear, 
τmin
τmax
 
 
 
This ratio, which varies from + 1 to - 1, is positive it the extreme stresses are both of the same sense 
(fluctuating stresses) and negative when the extreme stresses are of opposite sense (alternting stresses). 
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3-54 O FEM Section 11 
3 - 4 .5 CALCULATING MEMBERS SUBJECT T 0 FATIGUE 
Using the parameters defined in clauses 3-4.1 to 3-4.4 tlie adequacy o i structural niembers aiid joints 
subject to fatigue is ensured by checking that the stress anax, as defined iii clause 3-4.3. is not greater 
than the permissible stress for fatigue of the member under consideration. 
Tliis permissible stress ios fatigue is derived from the critical stress, which. on tlie basis o i tests ii~ade with 
test pieces, corresponds to a 90 O/c probability of survival. To tiiis, a coefficient o i safery of 1.33 is applied 
thus : 
o(at 90%. survival) 
B, ior fatigue = 1.33 
= 0.75.0 at 90% survival 
The determination o i these permissible stresses is a complex problein and it is generally ad\'isahle to refer 
to specialized hooks on tlie subject. 
Table T.3-4.5.1.1 gives basic values ou., hased on the result o i researcli in this iield, for thc detem~inaiion 
of permissible stresses in Fe 360, Fe 430 and Fe SI0 steels, accordiiig to thc various groups in wliicii thc 
components are classified. aiid the notch effect classes ins the niain types of joints u s d in the manufacture 
of handling appliance. 
3 -4 .5 .1 FATIGUE CHECK FOR STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 
(DETERMINATION OF THE PERMISSIBLE STRESSES FOR 
FATIGUE) 
3-4.5.1.1 TENSILE AND COMPRESSIVE LOADS 
Tlie nuinber of cycies and stress spectruni Iias hceii taken into account i n determiniiig the group 
classification for each member. A value of B, can therefore be selected froin a knowledge of the 
component classification group and the material concerned. 
For unwelded Parts, the values ow are identical for steel Fe 360 and Fc 330. Tliey are higher for 
Fe 510. 
For welded pans, the values ow are identical Eor tlie tliree steel grades. 
It is to be noted that. thesc hasic values for pemissible stresses are also applicable to weid seams 
(see 3-4.5.2.1). 
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O FEM Section I1 
Table T.3-4.5.1.1 
VALUES OF owiN/mm2) DEPENDING ON THE COMPONENT 
GROUP AND CASE OF NOTCH EFFECT 
Note : All values wliich are greater tlian the adnussible values with respect to the elastic limit an 
theoretical values only (see note at the end of clause 3-4.5.1.3). 
compo- 
nent 
group 
EI 
E2 
E3 
E4 
ES 
E6 
E7 
E8 
For all values of K, the following formulae give the permissible Stresses for fatigue : 
5 - for teiision : (T~=O,,,- 
3 - 2 K (1) 
- for compression : 2 c I ~ = O W - 
I - K (2) 
unweided cornponcnts - noich effect 
a, is given in table above. 
b) K > O 
wcided cornponents - noich effect 
(sieels Fc 360 toFc 510) 
- for tension : 
"0 
Kg 
361.9 
293.8 
238.4 
193.5 
157.1 
127.5 
103.5 
84.0 
- for compression : 0, = I .2 01 
Fc360 
Fe 430 
249.1 
224.4 
202.2 
182.1 
264.1 
147.8 
133.2 
120.0 
where oo = tensile stress for K = O is given by the formula (1) that is : 
Fe510 
298.0 
261.7 
229.8 
201.8 
177.2 
1556 
136.6 
120.0 
W I 
Fe360 
Fe 430 
211.7 
190.7 
171.8 
154.8 
139.5 
125.7 
113.2 
102.0 
W? 
KI 
323.1 
262.3 
? I 2 9 
172.8 
140.3 
113.8 
92.4 
75.0 
Fe510 
253.3 
222.4 
195.3 
171.5 
150.6 
132.3 
116.2 
102.0 
Fe360 
Fe 430 
174.4 
157.1 
141.5 
127.5 
114.9 
103.5 
93.2 
84.0 
K2 
271.4 
220.3 
178.8 
145.1 
117.8 
95.6 
77.6 
63.0 
K 3 
1939 
157.4 
127.7 
103.7 
84.2 
68.3 
55.4 
45.0 
Fe510 
208.6 
183.2 
160.8 
141.2 
124.9 
108.9 
95.7 
84.0 
K4 
116.3 
94.4 
76.6 
62.2 
50.5 
41.0 
33.3 
27.0 
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3-56 O FEM Section I1 
o+ 1 = tensiie stress for K = + 1 that is the ultimate strengtli CSR divided by the coefficient of 
safety 1.33 : 
or is liniited in every case to 0.66 GE. 
3-4.5.1.2 SHEAR STRESSES IN THE MATERIAL OF STRUCTURAL PARTS 
For each of e group from EI to E8 the permissible fatigue stress in tension of the case W0 
: divided by 3 1s taken 
ot of case M'0 
ra = 
.I; 
3-4.5.1.3 COMBINED LOADS IN TENSION (OR COMPRESSION) AND SHEAR 
In this case the permissible stresses for fatigue for eacli normal load in tensioii (or coinpression) oxa 
and oxa and shear are determined by assuming that each acts separately taking respectively lhe 
following values of K in accordance with clause 3-4.4 : 
o x min 
K x =- 
Ox max 
Ov min 
; K -- 
Y -oy max 
T x v inin 
and Kxy = 
Txy inüx 
Then the foliowing three conditionsare checked : 
ox max 5 oxa : Dy inax oya 7xy iiiax 5 Txya 
None of the calculated stresses should exceed the permissible value of <ra (or T,) i n case I loading 
(see table T.3-2.1.1). 
Then for the verification under the effect of a combination of these three types of loads, the 
following two cases are considered : 
a) If any one stress is markedly greater than the otiier two for a given load case, it is only necessary to 
check the member for fatigue under that load, neglecting the effect of the otlier two. 
h) In the other cases, in addition 10 checking for each loading assunied to act aloiie. it is recommended 
that the following relationship be checked : 
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O FEM Section I1 3-57 
(%))+(-)?- OX max . 0 1 ' m a x + max ) ? < I 
oxa O Y ~ I ~ x a l . loyal rxya 
* (1) (5) 
where the Stress values ox„ oya and ixya are those resulting from the applicatioii of fomlulae ( 1 1. 
( 2 ) . (3) and (4) of clause 3-4.5.1 .I and Iiinited to 0.66 OE. 
In applying tliis forrnula, reference should be made to the indications given in clause 3-2.1.3 
(including the note at the end). 
In order to facilitate the calculations, table T.3-4.5.1.3 gives tlie permissiblc values of : 
i x y max OX max as a function of - and of 
Txya oxa a 
OX max 
In this table, tlie values of - are given in the left hand colunin witli the following 
oxa 
convention : the ratio is considered tobe positive if Ox „„ and Gy Iiave tlie sanie sigii. axi 
negative otherwise. 
*(I) As this inequality constitutes a severe requirement, values slightly h i g h that I are acceptable, hut 
in this case it is necessary to check the relation : 
-\j<-)? + (o-->, 0. n ~ a x 0. max +(*) T X max 2 2 1 . 0 5 
OY a l ~ x a l . loyal xya 
It sliould also be noted that the values loxa] and,lcrya[ i n thc denoininator for the third term should be 
taken as absolute values, ax and oy mX being asigned their algehraic values. 
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3-58 O FEM Section 11 
Table T.3-4.5.1.3 
'X max O X max 
VAI-UES OF Y IN TERMS OF - 
Txya oxa 
If o, „, and Ciy max are of opposite sign (tensioii or compression) read the values OS 
<Jx max 
Oxa 
+ l . O 
+ 0 . 9 
+0 .8 
i O . 7 
+ 0 . 6 
+ 0 . 5 
+ 0.4 
t 0 . 3 
+ 0.2 
+ 0 . 1 
0 
- 0.1 
- 0.2 
- 0.3 
- 0.4 
- 0.5 
- 0.6 
- 0.7 
- 0.8 
- 0.9 
- 1.0 
X max OX inax IY- starting from the negative values OS-. 
'xya oxa 
Note : From table T.3-4.5.1.1 it can be seen that in groups EI and E2 inucli higher stresses than - 
those usually pennitted in structures are quoted. These values are tlieoretical values obtained by 
extrapolation of the Lest results on higher groups (E3 to E8) with medium 01 severe notch cases 
(K2, K3 and Kq). Therefore there is no need to attach any material significance to these values in 
brackets, consideration of which could in some cases lead 10 the conclusion tliat an assemhly of type 
Ko or K1 could resist fatigue better tlian the unwelded meta1 (case Wo). This apparent anomaly 
illustrates the well known iact that it is not always necessary to cany out fatigue checks for ihe 
lower groups with slight or moderate notch effect classes. 
Gy max 
oya 
For the purpose of calculation it must be remembered that these theoretical ow values are used only 
to determine the pennissible fatigue stresses axa, oya and .rxya ior use i n the iomiula wiiich Covers 
the case of combined loads. 
1.0 
0 
0.300 
0.400 
0.458 
0.490 
0.500 
0.490 
0.458 
0.400 
0.300 
0 
0.9 
0.300 
0.436 
0.520 
0.575 
0.608 
0.625 
0.625 
0.608 
0.575 
0.520 
0.436 
0.300 
0.8 
0.400 
0.520 
0.600 
0.656 
0.693 
0.714 
0.721 
0.714 
0.693 
0.656 
0.600 
0.520 
0.400 
0.173 
0.7 
0.458 
0.575 
0.656 
0.714 
0.755 
0.781 
0.794 
0.794 
0.781 
0.755 
0.714 
0.656 
0.575 
0.458 
0.265 
0.6 
0.490 
0.608 
0.693 
0.755 
0.800 
0.831 
0.849 
0.854 
0.849 
0.831 
0.800 
0.755 
0.693 
0.608 
0.490 
0.300 
0.5 
0.500 
0.625 
0.714 
0.781 
0.831 
0.866 
0.889 
0.900 
0.900 
0.889 
0.866 
0.831 
0.781 
0.714 
0.625 
0.500 
0.300 
0.4 
0.490 
0.625 
0.721 
0.794 
0.849 
0.889 
0.917 
0.933 
0.938 
0.933 
0.916 
0.889 
0.849 
0.794 
0.721 
0.625 
0.490 
0.265 
0.3 
0.458 
0.608 
0.714 
0.781 
0.854 
0.900 
0.933 
0.954 
0.964 
0.964 
0.954 
0.933 
0.900 
0.854 
0.781 
0.714 
0.608 
0.458 
0.173 
0.2 
0.400 
0.575 
0.693 
0.781 
0.849 
0.900 
0.938 
0.964 
0.980 
0.985 
0.980 
0.964 
0.938 
0.900 
0.849 
0.781 
0.693 
0.575 
0.400 
0.1 
0.300 
0.520 
0.656 
0.755 
0.831 
0.889 
0.933 
0.964 
0.985 
0.995 
0.995 
0.985 
0.964 
0.933 
0.889 
0.831 
0.755 
0.656 
0.520 
0.300 
0 
0 
0.436 
0.600 
0.714 
0.800 
0.866 
0.917 
0.954 
0.980 
0.995 
1.000 
0.995 
0.980 
0.954 
0.917 
0.866 
0.800 
0.714 
0.600 
0.436 
0 
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3 - 4 . 5 . 2 JOINTS (WELDS AND BOLTS) 
3-4.5.2.1 WELDS 
aj Tensile and comnressive loads in welds 
Welds subject to fatigue under tensile and compressive loads are cliecked usiiig the same permissihle 
stresses as thosc of the metal joined. Tables T.3-4.5.3.1 to T.3-4.5.3.4 give the periiiissible stress 
according to K and the group of tlie coinponeiit. 
Note : The limits indicated under 3-2.2.2 for cenain panicular cases of transverse tcnsioii and 
compression in weld seams must be observed. 
Chapter 3-2.2.3 gives, iii additioii, sotne indications for the determination of tlie stresses iii the weld 
seanis. 
b) Shear loads in the welds 
The permissible sliear fatigue stre es in the wclds arc determined by dividiiig tiie perriiissihle 
stresses in tension for case Kg by 8. Tables T.314.5.3.5 give the permissible Stress according to K 
and the group of the component. 
C) Coinbined loads 
The method set out above for structural members is used wlien considering tlie efi'ect of fatigue in 
weld seatns subjected to variable combined loads. 
3-4.5.2.2 BOLTED JOINTS 
A) PRECISION BOLTS 
a) Shear loads and bearins Dressure 
Single and double shear loads as defined under 3-2.3.3.2 must be treated separaiely : 
The permissible shear stresses for fatigue in bolts are fixed by multiplying tlie periiiissible stresses 
intension for case W2 by : 
0.6 for single shear 
0.8 for double shear 
The permissible bearing pressure values are obtained by multiplying the permissible shear values i n 
the bolts by 2.5. 
The permissible fatigue stresses are given directly, according to factor K (ratio hetween extreme 
stresses) on the following tables : 
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3-60 O FEM Seciion I1 
- single and double shear in fitted bolts, grade 4.6 and 5.6 for groups E5 to EX. table T.3-4.5.3.6 
- bearing Stresses for fitted bolts, grade 4.6 and 5.6 for sirigle and double shear and for groups E5 
to EX, table T.3-4.5.3.7. 
b) Bolts with controlled t i~hteninp 
Under the effect of the service load F1, the true tensile stress varies betwecn the values : 
F l , & b 
op and Op +- 
Sb 
wliere : 
ap = theoretical tensile stress under the tightening effect 
Sb = section of the root (< section of the shank) 
6b = *I1 (sce 3-2.3.3.1) Al1 t Al2 
The foliowing equation must be verified : 
oa is tlie an~plitudc of the maximuiii permissible stress for fatigue given in tlie following graph 
3-4.5.2.2. 
For any other type of bolt or design method the oa value should ensure at least an equivalent level 
of safety against fatigue. 
Any conformity tests sliould be canied out according to ISO spccification ISO 380011 Cllireaded 
fasteners - Axial load fatigue testing - Part 1 : Test methods) with om = 0.8 RE (RE = OE). 
B) Bolts in friction p r i ~ ioints witli controlled tiehtening 
High tensile steel bolts with controlled tightening as defined in 3-2.3.4 have not to bc verified for 
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O FEM Section I1 3-61 
Graph 3-4.5.2.2 
Amplitude of maximum ~xnnissible fatieue s t r e s CA 
Graph for ISO bolts 
- standard thread 
- classes 8.8, 10.9, 12.9 
- cold rolled thread with heat treatment after rolling 
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O FEM Section 11 
Tables T.3-4.5.2.3 
CASES OF NOTCH EFFECT 
In the tables below the various joint details are classified in terms of the magnitude of the notch effect they 
produce. 
It should be noted that, for any given weid, the notch effect dffers according to the type of loading to 
which the joint is subjected. 
For example, a fillet welded joint is classified under case Ko for longitudinal tension or compression loads 
(ref. 0.31) or longitudinal shear (ref. 0.51), and under cases K3 or Kq for mansverse tension or 
compression loads (ref. 3.2 or 4.4). 
1 - NON WELDED PARTS 
Case Wo 
Case W1 
Reference 
W0 
Description 
Parent metal, homogeneous surface. Pari 
without joints or breaks in continuity 
(solid bars) and without notch effects 
unless the latter can be defined by 
calculation 
Reference 
W1 
Fiaure 
Descnption 
Part drilled for nveting or bolting with 
nvets and bolts loaded up to 20 % of 
permissible values. Parts drilled for joints 
using high strength bolts (Cl. 3-2.3.4) 
loaded up to 100 % or permissible values 
(Cl. 3-2.3.3) 
Symbol 
Fiaure 
- wj - 
. . : *&&' 
/ I I 
Symbol 
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O FEM Section I1 3-63 
Case W2 
2 - WELDED PARTS 
Case Ko - Slight stress concentration 
Reference 
W2.1 
W2.2 
W2.3 
Description 
Parts drilled for riveting or bolting in 
which the rivets or bolts are loaded in 
double shear 
Parts drilled for nveting or bolting, in 
which the rivets or bolts are loaded in 
single shear (allowing for eccentric loads), 
the parts being unsupponed 
Parts drilled for assembly by means of 
nvets and bolts loaded in single sbear, the 
parts being supported or guided 
Reference 
0.1 
0.1 1 
0.12 
0.13 
0.3 
Figure 
i.-- 
A A 
~$=?y++! , 
Description 
Part of equal ihichess, butt-welded 
(special quality) at right angles to direction 
of forces 
Parts of different thichess butt-welded 
(special quality) at right angles to direction 
of forces 
Asymmetrical slope : 114 to 115 
Symmetrical slope : 113 
Butt-weld (special quality) foming 
transverse joint in web plate 
Gusset secured by butt-welding (special 
quality) at right angles to the direction of 
the forces 
Parts joined by butt-welding parallel to the 
direction of the forces 
Symbol 
Figure 
@' /' 
- 4 
-1-b- 
- [$-I1 
.-. 
Symbol 
see page 
3-14 
- 
U 
P 100 
4; - 
- 
U 
P E0 
4; - 
Y - 
P t 0 0 
X - 
Y 
P 100 
ti 
!L 
P ~ O O ~ P 
X 
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3-64 @ FEM Sectioii I1 
Case Ko - Slight siress concentration (coniinued) 
Parts joined by filled welds parallel to the 
direction of the forces 
Butt-weld in longitudinal shear 
Case K1 -Moderate stress concentration 
Reference 
1.1 
1.1 1 
1.12 
Descnption 
Parts joined by butt-welding at nght 
angles to the direction of the forces 
Parts of different thickness butt-welded at 
nght angles to the duection of the forces : 
Asymmemcal slope : 114 to 115 
(or symmeüical slopes : 113) 
Butt-weld executed for transverse joint of 
web plate 
Fi)iure 
J @'/ 
+n 
1 -t, 
-ir 
see page 3-14 
Symbol 
V 
pioo/.F! 
, X 
U 
P~OO/P. 
X 
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O FEM Section I1 3-65 
Case K] - Moderate stress concentration (conunued) 
Continuous main member to which pans 
are joined at nght angles to the direction 
of forces by continuous K-welds (special 
Compressed flanges and webs fixed by 
fillet weld (special quality) to transverse 
(classification otily applies to fillet weld 
area), the welds extending round the 
comers of the web stiffeners 
Parts joined by butt-welding parallel to the 
direction of the forces (without checking 
I I 
Case K2 - Medium stress concentration 
Reference 
2.1 
Description 
Parts of different thckness butt-welded at 
right angles to the direction of the forces. 
Asymmetrical slope : 113 
Symmetrical slopes : 112 
Figure 
Symbol 
aee page 
3.14 
V 
PIOO/.P. 
X 
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3-66 O FEM Section I1 
Case K2 -Medium Stress concentration (continued) 
Reference 
2.1 1 
2.12 
- 
2.13 
2.2 
2.21 
2.3 
Description 
Sections joined by butt-welds (special 
quality) at nght angles to the direction of 
the forces 
Section joined to a gusset by a butt-weld 
(special quality) at nght angles to the 
diiection of the forces 
Butt-weld (special quality) at nght angles 
to the direction of the forces, made at 
intersection of flats, with welded auxiliary 
gussets. The ends of the welds ace ground, 
avoiding notches 
, . 
Continuous main member to which 
transverse diaphragms, web stiffeners, 
rings or hubs are fillet welded (special 
quality) at nght angles to the direction of 
the forces 
Web in which fillet welds (special quality) 
are used to secure transverse web stiffeners 
with cut corners, the welds not extending 
round the corners 
Continuous main member to the edges of 
which are butt-welded (special quality) 
pans parallel to the direction of the forces. 
These parts terminate in vebels or radii. 
The ends of the welds are ground avoiding 
notches 
Figure 
- 
. . . . . 
f 
& / P=' @'H 
Symbol 
see pagc 
3-14 
- 
U 
PIOO/- P 
5i 
- 
U - 
P100 - 
W - 
51 - 
P100 
- 
X - 
- 
U - 
- 
9 - 
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O FEM Section II 3-67 
Case K2 - Medium suess conceniration (continued) 
K-welds (special quaiity) over a length 
equal to ten times the thickness provided 
that the ends of the welds are ground 
Cantinuous member to which a flat (113 
X area, with : a = 0.5 e 
Cmciform joint made with K-welds 
(special quaiity) perpendicular to the 
direction of the forces 
Case K3 - Severe stress conceniration . . 
Reference 
3, 
Descnption 
Parts of different thickness connected by 
butt-welds at nght angles to the direction 
of the forces. 112 asymmehical slope, or 
symmehical position without blend slope 
Symbol 
Figure see Page 
3-14 
4 
I 
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3-68 O FEM Section I1 
Case K3 - Severe Stress concentration (continued) 
covered by a backing mn 
are fillet welded at right angles to the 
direction of the forces. These parts take 
only a small portion of the loads 
transmitted by the main member 
Web and stiffener or transverse diaphragm 
Continuous member to the edges of which 
are bud-welded p m parallel to the 
direction of the forces. These p m s 
terminate in bevels and ends of the welds 
are ground avoiding notches 
3.3 1 
Continuous member to which are welded 
parts parallel to the direction of the forces. 
These parts terminate in bevels or radii. 
Valid where the ends of the welds are fillet 
welds (special quality) over a length equal 
to 10 times the thickness, provided that 
the ends of the welds are ground, avoiding 
notches 
- 
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O FEM Section I1 3-69 
Case K3 - Severe stress concentration (continued) 
Continous member through which a plate 
secured by K-weld over a length equal to 
10 times the thickness 
Continuous member to which a flat is 
Members at the extremity of which 
3.36 
3.4 
3.41 
Continuous member to which stiffeners 
are secured parallel to the direction ofthe 
forces by fillet welds which are 
intermittent 
Cmcifom joint made with K-weld at right 
angles to the direction of the forces 
K-weld between flange and web with a 
concentrated load in the plane of the web 
at nght angles to the weld 
- 
- 
' /' 
D 
K 
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3-70 O FEM Section I1 
Case K3 - Severe shess concennation (continued) 
Case K3 - Very severe stress concentration 
Reference 
3.5 
3.7 
Description 
K-weld joining parts shessed in bending 
and shear 
Continuous member to which sections or 
tubes are fillet welded (special quality) 
Reference 
4.1 
4.1 1 
4.12 
Figure 
Continuous member to the sides of which 
are welded pwts ending at nght angles, 
parallel to the direction of the forces 
Continuous member to which patts are 
Descnption 
Parts of different thickness butt-welded at 
nght angles to the diuection of the forces. 
Asymmetrical position without blend 
siope 
Butt-welds at right angles to the direction 
of the forces, at the intersection of flats 
(no auxiliary gussets) 
Single bevel weld at right angles to the 
direction of the forces, between 
intersecting pans (crucifom joint) 
Symbol 
see pape 
3-14 
D 
- 
* 
Figure 
- i- 
- 
- 
Symbol 
see page 
3-14 
U 
P - 
P- 
X 
D 
X M 
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C3 FEM Section I1 3-71 
Case K3 - Very severe Stress concentration (continued) 
secured by fillet welding 
secured by means of a fillet weld parallel 
to the direction of the forces 
plate, allow for eccentric loads 
Parts welded one on the other secured by 
- 
welds or butt-welds 
Cmciform joint made with fiilet weld at 
right angles to the direction of the forces 
Continuous member to which sections or 
tubes are connected by fillet welds 
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3-72 
3-4 .5 .3 PERMISSIBLE FATIGUE STRESSES 
The permissible farigue stresses are given directly according to the ratio between extreme stresses K 
on the following tables : 
- Tension and compression in the material and in tlie weld seains : 
Components of group E5 Table T.3-4.5.3.1 
Components of group E6 Table T.3-4.5.3.2 
Components of group E7 Table T.3-4.5.3.3 
Components of group E8 Table T.3-4.5.3.4 
- Shear in parent meta1 and weld seams : 
Coinponents of groups E5 to E8 Table T.3-4.5.3.5 
- Single and double shear in fitted bolts : 
Components of groups E5 to E8 Table T.3-4.5.3.6 
- Bearing stresses for fitted bolts for single and double sliear : 
Components of groups E5 to E8 Table T.3-4.5.3.7 
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O FEM Section I1 
Table T.3-4.5.3.1 
PERMISSIBLE FATIGUE STRESSES 
Tension and compression in the material andin the weid seams 
for construction cases Wo to W2 and Ko to Kq 
and for steels Fe 360, Fe 430 and Fe 510 
COMPONENTS OF GROUP E5 r 
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3-74 O FEM Section I1 
Table T.3-4.5.3.2 
PERMISSIBLE FATIGUE STRESSES 
Tension and compression in the material and in the weld seams 
for constmction cases Wo to W2 and Kg to Kq 
and for steels Fe 360, Fe 430 2nd Fe 510 
COMPOhThTS OF GROUP E6 L 
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0 FEM Section I1 
Table T.3-4.5.3.3 
Tension and compiession in the material and in the weld seams 
for construction cases Wo to W2 and Ko to Kq 
and for steels Fe 360, Fe 430 and Fe 510 
COMPOhFhTS OF GROUP E7 
- 250, 
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3-76 @ FEM Section I1 
Table T.3-4.5.3.4 
PERMISSIBLE FATIGUE STRESSES 
Tension and compression in the material andin thc weid seams 
for constmction cases Wo to W2 and K0 to Kq 
and for steels Fe 360, Fe 430 and Fe 510 
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O FEM Section II 
TableS T.3-4.5.3.5 
PERMISSIBLE FATIGUE STRESSES 
for shear in parent meta1 and in weld seams steels Fe 360, Fe 430 and Fe 510 
and for components of grouos E5 to E8 
Shear in uarent inetal 
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@ FEM Section I1 
Tables T.3-4.5.3.6 
PERMISSIBLE FATIGUE STRESSES 
Shear in fitted bolts - s a d e 4.6 and 5.6 
for groups E5 to E8 
Bolt 4 . 6 = 
K' 
< ISO fit bolc H11lk6 >< 
Hlllhll > 
Double shear joint 
Bolt L.6 - 
C - 1 - 0.8 - 0.6 - o , ~ - 0 . 2 o 0.2 o,c . 0.6 0.0 1 C 
 so rit ~ 4 1 t HllIk6 Illllhll <-. ,< 
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O FEM Section D 
Tables T.3-4.5.3.7 
PERMISSIBLE BEmA'G STRESSES 
for fitted bolts - grade 4.6 and 5.6 
for grouns E5 ~.Q&J 
Single shear joint 
Double shear joint 
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3-80 C3 FEM Section 11 
3-5 CHECK ON "AS BUILT" STRUCTURE 
The final construction weights must be compared with the weighrs used in ihe static calculation. Wliere the 
final dead loads do not exceed the weights used in the staiic calculation hy inore rlian 5 %. tiiere is no need 
to carry out a new check. 
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O FEM Section I1 3-81 
3-6 SAFETY AGAINST OVERTURNING 
3-6.1 CHECKING FOR STABILITY 
For safety against ovenurning, the following ratio shall be applied : 
where 
M, is the stabilizing moment of the total permanent load G refemed to a possible tipping axis 
Mk is the ovenuming nioment resulting from all the variable horizontal and venical forces 
(ZPH + ZPv) of load cases I, I1 and 111, to the extent these forces increase the overturning iiloment. 
The check must be carried out for tlie tipping axis with the smallest ovenurning safety, by assuming that 
the movable pans of the dead load are in the most uiifavourable position. 
The same safety regarding overtuming can be written in the following form : 
where 
f is the horizontal distance of the Center of gravity of the dead load G with respect to a possible 
ovenuming axis 
and 
e is calculated from the following fomula : 
where 
h is the venical distance of the sum of all (ZPH) from the tipping axis 
a is the horizontal distance of the sum of all the vertical forces (ZPv) frotn the tipping axis. 
The followiiig safeties against ovenurning are at least request for the load cases I to 111 : 
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O FEM Section I1 
End view 
Plan 
Table T.3-6.1 
Ms SAFETY AGNNST OVERTLPNING v~ = - 
Mk 
a x i s (rail) 
Load case 
I 
U 
m 
3 - 6 .2 ADDITIONAL PRECAUTIONS 
VK 
2 1.50 
2 1.30 
2 1.20 
In agreement with the User, it can be specüied that for speciai situations, some structural members must 
occupy definite positions, taking into account the stability of the appliances when idle or out of service 
(for example : reclairner boom). Such measures must appear in the operating instructions. 
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O FEM Section I1 3-83 
3-7 SAFETY AGAINST DRIFTING 
As safety regarding drifting, the ratio is takeii between the sum of the drag forces hy tlic suni of tlic diifi 
forces due to the wind or thc inclination. The calculatioii sliall he hascd oii tiie grcatesr inciinatioii ai u,liicli 
tlie inacliiiie has to worh. The resting of the reclaiiiiing devicc on tlie face or ground (sec 2-2.3.2) iiiust iiot. 
in this case, be taken into coiisideration. 
The friction values to be used are as follows : 
- for driven wlieels on rails : p = 0.14 
- for non drivenball niounted wheels : = 0.01 
- for iion driven wlieels wiili bushes : p = 0.015 
- for rail clamps, if no higher values are found hy testing : p = 0.25 
Note : the values of friciion coefficienis :i\*en above arc Sreatcr iliaiit tlic iiiiiiiiiiuiii \.aiues oi' 
cliapter 2-4.2.1 since they correspond 10 a static state. 
Ttie safety regarding drifting must be : 
a) during operatioii, wiien oiily the automatic hrakes of the drive tlioiors act. in casc of\vind induccd load, 
according to 2-2.2.1.2 : V > 1.30, 
b) outside of operation. with wind induced siresscs according io 2-2.3.6 : v 2 1.20. 
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O FEM Section I1 
CHAPTER 4 
CALCULATION AND CHOICE OF MECHANISM COMPONENTS 
CONTENTS 
CALCULATION PROCEDURE 4- 1 
- Cliecking for ultimate strength 4-1.1 
Value of the permissible stress 4-1.1.1 
Values of thc coefficient VR 4-1.1.2 
Relations between the calculated stresses and the pemissible stresses 4- 1.1.3 
- Checking for crippling 4-1.2 
- Checking for fatigue 
General method 
. Endurance limit Co1 a polished specimen under alternating loading 
Influence of the sliape, size, surface condition and corrosion 
Endurance limit as a function of K 
. Wöhler curve 
Fatigue strength of a mecbanical coniponent 
. Permissible stresses and calculations 
- Checking for wear 4- I .4 
DESIGN CALCULATIONS FOR PARTICULAR CORlPONENTS 4-2 
- Choice of anti-friction bearings 
. Theoretical life 
. Mean loading of bearings 
. Choice of bearings 
- Choice of ropes 
Rope diameter 
.. Maximum tensile force S 
. . Practical factor of safety Zp 
. . Minimum breaking load F. 
. . Rope diameter selection 
- Choice of pulleys, drums and rope attachment means 
. Minimum winding diameter 
. . Values of H 
. Radius of the bottom of the groove 
Rope attachment ineans 
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- Choice of rail wheels 
Rail wheel size 
. . Detennining the mean wheel load 
. . Detemiining tiie useful rail width b 
.. Deteniiitiing tlie Iimiting pressure p~ 
. . Detennining the coefficient C] 
. . Dctermining the ccefficient C2 
Notes 
- Design of gears 
Determination of pemissible Stresses in mechanisiii coi~iponents subjectcd 
I« fatigue and example of calculaiion A.4-1.3 4-26 
. . . . . . . . . . . . , . , . . . 4-34 
List of soine works dealiiig witli fatigue probleins 4-34 
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@ FEM Section I1 4-3 
4-1 CALCULATION PROCEDURE 
Mechanisni components are designed by checking thar they ofi'er adequate safety against failure due t i ~ 
fracture, crippling, fatigue or excessive wear. 
Othcr factors musr also he taken into consideration and it is particularly iiiiportant to avoid overtheaiinf or 
deflection wliich could interfere with correct functionning of the meclianisni. 
4 - 1.1 CHECKING FOR ULTIMATE STRENGTH 
Mechanism componciits are cliecked for ultimate sti.engrh by verifying tliat the calcuiated stress does not 
exceed a pennissible stress whicli is dependent on the breakiiig strength of thc material uscd. 
4 - 1 .1 .1 VALUE OF THE PERMISSIBLE STRESS 
Tlie value of the pcmiissible stress oa is giveri by the following forniula : 
where : 
OR is the ultiiiiate stress for the material 
v~ is a safety coefficient corresponding to eacli load case mcntioned ai scciion 2-5 
4 - 1 .1 .2 VALUES OE THE COEFFICIENT VR 
The values to be adopted for v~ are given inrable T.4-1.1.2 
Tahle T.4-I. 1.2 
Values of V R 
case of loading 
value of v~ 
In the case of grey cast iron, the values of VR are to be niultiplied by 1.25. 
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4-4 FEM Section I1 
4- 1 . 1 . 3 RELATIONS BETWEEN THE CALCULATED STRESSES AND THE 
PERMISSIBLE STRESSES 
According to the type of loading considercd, the following relations iiiusi be verified in whicli : 
ot is thc calculated tensile stress, 
oc is the calculated compressive stress, 
af is the calculated bending stress, 
T is ttie calculated shear stress. 
1) Pure tension : 1.25 ot < oa 
2) Pure con?pression : oc < aa 
3) Pure bendinf : of < a a 
4) Combined bending and tension : 1.25 a t + o f C o a 
5) Conibined bending and compression : o c + a f < o a 
6) Pure shear : .\I; T C „ 
7) Conibined tension, bending and sliear : d ( 1 . 2 5 o t + f f ~ ) ~ + 3 T: < o, 
8) Coinbined coinpression, bending and sliear : 3 ( o c + o f ) ' + 3 T' < o a 
4- 1 .2 CHECKING FOR CRIPPLING 
Parts sub~ect to crippling should be designed in accosdancc with section 3-3, ciiccking tliat tlie calculated 
stress does not exceed a liniiting crippling stress. 
4 - 1 .3 CHECKING FOR FATIGUE 
General seinark : 
Tlie manufacturer shall be free to choose the relevailt inethod to check tlic fatiguc strengt11 of an elemciit 
He should of Course refer to a recognized and proven method, thus bei112 able to jusiii)~ his clioice. 
Many books have been written on this sub~ect and a list of a few books dealing with fatigue piohleiiis is 
given at the end of this chapter 
Many studies are also under way and these will no doubt help to improve current knowledge i n tliis area 
If a manufacturer does not use an alternative iiiethod, he can use the method descriixd hereafter whicli is 
based on specimen tests. 
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O FEM Section 11 4-5 
4 - 1.3 .1 GENERAL METHOD 
The fatigue strength of a given component is mainly detcrinincd by : 
- the material from which the component is constructed, 
- the shape, surface condition, state of corrosion, size (scale cffect) aiid otlier factors producine 
sUess concentrations, 
- the ratio K between tlie minimum and maximuni stresses which occur duriiig tlie \,arious stress 
cycles, 
- the stress spectrum, 
- the number of stress cycles. 
The fatigue strength of a complete inechanical componeni is kiiown only in exceptional cases. 
Generally speaking, it has to be derived froin tlie characteristics of tlie material and tlie coinponent 
and from accepted laws conceming their behaviour. 
The starting point is provided by tlie endurance limit under alternatiiig tensilc fatigue loading 
( K = - I ) of a polished specimen. made from the iiiaterial uiider consideration. Tlie reduction of tliis 
fatigue streiigth as a result of the geometric shape of thc piece. its surface coiidi~ion~ its state of 
corrosion and its size is allowed for by introducing appropriate faciors. 
Frorn tlie endurance liniit under alternating loading thc comsponding liiiiit with respcci to otlier 
values of K can be obtained with thc aid of a Sinith diagrani, i n whicli certaiii hypotlieses are iiiade 
as to the shape of the streiigth curve. 
The endurance limtit thus determined for tlie actual component. witli respcci 10 ü given ratio K 
between extreme stresses, is taken as tlie basis for plotting ilie Wöhler curve. Frorn this Wölilei- 
curve (fatigue strength under the efrect solely of stress cycles, all Iiaving tlie saiiie ratio K bctwecn 
extreme stresses), and by using the Paliiigren-Miner hypothesis on fatigue daniage accumulatioo, 
the fatigue strength of a coniponent can be determiiied according to thc component group in wliich ic 
is classified. 
This method for determining the fatigue strength is applicable only to coiiiponeiits i n which the 
stmcture of the material is homogenous over tlie eiitire section beiiig considcred. It cannot, 
therefore, be used in the case of components which have undergone a surface rreatinent (e.g. 
hardening, nitriding, casehardening). In such cases the fatigue su-eiigth can be denved from the 
Wöhler curve only if the latter has itself been determined for coinponenis whicli have beeil made 
from the same material, have a coinparable shape and size and have undergoneexactly the saiiie 
surface treatment. 
Checking for fatigue strength only needs to be perforiiied for load case I. 
Where the number of stress cycles is less than 8 . 103, such chccks are not necessary 
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4- 6 0 FEM Scctioti 11 
4-1 .3 .2 ENDURANCE LIMIT FOR A POLISHED SPECIMEN UNDER ALTERNATING 
LOADING 
The specialized works on the subjeci provide tlie endurance liniit value obW uiider altei-natin~ 
rotational bending of a polislied specimen for inaterials used regularly i n tlie constructioii of 
mechanisins. 
The tables T.4-1.3.2a and b give this fatigue strengtli obw for some coiiiinonly used stceis a:: aii 
exarnple. 
The saine values oE obw nlay he ~ccepted as an approximation for tlie endurance liiiiii uiidei- 
alternating bending iii a plane. 
To obiain the endurance limit under alternating axial tension aiid conipressioii. the valucs of obW 
havc to he decreased by 20 % *(I). 
The endurance strengtli under alternating sliear (pure sliear o: torsion) is derivcd froiii ob„ by tlic 
relation : 
Tlie values given for obw are generally tliose cori-espondiiig statistically to a 90 % suri,ival 
probability. In the case of carbon steels coinnionly used i n iiiecbanisnis, ii is permissihlc to adopt : 
o~ being the minimum ultimate strengtli. 
The coinpoiients subJect to combined loads iiiust he cliecked using incthods from speciulizcd works. 
*( I ) An element of material, when subjected to the same stress as an ad~acent eleinent, Supports tlie latier 
less effectively than if it were subjected to a lower stress, as is the case wiiii bending. A stress 
gradient, i.e. : 
differeiice in stress hetween two adiaceiit elerneiitarv riai-ts 
distance between these two elementary parts 
which is higher, produces a strengthening effect 
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G FEM Section I1 
Tahle T.4- 1.3.2.a 
Characteristics of soine coninionlv used steeis 
Ultimate strength o ~ , yield strength 05 and faiipue s t r e n ~ t h o b w . ac rooin temperature. For otlier 
steels or otliers ternperatures, refer to the relevant siandard. 
Note : The new european smdards under preparatioii give coiiiparisoii tables Sor steel ,@es 
betweeii european standards, ISO 683 - 1 (1987) and other anierior iiational staridards. 
We give. in appendix. at tlie end of chapter 4, a comparison tahle takcn Itoiii Eh' I 0 083 - I 
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4-8 O FEM Section 11 
Table T.4-1.3.2.b 
Characteristics of somc coiiiinonlv uscd Cast materials 
Ultiniate strength OR, yield strength OE and fatigue strength obw at the normal aiiihiani 
tcinperaturc. For other cast matenals or others iemperatures refer to the relevant standards. 
Notes on tables T.4-1.3.2.a and b : 
(*I) 111 this column d is the diameter of thc part in nim according 10 DIN 17135 (March 1964 edition) 
table 2, or DIN 17200 (Deceniber 1969 edition) tahle 6 ; otlier section sliapes according to 
DIN 17200 (Deceinber 1969 edition), figurc 3. For tlie Cast iiiaterials, S is tlic iiiaxiiiiuni wall 
tliickness. 
(*2) The values given will most probably be reached in 90 % of tlie tcst witli tlie polislied tcsi saiiiple 
for the rotary bending test according to DIN 501 13 (Deceinber 1972 editioii) (profiled tcsi saniple, 
ra : do 2 3 and constant moment over the whole length of the test saniplc). 
(*3) Approxiniaie values. 
4 - 1 .3 .3 INFLUENCE OF THE SHAPE, SIZE, SURFACE CONDITION AND 
CORROSION 
The shape, size, surface finish (machining) arid statc of con.osion of the component under 
consideration bring aboul a decrease in the endurance liiilit under altematiiig loading for tlie ideal 
case of a polished specimen. 
These influences arc allowed for by iniroducing factors ks, kd, ku (or kuc) respectively. Examples 
illustrating the determination of thcse factors arc givcn in appendix A.4-I .3. 
Tiie endurance limit under alternating loading owk or rwk 10s any coinponent is given for tension, 
compression, bending and torsional sliear hy the equaiioii : 
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@ FEM Section I1 
or 
In the case of pure shear we take : 
4 - 1 .3 .4 ENDURANCE LIMIT AS A FUNCTION OF K 
Fig. 4-1.3.4 expresses, in tiie form of a Smith diagrani, tlie hypotheses made concerning the 
relationship between the endurance limit od (OS 7d) and thc ratio ti betweeii the extreme stresses. 
This gives the following relations : 
in which 
OR = tensile strength of thc material 
Owk and 'cWk = endurance Iiniit of tlie component uiider alternating ioading, K = -1 
nomial Stresses 
sliear stresses 
5 
od=- 
3 - 2 ~ Owk 
5 
- 0 w k 
crd = 
3 
'owk 3 
1 - [ I - - 1 . K 
SR 
5 
Td =- 
3 - 2 K Twk 
5 
-'W k 3 
7d = 
'&wk 3 
1 - [ l - - 
'JR 
I . t i 
- l < x < O 
- 
O < K < ~ 
- 1 < K < O 
O < K < l 
alternating stresses 
pulsatinf stresses 
aiternating stresses 
pulsating stresses 
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O FEM Section 11 
Figure 4-1.3.4 
4 - 1 .3 .5 WÖHLER CURVE 
In this context, the "Wöhler curve" is showing the number of stress cycles n which can ix 
withstood before fatigue failure, as a function of the maximum stress 0 (or T), when all stress 
cycles present the same amplitude and the same ratio K between extreme values. 
The following hypotheses are made : 
- for n 5 8 . 103 : 
- for 8 . 1 0 3 5 n 5 2 . 106 , the area of limited endurance, the function is represented by a 
straight line TD in a reference system comprising two logatithmic scale axes (fig. 4-1.3.5). 
In this region, the slope of the Wöhler curve is given by the factor : 
c = t g c p = log (2.106) - log (8.103) 
log CrR - log 0 d 
c = t g c p = 
log (2.106) - l o g (8.103) 
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O FEM Section I1 
- for n 2 2 . 106 : 
Figure 4-1.3.5 
The spectrum factor ksp of the component (see section 2-1.4.3) is determined by means of the above 
mentioned value of C. 
... I 
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4 1 2 O FEM Section I1 
4 - 1 . 3 . 6 FATIGUE STRENGTH OF A MECHANICAL COMPONENT 
The fatigue strengt11 o k or sk of a given mechanical coinponcnt is detemined by the following 
expressions : 
where j is the component's group number (see section 2-1.4.4) 
The classificatioii OE components, groupcd on tlie basis of their total duration of use N aiid their 
spectrum factor ksp, as well as the critical fatigue Stresses associated with cach group, is illustrated 
in figure 4-1.3.6 where ojk represents the critical stress applying to group Ej. For tlie critical sliear 
stresses, the letter o must be replaced by 7. 
4 - 1 .3 .7 PERMISSIBLE STRESSES AND CALCULATIONS 
The pemissible stresses oaf and .raf are obtained by dividing tlie stresses o k and ?l;, deiincd in 
4-1.3.6, respectively by a safety factor vk. 
One takes : 
I - 
vk = 3.2 
oaf and ?af will therefore be obtained by the relations : 
and one verifies that : 
with 
B maximum calculated normal stress 
? maximum calculated shear stress 
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0 FEM Section I1 4-13 
Figure 4-1.3.6 
4 C B o ) ( B i ) 632) (B31 ( B 4 1 (Bs) CBs) (B71 PS) C B d + ( B i o ) 
For components simultaneously experiencing both normal and shear stresses with different ratios K 
between extreme stresses, the following condition must be satisfied : 
in which : 
o x , oy = maximum normal stresses in the directions X and y respectively 
7 = maximum shear stress 
uh, Gky = fatigue strengt11 for normal Stresses, in the directions X and y respectivelyt k = shear fatigue strength 
If it is not possible from this to detemine the most unfavourable case calculations must be 
performed separately for the loads ax max. Gy max a"d Tmax and the most unfavourable 
corresponding stresses used. 
It should be noted that the cliecks described above do not guarantee safety againsi brittle f~acture. 
Such safety can be ensured only by a suitable choice of material quality. 
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4 - 1 . 4 CHECKING FOR WEAR 
In thc case oSparis suhjecred to wear, the specific physical quantities wliich afiect tliis. such as the suiface 
pressure or the speed, inust he deiermined. The figures inust be sucli that they will not lead to excessi\,e 
wear on tlie hasis of present experience. 
4-2 DESIGN CALCULATIONS FOR PARTICULAR COMPONENTS 
4 - 2 . 1 CHOICE OF ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS 
To seleci anti-friction bearings, it is first necessary to check that the bearing is capahle «C withstaiidiii~_ : 
the sratic load to which ii can be subjccted under eithei- ioad case 1 oi- 11. wliiclie\~er is tlie niost 
uni'avourable, and 
tiic maxirnuiii dynamic load in the inore unfavourahle of load case 1 or 11. 
4 - 2 . 1 . 1 THEORETICAL LIFE 
In addition, anti-friction bearings iiiust he selected to give an acceptahle tlieorctical life in Iiours (sec 
tahle T.2-I .3.2) suitahle for the mecliaiiism's class of operation undcr an "eauivalent" constant ineaii 
load as deiiiied helow. - 
4 - 2 . 1 . 2 MEAN LOADING OF BEARINGS 
In order to allow for variations in tlie loads duriiig tlie cycles of operation, aii equivaient inean 
loading Sman is detemuned which is supposed to be applicd constantly duriii: tlic theoretical 
expected life. 
Snlean is obtained by multiplying Smaxl defined by clause 2-5.1, by the cuhe root of the spcctruiii 
factor knl defined in 2-1.3.3. 
. S~ecif ic case : 
The bearings of travellin^ wheels are designed as follows : 
The extreme loads Smax and Smin developed in loading case I are considered and tlie hearing is 
designed for an equivalent meaii load given by the expression : 
and applied for the theoretical expected liie. 
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O FEM Section ii 4-15 
4-2.1.3 CHOICE OF BEARINGS 
After defining the maximuni and the equivaient mean values of loads. both radial and axial loads. i t 
is necessary to combine these values in accordance witli the recomniendatioiis given by tlie bearing 
manufacturer. It is then possible to select the appropriate type of bearing from tlie catalope. 
For special bearings such as slewing rings for instance. the selection should be made hy tlie beariiig 
manufacturer once he has been infonned of critical values such as : axial aiid radial loads. 
overtuniing momcnts in "normal" operation. in "maxiniuin" operatioii, maxiiiiuiii (staiic) 
out-of-operation conditions. etc, as well as 100th forces in the case of a tootlied ring. 
It is absolutely necessary for tlie bearing manufacturer 10 Iiave: togetlier with all tliese values. a clear 
understanding as to tlie operation of the equipemnt and thercfore of wliat tlic givcn \,alucs correspond 
10. 
4 - 2.2 CHOICE OF ROPES 
Thc following rules are aimed at defining reasonable iiiiniiiiuin requireiiients Tor the clioice of ropes. 
They do not purport to resolve every problem not to serve as a substitute for tlie diaiogue whicli is 
essential between tlie rope maiiufacturer and the manufacturer of Iiandling appliances. 
They apply to p r e f e d ropes conforniing to ISO recommendation 2408 "Steel ropes for general use - 
Characteristics". 
They do not exclude, however, ropes which are not specified i n ISO recommendation 2408, Tor wliich i t is 
incumbent upon the rope manufacturer to validate for thc uscr the miniinuin values of paraineters detailed 
in the ISO recommendation. 
Tlie ternlinology of the rope Parameters complies witli that used in ISO recoininendation 2408 
The methods stated hereafter assume that the ropes are greased coil.ectly, that tlie winding diameters of the 
pulleys and the drums are suitably selected in compliance with 4-2.3 and that, when i n service, the ropes 
are properly maintained, inspected and periodically replaced in accordance witli 1SO recoiiiiiiendatiori 4309 
"Rope inspection". 
The selection of rope diameter (and winding diameters in 4-23) is based oii tlie group of tlie mechanisin 
4 - 2 .2 .1 CHOICE OF ROPE DIAMETER 
The following method is applicable to running ropes (active ropes! 
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4-16 FEM Section 11 
4-2.2.1.1 MAXIMUM TENSILE FORCE S 
The inaximum tensile force S in the ropc is obtained hy taking accouni of ihe ioliou,iii,o laciors : 
- maximum safe working load of the appliance, 
- inechanical advaiitage due to the rope reeving, 
- efiiciency ot' ihe rope reeving, 
- loads due to acceieration if ihey exceed 10 %OS the niaiii ioads, 
- rope inclination to the ioad axis in the "worst case" if tliis anpie cxceeds 22'3@. 
4-2.2.1.2 PRACTICAL FACTOR OF SAFETY Zp 
The practicai Sactor of safety Zp is the ratio between : 
- iiie mininium breakiiig load F 0 of the rope (niininiuni load wliicli iiiusi he attaiiicd wlien 
carrying out the rope breaking lest). 
- and tlie maximum tensile force S in tlie rope : 
The chosen rope must have a practicai Sactor of safety at least cqual to thc iiiiniiiiiii~i value Zp for 
the rnechanisln group to whicli the rope iii question bclongs (see tabie T.4-2.2.1.2). 
Tabic 7.4-2.2.1.2 
I I miniiliuiii x'alue Zp group of mechanism (runiiing ropes) 
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O FEM Section I1 4-17 
Nevenheiess in the case where the failurö uE a running rope (luffing mechanism for iiisiancc) would 
affect the stahility of the machine, these ropes must hc cliosen with tlie following minimuin snfeiy 
coefficients : 
Notc : Two ropes systeins sliould he preierred 
4-2.2.1.3 MINIMUM BREAKING LOAD F0 
safety coefficient 
6 
6 
3 
case 
I and I1 
Tlie minimuni hreaking load is : 
winch rope (running) 
one rope system 
two ropes syscem 
iwo ropes system afier failure of oiie rope 
where : 
d = nominal diameter of the rope (dimeiision hy wliicli tlie rope is designated) 
f = fill factor of the rope 
k = spinning Ioss factor due to tlic rope constructioii 
Ro = minimum ultimate teiisile stress of tlie wire coinposing ihe rope 
and 
4-2.2.1.4 ROPE DIAMETER SELECTION 
For a rope of a given construction, having a given minimuiii steel strengtli, and for a given 
mechanisin group there is a factor C whicti is expressed hy the fomiula : 
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4-18 0 FEM Sectioii I1 
wliere Znmin is the minimum value for running ropes in table T.4-2.2.1.2 
The iiomiiial dianieter d must be such that : 
The factor K' (or factors k and f) can either : 
be taken from ISO recommendation 2408 for tlie ropes co\,ered !herein, 
or be guaranteed by the rope manufacrurer if the rope is of special construction. In tiiis case. tiie 
certificate supplied by the rope rnanufacturer tnust clearly state tlie guaranteed \'alues. 
4 - 2 . 3 CHOICE OF PULLEYS, DRUMS AND ROPE ATTACHMENT MEANS 
4 - 2 .3 .1 MINIMUM WINDING DIAMETER 
Tlie minimum winding diaineter for the rope is deterrnined hy clieckinp tlie relatioiisliip : 
where : 
D is tlie winding diameter on pulleys. drums or compensating pulleys measured to tlic axis of tlie 
rope 
H is a coefficient depending upon tlie iiieclianisrii group 
d is the nominal diameter of tlie rope. 
4-2.3.1.1 VALUES OE COEFEICIENT H 
The minimum values of the coefficient H depend upoii the group in which the iiiechanism is 
classified, and are given in table T.4-2.3.1.1 for drunis, pulleys and compensatiiif pulleys. 
Tiiey correspondto ropes in common use and are based on experience of their workiiig conditions 
These guidelines do not however serve as substitute for thc dialogue which is indispensable betweeii 
tlie rope manufacturer and the manufacturer of Iiandling appliances, especiaily u,lien tiie use of new 
ropes with non standard fiexibility characteristics is being considered. 
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O FEM Section I1 
Table T.4-2.3.1.1 
VALUES OF H 
NOrr : When the formula given in clause 4-2.2.1 has been used to determine a minimum rope 
diameter from which in turn the mininium diameters for drums and pulleys have been detennined, a 
rope of diameter geater than the minimum calculated diaineter can be used with these latter 
dianieters, provided that the diameter of the rope used does not exceed the tninimuin diameter hy 
more than 25 % and that the pul1 in the rope does not exceed thc value S used for calculating this 
ininiinuni diameter. 
4- 2 .3 .2 RADIUS OF THE BOTTOM OF THE GROOVE 
mechanism group 
M 1 
M 2 
M 3 
M 4 
M 5 
M 6 
M 7 
M 8 
Thc useful life of the rope depends not only on the diaiiieter of the pulleys and drums, but also on 
the pressure exerted between the rope and the groove supporting the rope. 
pulleys 
12.5 
14 
16 
18 
20 
22.4 
25 
28 
dmms 
11.2 
12.5 
14 
16 
18 
20 
22.4 
25 
The winding ratios above z e given on the assuinption of a radius of supporting groove r wherc : 
r = 0.53 d 
equalizing sheaves md 
compensating pulleys 
11.2 
12.5 
14 
14 
14 
16 
I6 
i 8 
d being the nominal diaineter of the rope 
4 - 2.3 .3 ROPE ATTACHMENT MEANS 
Rope attachment must be so designed as to withstand a tensile force at least 2.5 tiines the 
maximum force S without showing permanent defomiation. 
The means attaching the rope to the drum must be of such a design that. taking account of the 
friction in the turns remaining zound the drum, the suni of tiie frictional and fixiiig forces 
withstands a tensile force at least 2.5 times the maxiinum tensile force S. 
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4-20 Q FEM Sectiuii 11 
The coefficient of friction between the rope and tlie drum used in tlie calculatioiis sliall he : 
when the rope is unwound from the druiii for the length corresponding to tlie iiiaxiiiiuni scrvicc 
positioii, at least two complete turns of rope musl reinaiii on tlie dmm hefore tlie rope end 
attachment. 
4 - 2 . 4 CHOICE OF RAIL WHEELS 
In order to choose a rail wheol, its diameter should be dcteniiiiied hy coiisideriiig : 
- the ioad on the wheel, 
- the quality of the material froiii wliich it is made, 
- tlie type of rail on wliicli it runs, 
- the speed of rotation of the wheel, 
- the class ofutilization of the nieclianisni. 
Studies concerning the choice of rail wlieels exist OS are in progress, but tlie inetliod ,ni\,eii Iiereafter Can be 
used as proved inethod which lead to satisfactory results in the case of Iiaridliiig iiiacliines. 
4 - 2 . 4 . 1 RAIL WHEEL SIZE 
To deteimine to size of a rail wlieel, tlie following checks must he made : 
- tliat it is capable of withstanding the maxinium load to which i t will hc suhjected. aiid 
- that i t will allow tlie appliancc to perforni its norinal duty without abnorinal wear. 
Tlie two requireinents are checked by mcans ofthe following two forinulae : 
iaking C l m a x = 1.2 and C2inax = 1.15 
and 
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O FEM Section I1 
where : 
D the wheel diameter in mm 
b the useful width of the rail in mm 
p~ a (admissible) pressure dependent upon the material used for the wheel, in Nimm' 
C1 a coefficient depending on the speed of rotation of the wheel 
C2 a coefficient depending on the dass of utilization of the mechanism 
Pmeafl the mean wheel load, in N, in load case I1 caiculated according to the formulae hereafter 
(see 4-2.4.1.1) 
Pmeanl the mean wheel load in case I. 
4-2.4.1.1 DETERMINING THE MEAN WHEEL LOAD 
In order to determine the mean wheel loads, the maximum and minimum loads on the wheel should 
be considered for the appropnate load case I and 11. 
4-2.4.1.2 DETERMINING THE USEFUL RAIL WlDTH b 
For rails having a flat bearing surface and a total width 1 with routided Corners of radius r at each 
side, we have : 
For rails with a convex bearing surface, we have : 
*(I) For the same width of rail head, these formulae give a greater useful bearing width for convex rails 
than for flat rails. This allows for the superior adaptation of a slightly convex rail to the rolling 
motion of the wheel. 
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4-22 O FEM Seciioii 11 
4-2.4.1.3 DETERMINING THE LIMITING PRESSURE p~ 
The value of p~ is given in table T.4-2.4.1.3 as a functioii o i ihe ultiniatc sirengtli of tlie iiiaterial 
o i wliich thc raii wheel is inade. 
Table T.4-2.4.1.3 
VALUES OF p~ 
Tlie qualities of material refer to cast' forged or rolled steels, and spiieriodal fraphitc casi iroii 
Ultimate stretigth for material 
used ior rail wlieel 
r s ~ > 500 Nlmrn? 
o~ > 600 Nhiim? 
0 > 700 Nimm2 
OR > 800 Nlniiii? 
OR > 1,000 Nliiiin' 
In tlie case oirail wheel ~ 4 t h steel iire. consideration niust obviously be given to tlie qurility of the 
steel tire. which should be suiiiciently tliick not 10 roll itself out. 
PL 
in Nliiini? 
5.0 
I 
5.6 
6.5 
7.2 
8 
In the case oiwhcels made of high teiisile steel and tieated to cnsurc a very liigli suriace Iiardness, 
tlie value of p~ is limited io that for the quality o i the steel coinpositig tlie whecl prior to suriace 
treaiinent, according to table T.4-2.4.1.3, siiice a Iiigher value would risk causiiig prciiiaturc wear o i 
the rail. 
Fora given load, however, wheels of this type liave ii mucli longer usclUl liie tliaii wlieels of lesser 
surface hardness, wliich makes their use worthwhile Sor appliances performin: iiiteiisive service. 
Alternatively, it is possible to use wlieels OS ordinary cast iron. especially cliilled cast iroii, wliicli 
has good surface hardness. 
It inust be remernbered that such wheels arc briitie aiid tliai tiieir use should bc avoided for liigli 
speed motions or whcn shock loadings are anticipated. 
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O FEM Seciion I1 4-23 
Wiien these are used, their diameter is determined by taking p~ equal to 5 Nlniin: 
4-2.4.1.4 DETERMINING THE COEFFICIENT C] 
The values of C] depend on the speed of rotation of the wheel and are gi\'en in table T.4-2.4. I .4.a. 
These Same values are also given in table T.4-2.4.1.4.b as a function of the wlieel diailieier and the 
speed iii inimii. 
Table T.4-2.4.1.4.a 
VALUES OF C I 
Table T.4-2.4.1.4.b 
VALUES OF C1 AS A FUNCTlON OF THE WHEEL. DIAMETER 
AND THE SPEED OF TRAVEL 
wheel rotation 
speed in R.P.M. 
200 
160 
125 
I12 
100 
90 
80 
71 
63 
56 
wheel rotation 
speed in R.P.M. 
50 
45 
40 
35.5 
31.5 
28 
25 
22.4 
20 
18 
0.66 
0.72 
0.77 
0.79 
0.82 
0.84 
0.87 
0.89 
0.9 1 
0.92 
wheel 
diameter 
ininin 
200 
250 
315 
0.94 
0.96 
0.97 
0.99 
1 
1.02 
1.03 
I .04 
1.06 
1.07 
values oTC] for travel speeds in mlmn 
10 
1.09 
1 .11 
1.13 
wheel rotatioii 
speed in R.P.M. 
16 
14 
12.5 
11.2 
10 
8 
6.3 
5.6 
5 
Cl 
I .09 
1 . 1 
1 . 1 1 
1.12 
1.13 
1.14 
1.15 
1.16 
1.17 
12.5 
1.06 
109 
1 . 1 1 
20 
i 
1.03 
I N 
16 
1.03 
1.06 
1.09 
25 
0.97 
I 
1.03 
31.5 
0.94 
0.97 
i 
40 
0.91 
0.94 
097 
50 
0.87 
0.91 
0.94 
63 
0.82 
0.87 
0.91 
125 
0.66 
0.72 
0.77 
80 
0.77 
0.82 
0.87 
100 
0.72 
0.77 
0.82 
160 
- 
0.66 
0.72 
200 
- 
- 
0.66 
250 
- 
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4-2.4.1.5 DETERMINING THE COEFFICIENT C2 
The coefficient C2 depends on the class of utilization of the nieclianism and is giveii in tahie 
T.4-2.4.1.5. 
Tahle T.4-2.4.1.5 
VALUES OF C2 
4-2 .4 .2 NOTES 
classes of utilization 
T0 to T2 
T3 to T5 
T6 
n 
T8 - T9 
The formulae apply only to wheeis whose diaineiers do iiot exceed 1.250 ni. For larger diaiiieters 
experience shows that the permissihle pressures hetween the rail and ihe wlieel iiiusi be lowcred. 
Tlie use of wheels of greater diameter is not recomniended. 
C2 
1.25 
1.12 
I 
0.9 
0.8 
It should be noted that tlie limiiiiig pressure p~ is a notional pressure detemiined by supposiiig tliat 
contact between the wheel and the rail rakes piace over a suriace whose widtli is tlie useiul widtli 
defined earlier (clause 4-2.4.1.2) and whose length is thc diameter of the wlieel. The calculatioii 
inetliod set out above is derived irom the applicalioii of the Hertz, forrnula, wliich may be writteii : 
where : 
Ocg is the cotnpressive stress in the wheel and the rail in NInini2 
E the modulus of elasticity of the inaterial in Nlinm? 
P the wheel load in N 
band D in mni, being as defined above (clause 4-2.4.1) 
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O FEM Section 11 4-25 
uc 2 
Taking KL to represent the value which has the units of a pressure (in N/iiini'), tlie relatioii 
may be written : 
0.35 E 
KL characteiizes the wheel pressure on the rail. The formula of clause 4-2.4.1 is obtaiiied by 
putting : 
4 - 2 . 5 DESIGN OF GEARS 
Tlie choice of the method for design calculations for gears is left to Ihe inanufacturer. wiio iiiust iiidicate 
the origin of the method adopled, tlie loads to be taken into account being deteiinined in accordance with 
tlie directions giveii in 2-5. 
For calculations whicli take account of the operatinf time the conventional Iiours detennined i ~ i 2-1.3.2 
sliould be used. 
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4-26 G FEM Section I1 
APPENDIX A - 4-1.3 
DETERMINATION OF PERMISSIBLE STRESSES W MECHANISM 
COMPONENTS SUBJECTED T 0 FATIGUE 
The enduance limit for a polished specimen is a laboratory value, which is practically nwer attained in 
parts actually used. Numerous factors - shape, size, surface condition (machining quality) and possible 
corrosion - induce discontinuities resulting in stress concentrations or "notch effects", which increase the 
actual stresses in the Part. For a given section the load must therefore be reduced to maintain the actual 
stress (including stress concenüation effect) helow any allowable value. This is allowed by introducing 
factors ks, kd. ku, kue (refer to 4-1.3.3). These factors are respectively all greater than or equal to unity, by 
the product of which the endurance luriit for a polished specimen is devided. 
Guidelines conceming the determination of diese coefiicients are set out below : 
A . DETERMINATION OP ks 
This coefiicient specifies the stress concentrations caused by chaiiges of section at radii, annular grooves, 
üansverse holes keyways and other methods of securing hubs. 
Figures A.4-i.3.i.a and b give the values of the shape coefficient ks, as a function of rhe ultimate mength 
of the material, valid for a diameter D of 10 mm. 
The curves A.4-1.3.1.a give the coefficient kS for a change of section of ratio D/d = 2, with a correction 
table T.A.4-1.3.1 for other values of Dld. 
Figure A.4-1.3.i.a 
SHAPE COEFFICIENT ks (DIAMETER D = 10 mm) 
CHANGE OF SECTION D/d = 2 
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O FEM Section I1 4-25 
0 2 
Taking KL to represent the value -%- which has the units of a pressure (in Nliiim!), thc relation 
may be written : 0.35 E 
KL characterizes the wheel pressure O n tlie rail. The fonnula OE clause 4-2.4.1 is obtained by 
putting : 
KL 5 p~ , C I . C2 
4 - 2 .5 DESIGN OF GEARS 
The choice of the inethod for design calculations for gears is left to the manufacturcr. who niusi indicate 
the origin of the method adopted, the loads to be taken into account heing determined in accoidaiice witii 
the directions giveii in 2-5. 
Foi. calculations which take account of the operating tinie the conventional hours deteiiiiiiied in 2-1.3.2 
should be used. 
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4-26 6 FEM Sectioii I1 
APPENDIX A - 4-1.3 
DETERMiNATION OF PERMISSIBLE STRESSES IN MECHANISM 
COMPONENTS SUBJECTED T 0 FATIGUE 
The endurance Limit for a polished specimen is a laboratory value, which is practically never attained in 
pans actually used. Numerous factors - sliape, size, swface condition (machining quality) and possible 
conosion - induce discontinuities resulting in stress concentrations or "notch effects", whicli increase the 
actual Stresses in the p m . For a given section the load must therefore be reduced to mainiain the aciual 
stress (including stress concenuation effect) below any allowable value. This is allowed by introducing 
factors ks, kd, kU, kUc (refer to 4-1.3.3). These factors are respectively all greater than or equal to unity, by 
the product of which the endurance limil for a poiished specimen is devided. 
Guidelines conceming the determination of diese coeficienis are set out below : 
A . DETERMINATION OF ks 
This coefficient specifies the stress concentrations caused by changes of section at radii, annula grooves, 
transverse holes keyways and other methods of securing hubs. 
Figures A.4-1.3.1.a and b give the values of the shape coefficient ks, as a function of the ultimate strength 
of tlie material, valid for a diameter D of 10 mm. 
The curves A.4-1.3.i.a give the coefficient ks for a chatige of section of ratio D/d = 2, with a correction 
table T.A.4-1.3.1 for other values of D/d. 
Figure A.4-1.3.1 .a 
SHAPE COEWICIENT ks (DIAMETER D = 10 mm) 
CHANGE OF SECTION D/d = 2 
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0 FEM Section I1 4-27 
For other values of Dld read ks from the curve (rid) + q with the following values for q : 
Table T.A.4-1.3.1 
CORRECTION FACTORS a FOR Dld 2 2 
The A.4-1.3.1.b curves give, for guidance some values of ks for holes, annular grooves keyways and press- 
fitted hubs. 
Figure A.4-1.3.l.b 
SHAPE COEFFICIENT ks (DIAMETER D = 10 mm) 
HOLE, ANNULAR GROOVE, KEYWAY, PRESS-FITTED HUB 
Curve I : transverse hole d l = 0.175 d 
II : annular groove : depth 1 mm 
IU : keyed hub 
N : press-fitted hub 
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4-28 O FEM Sectioti I1 
B . DETERMINATION OF SIZE COEFFICIENT kd 
For diameters greater than I0 mm the Stress concenuation effect increases and this increase is allowcd ior 
hy introducing the size coefficient &. 
The values of ihe coefficient kd are given in table T.A.4-1.3.2 for values o i d from 10 nim to 400 nini 
Table T.A.4-1.3.2 
VALUES OF kd 
C . DETERMINATION OF SURFACE CONDITION COEFFICIENTS 
1. INITIAL SURFACE FINISH DUE T 0 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES - 
COEFFICIENT kU 
d riim 
kd 
Experience shows that parts produced with a rough finish have a lower endurance liniii tlian carefully 
polished parts. 
30 
I .25 
This is allowed for hy applying a niachining coefficient ku givcn in figure A.4-1.3.2 Sor ground or 
fineiy polished surfaces, for rough machined pans aiid for forged and rolled sections. 
10 
I 
2. INFLUENCE OF CORROSION 
20 
1 . 1 
50 
1.45 
Corrosion can Iiave a very appreciable effect on the endurance limir of steels ; this is allowed for by 
applying a correciion to factor ku which becomes kuc. 
In the case of panicular hazard or corrosion. the values of kUc to he used are tliose giveti for ku for 
forged or rolled pieces and this without taking into account the method of rnacliining.100 
I .65 
Obviously, the used of the factor kuc does not expect to take into account the effects of the possible 
corrosion on the time, as for instance the reductioii of the size of the structural coinponents, effects 
which must be taken into account separately. The factoi kuc only take into consideration the fact 
that the surface condition of tlie component subject to corrosion will be rapidly niodified. 
200 
I .75 
400 
I .X 
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O FEM Section U 4-29 
Figure A.4-1.3.2 
V ALUES ku lCORROSION CQETICIENT kuc) 
Curve I : surface ground or finely machined : 6.3 < Rt 5 16 k m 
IIa : surface machined : 16 < Rt 5 63 pm 
llb : surface rough machined : 63 < Rt 5 160 km 
IIc : properly forged or rolied part 
IId : rough forged or rolled part or properly cast (sand mould) 
Note : In the case of hazard of corrosion, kUc must be chosen in curves IIc or IId 
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Exam~le of application 
Shaft in A-550 steel with change of section. 
Diameter D = 70 mm and d = 50 mm with 
transition radius r = 5 mrn. Turned on lathe, 
with keyed wheel. 
The component will be deemed to be classified in group E4 
We shall assume alternating loading ( K = - I ) and the shaft to be of A-550 steel (minimum 
OR = 550 Nlmrnz). We can therefore adopt : 
Section A-B 
Determination of ks (shape) 
For D/d = 1.4, we have : 
q = 0.04 (table T.A.4-1.3.1) 
From the curve (r/d) + q = 0.1 t 0.04 = 0.14, we find by interpolation : 
ks = 1.4 (figure A.4-1.3.l.a) 
Determination of kd (size) 
Fot d = 50, we have : 
Determination of ku (machining) 
For apart turned on a lathe, we have : 
ku = 1.15 
(table T.A.4-1.3.2) 
(figure A.4-1.3.2 
curve 11) 
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O FEM Section I1 4-31 
From the foregoing values, we derive : 
For K = - 1, we have : 
od = owk = 117.8 Nlmni? 
C = 
log (2 000 000 1 8 0001 
log (550 i 117.8) = 3.58 
For group E4, the fatigue strength is tlierefore : 
Tlie safety coefficient vk is given by : 
The permissible stress oaf is therefore : 
255.4 o -- 
af - 1.38 = 184.6 Nimm! 
Section C-D 
We have : 
ks = 2.2 
k d = 1.45 
ku = 1.15 
Hence : 
(figure A.4-1.3.1.b) 
(saine value as above) 
(same value as above) 
C = 
log (2 000 000 / 8 000) 
log (550 / 75) = 2.77 
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O FEM Section I1 4-33 
A N N E X E 
Comparison oisteel grades as per the European standard EN 10083-1, tlie standard ISO 683.1 
and otlier national standards previously issued 
(1) The use of steel grade in plain brackets means that its cliemical composition is only siighily difieient 
from that of EN 10083-1. The indication of a steel grade in square brackets ineans that its chemical 
composition differs to a greater extent from that of EN 10083-1. Grades wliich are neither in plain nor 
square brackets have virtually the same chemical coinposition as that of EN 10083-1 
30 CiNiMo 8 131 CrNlh4o 
8) 
36 NICIMO 16 
51 CIV 4 ~ i i CIV J) 
I 
30CrNlMo B i.6580 18?1\1301 3OCSD 8 
I I 1 3 35 CSD iii 
s o c r v e ~ i s ~ s i l i ISII cv .il 
I 
I - I 
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4-34 O FEM Sectioii I1 
LIST OF SOME WORKS DEALING WITH FATIGUE PROBLEMS 
( I ) Niemann, G . "Maschineneieinente" 
Band 1 
Springer Verlag - BerlinlGöttingcnRIeideiberg - 1975 
(2) Niemann, G. "Maschinenelemente" 
Bald 2 
Springer Verlag - BerlinlGöttingen/Heidelberg - 1983 
(3) Decker, K.-H. "Maschinenelemente" 
Carl Hanser Verlag - München - 1982 
(4) "Metal Fatigue" hy J.A. Pope & Ph. D., D.Sc - Wh. Scli. I Mech 
E. Chapmann & Hall Ltd., 37 Essex street, London WC2 
( 5 ) "La fatigue des mitaux" by R. Cazaud - Ingenieur Cnam - Doctnr of thc University of Paris - Lecturei- at 
the Higher Institute for Mechanical Engineering Materials - Consuliing engineer 
Dunod - 92 rue Bonaparte - Paris 
(6) "Fatigue of metals and stmctures" by H.1. Grover, s.a. Gordon, RL Jacksoii 
Thames & Hudson, London 
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O FEM Section I1 5- I 
The Design niles developed particularly in chapters 3 and 4 of this standard allow a mobile continuous bulk 
handling machine to be designed and dimensioned correctly thereby ensuring the safet\, of tlie iiiachi~ie itself 
against the various causes of failure (breaking of major parts. loss of stability, etc). 
In addition to these aspects, careful consideration should be giveii to the safetv of persons who will hnve to work 
on the machine for its driving, operation and maintenance. This is covered by a nunibcr of pro\'isions wliicli. 
while they often do not affect tlie strength of thc machine, are nevertheless indispensable for safe operatioii of that 
machine. 
For the health and safety requirements for mobile continuous bulk handling equipiiient. in Europe. oiie shall refer 
to the following Directives of the Council of the European Communities : 
- Machinery directive No. 891392EEC of 14th June 1989 ; modified on 20th June 199 1 (9 ll368lEEC). inodilied 
on 14th June 1993 (93144EEC) and on 22nd June I993 (93168EEC). 
- Low voltage directive No. 73123EEC of 19th Febmary 1973 iiiodified on 22nd July (93168lEEC). 
- Elecüomagnetic compatibility directive No. 891336EEC of the 3rd May 1989 modified on 28th April 1992 
(92131lEEC) and on 22nd July 1993 (93168EEC). 
For particular applicarioiis one can refer to : 
- Equiptnent and Protective systems intended for used in potentiliay explosi\'e amosphere directive 
No. 94IYlIEEC of the 23rd March 1994. 
- Single pressure vessel directive No. 871404EEC of 25th June I987 iiiodified on 17111 September 1990 
(901488EEC) and on 22nd July 1993 (93168EEC). 
On the basis of the Machinery Directive, the Teclinical Coiiirnittee I48 of CEN "Continuous handling 
equipment and systeins - safety" has prepared a number of standards applicable to faniilies ofproducts involved in 
continuous handling. These standards are the following : 
prEN 620 (WG I) Continuous handling equipment and systems 
Safety requirements for fixed belt conveyors for bulk materials 
prEN 619 (WG 2) Continuous handling equipment and systems 
Safety requirements fot equipment for mechanical handling of unit loads 
prEN 618 (WG 3) Continuous handling equipinent and systems 
Safety requirements for equipment for mechanical handling of bulk inaterials except fixed 
belt conveyors 
prEN 617 (WG 4) Continuous handling equipment and systems 
Safety requirements for equipment for the storage of bulk niaterials i n silos, buiikers, bins 
and hoppers 
prEN 741 (WG 5) Continuous handling equipment and systems 
Safety requirements for systems and tlieir components for pneuniatic liandling of bulk 
materials 
In Europe, ir is therefore desirable for the design of a mobile continuous bulk handling niachine to refer to the 
standard prEN 618 (WG 3 - mobile mechanical bulk handling machines). 
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5-2 O FEM Section I1 
Iii rhe inost common case, when rhe machine includes one or more belt conveyors, there is need io refcr als« to 
the standard prEN 620 (WG 1 - equipment for mechanical handling of bot11 uni1 loads and bulk inaterials). 
11 sliould be noted that the European type C* safety standards mentioned above includc numerous references lo 
inore general type A, B1, B2 standards* and it may be necessary for a particular type of handling equipment to 
produce a collection of the pans of standards which are appropriate to it. 
" Safety sraridards are ciassiJiedas follon-s : 
T y p e A staridards (basic safcr). stwidards) giving basic coriceprs, pririciples for desigu. air«' ge i im l iri ilic 
sunie or a sirtriiar niariiierfor ali riiacl~iner):. 
Type B sla~idards (groizp s q f e l ~ sturidards) dealirig wirh orir sa fen aspecr or olle fype of safcw reiared dei~ice iri 
rhe sume or U sirriiiar rriaririer.for a rarige of niacliiiier,. 
- r?pe BI standards ori purticuiur safev aspecrs (e.g. safer~ disrarices, sirrface rertiperariire, rioise) 
- rype B2 sraridards ori safer); relafed devices (e.g. rwo-haiid coiirrols, inrerlocking dei~ices, pressrrre soisirive 
devices, girards). 
Type C standards (nlachirie safeh sraridurds) givirig derailed safeh reqiriren~erirs for a parlicuiar rype of 
n~achirien orgroi<p of nlachines dfliled iri tlie scope of rlie siaiidard. 
iexrrucrfioiri ilie staridard EN 292-1 "Safeh ofuiacliirieg. - Basic coriceprs, geuer-ulp,inri/~lesfir desigri) 
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O FEM Sectioii 11 
CHAPTER 6 
TESTS AND TOLERANCES 
CONTENTS 
TESTS 
- General 
Typical acceptance tests 
Definitions 
- Categories of tests 
, No load functional testing 
Testing under nominal load 
Overload testing 
List of typical checks and tests 
TOLERANCES FOR TRAVELLING DEVICES AND TRACKS 
General 
Measuring procedure 
Manufacturing tolerances for travelling devices 
Distance from centerline to centerline (macliine span) 
Sag of gantry 
, Inclination of the wheels 
Trolley rail centre distance 
Level of rails for trolley 
. Height tolerante on four points 
. Rail on girder web 
Trolley rails straightness 
Angular alignment of wheels 
. Level of wheel axles 
, Transverse alignment of wheels 
Horizontal guide rollers 
, Wbeel diameter 
Tolerances for tracks on rigid suport 
. Allowable deviation before re-arrangeinent 
Track gauge tolerances 
. Sag of rails 
Overall rail tolerances 
. Rail level tolerances 
. Lateral rail tolerances 
Tolerances for tracks on ballast 
. Allowable deviation before re-arrangement 
Track gauge tolerances 
. Sag of rails 
. Overall rail tolerances 
. Rail level tolerances 
. Lateral rail tolerances 
Depth of ballast 
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O FEM Section I1 
6-1 TESTS 
6 - 1.1 GENERAL 
The variety of mechanical handling equipment available and the diversity of its applicatioii precludes tlie 
specification of any single, universal acceptance test. 
For this reason, it is esseiitial, from the earliest pre-tender enquiries if possible, tliat the end User, liis 
engineer and the manufacturer/supplier of the equipment are all anticipatiiig tlie same outcome. 
Consequently, hefore a contract is awarded, tlie end User of the equipment should define and agree witli the 
supplier, the cnteria that have to he met before fhe equipment can he handed over. 
The specification for these acceptance tests should be as suaightforward and as simple as possible, often 
involving a "representative" test cycle io verify the performance of a single item of cquipment in isolation 
from the fest of the plant. 
The conditions for these acceptance tests should also be defined, for example, the followiiig data should be 
specified : 
- Weather conditions (wind, temperature, snow ... ), 
- Whethcr the tests will he carried out in the daytime or at night, 
- Characteristics of the materials to be handled (i.e. moisture, grain size, buik density ... ), 
- Flow rates (mass flow, volume flow) to be achieved for the various bulk materials, and the 
corresponding duration for each flow rate, 
- Eiivironmental conditions, in particular any restrictions affecting the moveinent of the tested appliances. 
For instance, information should be given on the type of ship on which a loader or unloader will 
operate, the type of stockpiie (cross section, length) on whicli a bucket-wheel reclaimer or a stacker will 
operate, etc, 
- Methods for measuring handled quantities, actual operating times, etc, 
- Qualification of the operator(s). 
6 - 1 .2 TYPICAL ACCEPTANCE TESTS 
Typical acceptance tests might be : 
a) Demonstrate that a stockyard equipment is able to store or to reclaim the aiiticipated material quantities 
in the required number of piles. 
This requires to agree especially on rhe general arrangemenr of the piles and the travel distances of the 
mobile machines. 
b) Demonstrate thai the equipment can handle the working load(s) in normal operating conditions. 
This requires an agreed definition of the working load(s) and how it will he measured 
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6-4 O FEM Sectioii I1 
It should be noted that for bulk material5 which density is variable, it could be necessaiy to define for 
cxample one tonnage capacity and one corresponding volumetric capacity, the perfomiaiice being 
considered acceptable as soon as one of these capacities (tonnage or volume) is reached. 
c) Demonstrate that the equipment will improve the maienal blend by tlie required amount, 
This requires an agreed sampling technique and method of analysis. 
d) Demonstrate tbat the plant can load/unload a ship of a given size and type in the required time 
"Whole plant" tcsts of this nature are difiicult to achieve especially where parts of the plant arc 
supplied by different manufacturers. The management and organisation of the plant also Iias a 
significant effect and this is often outside the supplier's control. 
e) Demonstrate that the equipment can handle a nominated surge load without excess ofspillage 
This requires a deiinition of the surge load, both in magnitude and duration, also an agreeiiient on wliat 
is "acceptable" spillage. 
0 Demonstrate tliat the system can restan under load after an emergency (non sequence) stop at a nomial 
working throughput, 
n i i s requires an agreed definition of the corresponding working load and how it will be xneasured 
g) Demonstrate that the continuous output from the equipment does not fluctuate by more than an ageed 
tolerance. 
The fluctuation tolerance should be quoted for a corresponding throughput and a method of assessment 
agreed. 
6 - 1 . 3 DEFINITIONS 
. 1 Nominal or design rate : it is the throughput received or delivered by the iiiachine under normal 
working conditions. 
. 2 Peak instantaneous rate : it is the maximum practical throughput used for sizing equipinent wliere 
flow surges are expected. It is the maximum rate that the niachiiie will meet in operation. 
For reclaiming equipment this is normally defined by the manufacturer. In this case, the rate depends 
on the flow characteristics of the equipment and the required maximum average rate. 
Fot equipment which receives material from other up streain plaiit (e.g. a stacker), the peak 
instantaneous rate is normally given by the customer. 
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O FEM Sectioii I1 6-5 
.3 Maximum average rate 1 I hour average rate : it is the maximum operational throughput for 
shon-term*, uninternipted operation (Excludes such as stockpile ends, machine re-positioning, hatch 
changes on ship loaders, etc). 
This rate is often used for machine acceptaiice tests 
* typical time scale, 1 hour, may vary slightly. 
.4 Daily average rate I Shift average rate I Througli-ship rate : "whole plant" rate, greatly affected by 
plant management practices, availability and location of materials, up and downstream restrictions, 
stockpile layout, hold size and efficieiicy of clean-up aids Eor ship unioaders, operator skills, etc. 
It is soinetimes required for plant acceptance tests but difficuities can be encountered where the supplier 
does not have full control of the plant and incoming and outgoing materials.The relationship between 1, 2 and 3 above is largely dependent on equipiiient type and it's inethod of 
operation (especially for reclaiming equipment), characteristics of material or mateuials, method of storage, 
weather conditions (low temperature, for instance), qualification of drivers and Operators, etc, and must be 
established from experience. 
Note : In the case of multi-material inachines, it is necessary to agree on the perfomiance (both mass and 
voiunietric capacities) for each material, especially excluding, if necessary, tlic possibility of using the 
machine to handie the maximum volumetric capacity of material of the heavier bulk density. 
In this case, it is obviously necessary to install efficient "throughpuc limiting devices" either on the 
niachine itself (reclaiming machine) or on an other part of tlie plant, upstreain of the machine. 
6 - 1.4 CATEGORIES OF TESTS 
In general, acceptaiice tests fall into three categories : 
1) Verification before starting and no load functional testing, 
2) Operational tests at normal workiiig loads, 
3) Overload/surge tests, only where appropnate. 
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6-6 
6 - 1 .4 .1 NO LOAD FUNCTIONAL TESTING 
O FEM Section I1 
Before no load functional testing begins, it has to be verified tliat : 
1) All relevant adjustments and setungs have been comectly made. 
2) Conveyor belts have been adequately jointed, tensioned and conectiy aligiied and thar belt 
cleaners, scrapers and guards have been properly installed. 
3) All relevant limit switches, level probes and interlocks, sequencing and control Systems have 
been separately verified. 
4) Special attention has been paid to the verification and adjusunent of forcc, torque, pressure 
limiting devices as weli as the stability of tlie machine in ali conditions. 
5) All ancillary equipment (such as cleaning devices, beit weighers, sampling equipment, meta1 
detectors and Separators, dust extractors and vibrarory feeders, normaliy supplied by specialist 
sub-conuactors) have been correctly installed and no-load coiiunissioned. 
6 ) Waming notices have been erected where necessq 
7) Where operational interlocks have to be bypassed for tlie duration of the test, all Operators and 
test personnel have been informed. 
The no-load functional test should include all modes of operation : manual and autotiiatic operatioii 
where appropriate and both normal and emergency stops under all operating conditions. 
6 - 1.4 .2 TESTING UNDER NOMINAL LOAD 
The commencement of operational tests assumes, among others : 
I ) The satisfactory completion of relevant no-load functional tests. 
2) The availability of an agreed minimum quantity of suitable material with acceptable properties 
such as moisture content, size and bulk density. Thc responsability for the supply of this 
material and its deliveiy must be agreed at an early stage. 
3) An adequate liaison with other affected panies and suppliers on the site. 
4) Representative operating conditions. 
5 ) Where ancillary equipment such as cleaning devices, bell weighers and saiiipling equipment are 
to be used to assess the periormance of tlie plant, these must have been separately 
commissioned on 
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O FEM Section I1 6-7 
load and ceriified before the main tests commence 
Ai an early stage in ihe conuact. the end User and supplier of the equipment should agee an 
operauonal test schedule, the details of what schedule should contain and in what fomi any test 
results should be presented. 
6 - 1 . 4 . 3 OVERLOAD TESTING 
Where surge load or overload tests are requued, the supplier and User must agree on riietliod 01' 
quantifying the transient loads involved and where some spillage or cany-over is anticipated, 
determine beforel>and, what will be acceptahie. 
6 - 1 .5 LIST OF TYPICAL CHECKS AND TESTS 
Listed below are some of the items !hat may appear in an operational test schcdule. Tliis is by no means 
comprehensive, nor does the inclusion of an item on this list imply that tliis iiiust be included. Items 
should only be included where these are particularly relevant to the equipment involved. 
Venfication of safety for personnel, 
Verification of working clearances on adjacent buildings and other machines. 
Drive speeds and absorbed power. 
Note : Records of ambient temperatures, wind speeds, etc, during test may be requued so that for iristance 
inaximum power requirements, maximum forces, etc, can be got by back-calculation. 
. Dust, 
. Noise, 
. Stockpile capacity and size, live and dead Storage areas, 
. Safety devices : force, torque, pressure limiting devices, ..., 
Carry-over and spillage, 
Level probes, limit switches, sequencing and control Systems, 
. Operation of chutes and diverter flaps, etc, 
. Start under nominal load, 
. Emergency and sequence stops, 
. Achievement of nominal or design rating. 
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6 8 O FEM Section I1 
6-2 TOLERANCES FOR TRAVELLING DEVICES AND TRACKS 
6 -2 .1 GENERAL 
The use of these design rules pre-supposes that the tolerances specified hereafter for iravelliiig devices atid 
tracks shall be maintained. 
These tolerances appiy unless other conditions have been agreed with the user and take no accouiit of elastic 
deformation during operation. 
Section 6-2.2 derines the manufacturing tolerances for travelling devices OS rnachines 
Scction 6-2.3 specifies the tolerances for tracks on rigid Support. 
Section 6-2.4 specifies the toierances for tracks on ballast 
Under all circumstances, sufficient lateral play between rail and guiding devices must be provided to 
accomodate the maximum allowable variation in machine span and track gauge. 
It is theii essential to ensure that tolerances for travelling devices aiid toleranccs Cor track are coiiipatibie 
Where the design of a machine is such that the following tolerante catepories for tracks do not obviously 
apply, the supplier of the machine must clearly indicate the initial tolerances to be Sollowed for the tracks 
and the maximum deviation allowed before resetting of tracks is sequired. 
6 -2 .1 .1 MEASURING PROCEDURE 
The measuring procedures used must be selected to provide the required accuracy and repeatability 
over the lengths involved. 
Wheii measuring tapes are used, calibrated stcel tapes are recommended. The readings obtained 
should be corrected for thc sag in the tape as well as for the differente between the ambient and 
reference temperatures. All related measuretnents should be taken with the same tape and tension 
force. 
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O FEM Section U 6-9 
6 - 2 . 2 MANUFACTURING TOLERANCES FOR TRAVELLING DEVICES 
6 - 2 . 2 . 1 DISTANCE FKOM CENTERLINE T 0 CENTERLINE (MACHINE 
SPAN) 
The greatest divergence 4 s of the machine span s from the nominal drawing dimension must not 
exceed the following values : 
for s < 15 m : As = i 2 mm 
for s > 15 m : As = i [ 2 + 0.15 . (s-15) I mm (max. + 15 mm) 
Figure 6-2.2.1 
(S is to he expressed in m) 
6 - 2 . 2 . 2 SAG OF GANTRY 
I 
Gantry type situctures wbich are designed to c a q a moving trolley (as ixipper for instance) and are 
freely supported at their ends must have no sag, under dead loads. This means that the uack for the 
uolley, without the trolley and in an unloaded condition, must have no downwasd deviation from the 
horizontal. 
I 
6 - 2 .2 .3 INCLINATION OF THE WHEELS 
For all machines, where the transversal axis of the top of the rail is flat, the inclination of the wheel 
axis from the horizontal, for the travelling devices in an unloaded condition, must be benveen 
+ 0.2 % and - 0.05 % (see figure 6-2.2.3). 
I 
Figure 6-2.2.3 
i 
s + A s 
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6-10 62 FEM Section I1 
6 - 2.2 .4 TROLLEY RAIL CENTER DISTANCE 
The trolley rail Center distance must not differ from the nominal dimension s by more than 
+ 3 mm (see figure 6-2.2.4). 
Figure 6-2.2.4 
6 - 2.2.5 LEVEL OF RAILS FOR TROLLEY 
In a plane perpendicular to the travel direction of the trolley, the differente in height of 
two opposite points of the trolley track shall not exceed 0.15 % of the boiiey rail centre 
distance s, with a maximum of 10 rnm (see figure 6-2.2.5). 
L- h o r i i n t a l j h o r i z o n t a l 
1 0,15 % of S 
Figure 6-2.2.5 
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O FEM Section I1 0-11 
6 - 2 . 2 . 6 HEIGHT TOLERANCE ON FOUR POINTS 
Trolley rails shall be laid in such a way that the running surface is horizontal and that the greatest 
unevenness of the bearing surface is no more than ir 3 mm for rail centres up to 3 m and no more. 
than + 0.1 % of the trolley wheel centre distance if it exceeds 3 m (see figure 6-2.2.6). 
,( i 3mm f 0 r s ,< 3rn 
< + 0 , l % of s 
f o r s > 3rn 
Figure 6-2.2.6 
6- 2 .2 .7 RAIL ON GIRDER WEB 
The vertical axis of the trolley rail must not diverge from the vertical axis of the rail girder web by 
more than half the thickness of the rail girder web (see figure 6-2.2.7). 
t m a x i - 
2 
Figure 6-2.2.7 
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6-12 O FEM Section 11 
6 - 2 .2 .8 TROLLEY RAILS STRAIGHTNESS 
The axes of the uolley rails rnust not diverge frorn their theoretical axis hy more than i 1.0 mm in 
a rail length of 2 m (see figure 6-2.2.8). 'ihere should be no misalignrnents at rail joints. 
T 
Theore t i ca l r a i l ax is maxi : 1 m 
Figure 6-2.2.8 
6 - 2 . 2 . 9 ANGULAR ALIGNMENT OF WHEELS 
The tangent of the angles between the axis of the wheel bores and the tiieoretical axis must not be 
greater than ? 0.04 % in the horizontal plane (see figure 6-2.2.9). 
Figure 6-2.2.9 
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O FEM Section I1 6-13 
6-2.2.10 LEVEL OF WHEEL AXLES 
The axle bores of wheels opposite to each other at each side of the uacks, or, if wheels are mounted 
in bogies the axis of the bogie pins shall have an alignment divergence in the vertical plane, less 
than 0.15 %, of the wheel centre distance (maximum 2 m m - see figure 6-2.2.10). 
Figure 6-2.2.10 
6-2.2.11 TRANSVERSE ALIGNMENT OF WHEELS 
The cenue planes of wheels rolling on a common rail must not diverge by more than + 1 m m 
fiom the theoretical rail axis (see figure 6-2.2.11). 
+ 1 m l 
T h e o r e t i c a l --- 
Figure 6-2.2.11 
For bushed wheels, the above tolerances apply with the wheel in a central position between the 
contact surfaces at either side OE the wheel. 
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6-14 O FEM Section I1 
6-2.2.12 HORIZONTAL GUIDE ROLLERS 
If horizontal guide rollers are used, the centre of the distance between guide rollers at one Corner 
must not deviate by more than i 1 mm from the theoretical axis of the rail (see figure 6-2.2.12). 
1 mm maxi 
I l 1 mm maxi 
I 
Figure 6-2.2.12 
6-2.2.13 WHEEL DIAMETER 
The diametral tolerance of driving wheels should correspond to the ISO tolerance classification h9. 
If runner wheel Speeds are synchronised elecuically or where two wheels in a bogie are driven from 
a common pinion, tighter tolerances may be required. 
These tighter tolerances apply also to non driven wheels where the wheels areinwchangeable. 
Wheel tolerances are more critical and may have to be tighter on machines which are constantly 
moving and not operating in a "step-advance" mode. 
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O FEM Section I1 6-15 
6 - 2 . 3 TOLERANCES FOR TRACKS ON RIGID SUPPORT 
6 - 2.3.1 ALLOWABLE DEVIATION BEFORE RE-ARRANGEMENT 
The tolerantes specified in this section apply to new fixed ground-beaing tracks. 
Tolerantes for machine mounted tracks are specified in section 6-2.2. 
If, in the Course of use, the admissible deviations for tiie new instailation are exceeded by 5 rnm or 
20 %, the track must be re-arranged. 
In certain circumstances, it may be necessary to re-arrange the track before the 20 C/c liinit is 
reached, if the travelling behaviour is noticeably deteriorating. 
6 - 2 . 3 . 2 TRACK GAUGE TOLERANCES 
The greatest admissible divergente As from the nominal span is : 
for s < 15 m : As = 5 3 mm 
for s > 15 m : As = + [3 + 0.25 . (s-15)] mni (witli a maximum of 1 2 5 inin) 
(s is expressed in metres) 
If rhe machine is guided on one rail only, or if the machine has a pivoted support or is of high 
elasticity, the tolerante As may be increased io three tinies the above value but must not e x d 
25 mm. 
6 - 2 . 3 . 3 SAG OF RAILS 
It is assumed that under nonnal working conditions, the deflection of both rail tracks under load is 
approximately equal and does not significantly effect the perfonnance of tlie niachine. 
6 - 2.3 .4 OVERALL RAIL TOLERANCES 
. Straiehtness 
For each rail, the overall centre-line measured at the running surface, shall not deviate by more than 
+ 10 mm from the theoretical line in both the horizontal and vertical planes. 
For machines guided on one rail only, the requirement for lateral straightness of the non-guiding rail 
only may be lowered, in agreement with the manufacturer of the macliine. 
. Rail ioints 
It is recommended that welded rail joints are used. 
Misalignment at the rail joints is, therefore, not expected and need not be taken into account 
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6-16 
6 - 2 .3 .5 RAIL LEVEL TOLERANCES 
O FEM Section I1 
Relative rail levels 
The greatest divergence in level between the two rails, perpendicular to the nack axis, shali be less 
than 10 rnrn for tracks up to 10 m centres, and less than 0.1 % of s above with a maximum of 
20 mm. 
Heieht tolerance on 4 points 
The rails shall be laid in such a way that the greatest unevenness is the behng surface is not more 
than + 0.1 % of the distance between wheel or bogie centres. 
I 0.1 % dictance between wheel or bogie centres -J 
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O FEM Section I1 6-17 
Locd rail cwa tu re iverticall 
The vertical curvature in the longitudinal axis shall not exceed i 2 mm in any 2 m length taken at 
random. 
Rail inclination 
The longitudinal inclination of the rail rolling surface must not deviate from the theoretical value bv 
more than 0.3 %. 
6 - 2.3 .6 LATERAL RAIL TOLERANCES 
, Local rail curvature flaterdi 
The lateral curvature shall not exceed i 2 mm in any 2 m length taken at random. 
maxi 2 m - 
Ir-. 
I - - 
2 m 
random sampling 
Rail inclination 
The lateral inclination of the rail rolling surface must not deviate from the theoretical value by more 
than 0.6 %. 
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6-18 
6 - 2 . 4 TOLERANCES FOR TRACKS ON BALLAST 
6 - 2 . 4 . 1 ALLOWABLE DEVIATION BEFORE RE-ARRAGEMENT 
The tolerances specified in this section apply to new fixed ground-bearing tracks 
The maximum allowable deviation, before the rails must he reset. is shown in brackets 
In cenain circumstances, i t niay be necessary to re-mange tiie track before the quoted liinit is 
reached, if the travelling beliaviour is iioticeably deteriorating. 
6 - 2 . 4 . 2 TRACK GAUGE TOLERANCES 
The greatest admissible divergence As from the nominal span is + 10 mm (witli a maxi~num o i 
?1 40 nini before re-alignment). 
If the machine is guided on one rail only, or if the machine Iias a pivoted support «I iso i high 
elasticity, tlie initial tolerance may be increased ironi the above value witli the agreeinent o i tlie 
iiiachine manufacturer. 
6 - 2 . 4 . 3 SAG OF RAILS 
It is assumed that under normal working conditions, the defiectioii of hoth rail tracks uiider load is 
approximately equal and does not significantly effect the perfoniiance oitlie inachine. 
6 - 2 . 4 . 4 OVERALL RAIL TOLERANCES 
Straiehtness 
For each rail, the overall centre-line, measured at the running suriace, shall not deviate hy more than 
+ 6 mm fsom the theoretical line in both tiie horizontal and vertical planes, wheii measured over 
any 30 m length (with a maximum o f + 12 mni before re-alignment). 
For machines guided on one rail only, the requirement for lateral straightness of tiie non-guiding rail 
only may be lowered, in agreement with the manufacturer oithe macliine. 
Rail ioints 
It is recommended that welded rail joints are used. 
Misalignment at the rail joints is, therefore, not expected aiid need not be taken into account 
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O FEM Section I1 6-19 
6 - 2 .4 .5 RAIL LEVEL TOLERANCES 
Relative rail leveis 
The greatest divergente in level between the two rails, perpendicular to the track axis, shall be iess 
than 0.1 % of the theoretical track centres (with a niaxinium of 0.3 % before re-alignmentj. 
Heieht tolerante on 4 points 
The rails shall be laid in such a way that the greatest unevenness in the bearing surface is no moi-e 
than + 0.1 % wheel or bogie centres (witli a maximum oS0.3 9% before re-aligiiiiient) lsee scheme 
in 6-2.3.51. 
Local rail curvature (venical] 
The vertical curvature in the longitudinal axis shall not exceed + 6 mni in any 30 ni length taken 
at random (with a maximum of + 12 mm before re-alignmentj. 
Rail inclination 
The average longitudinal inclination of the rail rollin: surlaces niust not deviate from the theoretical 
value by more than 1. 0.1 '% of wheel or bogie cenues (with a maxinium 01 i. 0 . 3 C / c before re- 
alignment). 
6 - 2 .4 .6 LATERAL RAIL TOLERANCES 
Local rail curvature (lateral) 
The lateral curvature in the longitudinal axis shall not exceed i 6 mni in any 30 m length taken at 
random (with a maximum of + 12 mm before re-alignnient). 
Rail inclination 
It is assumed that the track is mounted on resilient pads and that lateral deviation in the level of the 
rail rolling surface will correct itself under load. 
6 -2 .4 .7 DEPTH OF BALLAST 
The allowable deviation on the depth oC ballast material under tlie rail sleeper shall be + 150 mm 
or - 100 mm. 
There must be a 300 mm minimum depth of ballast under the sleepers 
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