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Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/bab
Nanotechnology's role in ensuring food safety and security
Venkatakrishnan Kiran, Karthick Harini, Anbazhagan Thirumalai,
Koyeli Girigoswami, Agnishwar Girigoswami *
Medical Bionanotechnology, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Chettinad Hospital & Research Institute (CHRI), Chettinad Academy of Research and
Education (CARE), Kelambakkam, Chennai, TN, 603103, India
A R T I C L E I N F O
Handling editor: Ching Hou
Keywords:
Precision farming
Nanofertilizers
Nanopesticides
Wastewater management
Nanobiosensors
A B S T R A C T
Globally, there is significant apprehension surrounding food safety and security. Addressing the
formidable challenge of ensuring a sustainable provision of nutrient-dense and safe food is imper-
ative. Nanotechnology emerges as a promising avenue, offering substantial opportunities to revo-
lutionize food safety practices and elevate agricultural productivity in a sustainable manner. By
leveraging nanomaterials and advanced techniques, nanotechnology provides precision in detect-
ing and mitigating contaminants in the food supply chain. Moreover, it holds the potential to ex-
tend the shelf life of perishable goods, contributing to reduced food waste and a more sustainable
use of resources. An overview of how nanotechnology can be applied to precision farming, food
packaging, and the detection of contaminants is presented. At the same time, the role of nan-
otechnology is explored to address agricultural challenges, water management, adsorption of
harmful substances, delivery of nutrients, and detection of contaminants. The application of nan-
otechnology in this context aims to tackle health risks and costs associated with its extensive in-
dustrial use. Additionally, the importance of applying nanotechnology to food safety and security
is emphasized.
1. Introduction
Food security is a multifaceted and adaptable concept characterized by four crucial parameters—availability, access, utilization,
and stability, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (Coates, 2013). The availability of food is primarily influ-
enced by the supply aspect and refers to the extent to which local food production and sales can provide sources of nutrition. Access to
food entails the ability of households or individuals to acquire available food, emphasizing food choice, as obtaining food does not au-
tomatically result in its actual procurement. Food utilization involves the efficient intake and absorption of nutrients by the body as
well as its ability to extract essential elements from the consumed food to maintain optimal health (Gharibzahedi and Jafari, 2017).
Food stability pertains to the general stability of food systems, encompassing elements like the dependability and robustness of food
production, distribution, and access, with the aim of ensuring a continual and secure availability of food over an extended period. It is
essential that sustainable food systems are implemented to ensure food security and nutrition for all communities without compro-
mising the economic, social, and environmental foundations that ensure food security and nutrition for future generations (El Bilali et
al., 2019). Diversifying agriculture is one of the most important measures to adapt to the impacts of climate change, and modern tools
like the implementation of big data or early warning systems can be part of it for protection.
With the world's population growing rapidly, ensuring food security is one of the most pressing concerns of the 21st century. Pop-
ulation growth and changing dietary patterns are likely to drive an increase in global food demand to satisfy approximately 9 billion
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: agnishwarg@gmail.com (A. Girigoswami).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcab.2024.103220
Received 18 April 2024; Received in revised form 6 May 2024; Accepted 9 May 2024
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/18788181
https://www.elsevier.com/locate/bab
mailto:agnishwarg@gmail.com
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Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology 58 (2024) 103220
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V. Kiran et al.
people who are expected to live on the planet by the year 2050 (Yin et al., 2024). Food production efficiency, distribution system im-
provement, food waste reduction, and crop yield enhancement will be required to address this challenge. To guarantee long-term
food security, it is also important that environmental friendly and sustainable agricultural practices are adopted in order to preserve
the environment. There have been major efforts around the world to enhance the productivity of crops by integrating both extensive
and intensive agricultural practices, as well as incorporating progressive technologies and concepts into farming practices. The inte-
gration of precision farming with nano-modified stimulants and the use of nano-modified fertilizers has greatly contributed to the ad-
vancement of agricultural endeavors in the present day (Yadav et al., 2023a). Nanotechnology research holds the potential to en-
hance various crucial aspects of food security, including agricultural efficiency, responsible water utilization, food quality, soil en-
hancement, and the effective distribution of food in various outlets. Contemporary agrochemical technologies encompass a broad
spectrum of products and applications, spanning engineered nano-sized materials, fertilizers to herbicides, antimicrobials, pesticides
to insecticides, and fungicides (Harini et al., 2023). While these advancements provide substantial eases, they concurrently pose envi-
ronmental risks and challenges to ensuring prudent food delivery and fostering sustainable evolution.
A pressing necessity arises to accelerate the advancement of science and technology, with the goal of delivering transformative so-
lutions that adeptly address the intricate challenges embedded within sustainable agriculture and food systems (Govaerts et al.,
2021). In the realm of scientific exploration, groundbreaking discoveries in nanoscience and nanoscale engineering-based technology
have revealed promising pathways for applications in the domains of food production, crop production, and natural resource systems.
The dimensions at the nanoscale offer unique properties and interactions that can be harnessed to address specific challenges in these
domains (Bharti, 2024; Thirumalai et al., 2023). Since the early 90s, active research programs have been globally launched to explore
the potential of nanotechnology-enabled science, technologies, and products tailored for agriculture and food systems. This concerted
effort reflects a collective endeavor to leverage cutting-edge advancements in nanoscience for the betterment of agricultural practices
and food production on a global scale.
This review aims to underscore the utilization of nanotechnology in addressing challenges associated with sustainable food secu-
rity and food safety. We posit that the integration of technology can effectively surmount the constraints currently faced by the sector.
As part of this review, we will also discuss the research prospects for the further development of this field in the future, as well as its
future opportunities. Initially, the stages of the agricultural revolution were discussed, highlighting the transition from Agriculture
1.0 to Agriculture 4.0 and further development. Subsequently, the role of nanotechnology in agriculture was elaborated upon.
2. Stage-by-stage revolution in agriculture
In the mid-20thcentury, the era of agriculture, known as Agriculture 1.0, continued until the early 21st century. Nearly one-third
of the population in this era was involved in food production, with traditional farming heavily reliant on manual labor. In the 1950s,
the second stage of the agricultural revolution was initiated, known as the Green Revolution or Agriculture 2.0, which is widely ac-
cepted to mean a revolution in farming practices (Hamdan et al., 2022). This phase saw the introduction of innovative fertilizers and
synthetic pesticides, along with advancements in agronomy, mechanized systems for both plant and animal husbandry, and overall
farming technology. As a result of these major changes that were made in agricultural practices, yields and productivity were
markedly improved. Agriculture 3.0 was marked by the introduction of sustainable agricultural practices and the integration of com-
puter technologies (Klerkx and Rose, 2020). Agricultural machinery management was transformed into precision farming when tele-
mechanical systems, notably satellite-based geolocation systems, were integrated into it. In this period, biotechnology and genetic en-
gineering have grown in prominence, agricultural products have been stratified on the basis of meticulous data analysis, and agricul-
tural production processes have been refined in order to reduce costs and maximize profits.
Agriculture 4.0, also known as digital agriculture or smart farming, is a result of the gradual evolution of information technologies
within agricultural practices (Abbasi et al., 2022). Artificial intelligence, the Internet of Things, robotics technologies, and big data
analytics are incorporating state-of-the-art digital signatures into agriculture at this latest stage. Farmers can make better decisions
with Agriculture 4.0 utilizing real-time data insights, enabling them to manage crops better, allocate resources more efficiently, and
optimize farms overall. As a result of this transformative approach, additional productivity and efficiency are generated along with a
reduction in resource waste and a reduction in environmental impact, thereby enhancing sustainability. A major part of the Internet
of Things (IoT) relates to the use of sensors and similar devices in agricultural contexts in order to generate actionable data relating to
every aspect and activity involved in farming (Ouafiq et al., 2022). The report stated in the paper by Cicioglu et al. aims to improve
corn harvest productivity in large-scale fields using IoT technology (Cicioğlu and Çalhan, 2021). It utilizes diverse sensor nodes to
monitor various parameters in cornfields, transmitting data to a Drone acting as a relay node. This eliminates the need for long-
distance communication between sensors in expansive cornfields. It is widely recognized that big data is a revolutionary technology
that will have a significant impact on the evaluation of farm-level decisions, policy development, and the identification of market-
distorting activities that will enhance agricultural productivity effectively. Using evolutionary algorithms, Melgar-Garcia et al. pro-
pose a novel method for clustering large amounts of big data using triclustering techniques (Melgar-García et al., 2022). It is demon-
strated that the algorithm is capable of uncovering three-dimensional patterns based on vegetation indexes in vine crops, which are
used as a basis to model vegetation patterns. In order to address large engineering challenges, disruptive technologies often provide
significant solutions and Agriculture 5.0 has emerged as a prominent solution in this regard. As part of Agriculture 5.0, farms are be-
ing advised to adopt Precision Agriculture principles and to use machinery that employs unmanned operations and autonomous deci-
sion support systems in order to increase their yield (Martos et al., 2021). This is why Agriculture 5.0 is going to be primarily based on
robotics and various forms of artificial intelligence in order to achieve its goals.
Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology 58 (2024) 103220
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V. Kiran et al.
For monitoring and managing agriculture and farming operations, especially in remote areas, Sanjeevi et al. propose a scalable
wireless-sensor-network (WSN) architecture utilizing IoT (Sanjeevi et al., 2020). They emphasized the importance of integrating WSN
with IoT to manage water resources in precision agriculture. Throughput maximization and latency minimization are factors that are
prioritized when analyzing the WSN structure. IoT-based farming systems have been shown to be inferior to conventional IoT sys-
tems, according to experimental results. Sharma et al. reported that an agri-food industry can benefit from AI and big data analytics
by improving efficiency and decision-making (Sharma et al., 2021b). This article discusses the application of artificial neural net-
works (ANNs) in logistics, supply chains, marketing, and production. As a whole, the study highlights the enormous potential of AI
and big data to enhance operations in the food industry and demonstrate the transformative impact they can have on it.
3. Precision farming
The science of precision farming or precision agriculture is the application of high-technology sensors and analysis tools in order
to improve the yields of crops and assist the decision-making process (Onyango et al., 2021). Precision agriculture is a recently em-
braced concept worldwide, aimed at boosting production, cutting down on labor time, and ensuring efficient management of fertiliz-
ers and irrigation processes. In order to improve the yields, the quality, and the use of farming resources related to agricultural
growth, this technology uses an immense amount of data as well as information (Javaid et al., 2023). The objective of advanced tech-
nology is to improve the productivity of resources in agriculture fields through advanced innovation and improved field-level man-
agement strategies. Therefore, precision farming represents an innovative approach where farmers strategically administer inputs
like water and fertilizer to maximize productivity, maintaining quality and balancing the yield. Within precision agriculture, the re-
duction of fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides is prioritized to enhance crop productivity (Bongiovanni and Lowenberg-Deboer,
2004). Nanotechnology is employed to evaluate both crop-related and environmental factors, utilizing computerized systems, global
positioning systems, and remote-sensing-related devices. This technology involves nanoscale carriers, nano-pesticides, nano-
herbicides, nano-fertilizers, and nanosensors to control the release of agrochemicals at the targets aiming to provide efficient nutri-
ents for agricultural growth (Azeena et al., 2017; Yadav et al., 2023c).
Leveraging nanotechnology within precision agriculture enables farmers to boost crop yields, diminish waste, and mitigate envi-
ronmental effects, as nanoscale material modifications offer distinct advantages compared to traditional farming methods (Samreen
et al., 2022). Employing nanosensors for immediate monitoring of soil and plant health holds the potential to empower farmers with
precise data on water and fertilizer needs, enhancing crop management strategies. Nanotechnology not only helps diminish the envi-
ronmental footprint of pesticides and fertilizers but also improves the characteristics of agricultural materials like plant fibers and
seeds, rendering them more resilient against pests and weathering, thereby further alleviating their environmental impact (Chauhan
et al., 2024; Padmakumar et al., 2023).
3.1. Nano-fertilizers for agricultural growth
Nitrogen in the form of urea, phosphorus, monoammonium phosphate, diammonium phosphate, and potassium are among the
fertilizers that contain vital nutrients for soil supplementation (Yahaya et al., 2023). However, significant economic losses and dimin-
ished soil fertility are associated with conventional fertilizers' low nutrient utilizationefficiency, mainly due to leaching. Employing
nano-fertilizers presents a notable advancement in agricultural practices, offering heightened efficacy and reduced environmental
repercussions compared to traditional fertilizers (Kumar et al., 2023). These innovative fertilizers are systematically classified based
on their distinct functionalities, nutrient compositions, and structural consistencies (Fig. 1). Among the diverse categories are con-
trolled-release nano-fertilizers, engineered for gradual nutrient release; targeted nanofertilizers, designed for precise delivery to spe-
cific plant parts; and plant growth-promoting nanofertilizers, formulated to enhance crop growth and health (Freitas et al., 2024).
Even nanotechnology offers fertilizers tailored for managing water and nutrient levels in soil; a range of inorganic and organic
nanofertilizers; hybrid nanofertilizers combining different materials for enhanced performance; nutrient-enriched nanofertilizers pro-
viding essential elements to plants; and variations in consistency-based attributes such as surface-coated, synthetic polymer-coated,
Fig. 1. Major classifications of nanomaterial-based fertilizers or nanofertilizers.
Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology 58 (2024) 103220
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biological product-coated, and nanocarrier-based formulations, each offering unique benefits for sustainable agriculture practices
(Yadav et al., 2023b).
Ahmadian et al. conducted a split-plot field experiment spanning two years (2016–2018) in Iran to examine the impact of nano-
chelating fertilizers on wheat yield and water use efficiency (Ahmadian et al., 2021). The primary plots were divided into two cate-
gories: full irrigation and 50% deficit irrigation. Within these categories, the subplots were assigned for foliar spraying with nano-
chelated fertilizers containing Silicon, Boron, and Zinc, along with a control group. Application of nano-silica under half deficit irriga-
tion in both years led to a significant increase in grain yield, with improvements of 28% and 32%, respectively, compared to the con-
trol group. These findings underscore the substantial role of nano-silica fertilizer in mitigating the adverse effects of deficit irrigation
and enhancing the growth attributes of wheat. Madzokere documented the synthesis and utilization of a slow-releasing nanocompos-
ite fertilizer, showcasing its significant potential to uphold crop production over an extended period (Madzokere et al., 2021). Nano-
encapsulated engineered fertilizers facilitate the gradual and prolonged release of nutrients, contributing to sustained nourishment of
crops over an extended duration. Chitosan nanoparticles featuring finely tuned pore sizes have the potential to significantly reduce
nutrient leaching, thereby ensuring consistently high nutrient availability for growing plants and leading to a simultaneous increase
in crop yield. Davarpanah et al. applied foliar sprays of nano-Zinc chelate fertilizer at three concentrations (0, 60, and 120 mg/L) and
nano-Boron chelate fertilizer at three concentrations (0, 3.25, and 6.5 mg/L) as a single spray before full bloom, with a rate of 5.3 L/
tree (Davarpanah et al., 2016). The application of formulated Zinc and Boron resulted in increased leaf concentrations of both mi-
croelements by August, indicating enhancements in the nutrient status of the trees. The findings suggest that a single foliar spray con-
taining relatively low quantities of Boron or Zinc nano-fertilizers, 34 mg of Boron/tree or 636 mg of Znic/tree, respectively, resulted
in heightened pomegranate fruit yield. A few more examples were tabulated in Table 1.
3.2. Nano-pesticides for precision agriculture
The agricultural sector faces significant challenges related to pesticide usage, including environmental pollution, bioaccumula-
tion, and the emergence of pest resistance. Human poisonings from agricultural pesticides have risen, and pest and fungal diseases are
major threats to crops globally (Rajak et al., 2023). While pesticides have been effective against pests, their adverse effects on humans
and the environment underscore the need to minimize their use to mitigate environmental contamination and protect crops and
stored products as well. Hence, concerning pesticide utilization, there arises a need for emerging technological advancements that
could present various advantages, such as heightened effectiveness, longevity, and a reduction in the quantity of active pesticide in-
gredients required. Engineered nanostructures show promise in this aspect for crafting nanopesticides to encapsulate active ingredi-
ents within nanoscale systems (Fig. 2). Various types of nanoformulations have been proposed, including emulsions, polymeric
nanocapsules, inorganic metals and metal oxide nanoparticles, and nanoclays (Balasubramanian et al., 2022; Shurfa et al., 2023). In
various stages of development, these products have the potential to enhance the efficacy of existing pesticide-active ingredients or to
enhance their environmental safety profiles. In addition to their capability to provide prolonged or regulated release patterns over an
extended duration, these formulations serve a crucial function in seed treatment, monitoring pathogens through sensor technology,
detecting diseases, and gaining predictive insights into environmental conditions (Pathak et al., 2022). Nanoencapsulation or
nanoformulation of pesticides is the most promising strategy to control pests in a sustainable manner at the present time.
The study conducted by Choudhary et al. synthesized a nanoemulsion containing naringin-loaded neem oil and evaluated its per-
formance as nanopesticides (Choudhary et al., 2023). In vitro release tests showed a sustained release of naringin, reaching 59.3%
Table 1
Different types of nanofertilizers, their engineering and applications.
Nanofertilizers Used Applied to crops/actions Mode of activities Ref.
Fe2O3 nanoparticles with Azotobacter, PSB
(phosphorus solubilizing bacteria), and
farmyard manure
Cauliflower growth and production
enhanced
Enhancing photosynthetic activity and catalyzing
enzymatic activities in leaves
Saurabh et al.
(2023)
Fe2O3 nanoparticles and zerovalent Fe Hydroponic farming of rice Increased chlorophyll content, reduced plant stress,
and phytohormones like gibberellin & IAA,
downregulated IRT1 & YSL15.
Li et al. (2021)
Soya chunk-CeO2-nanocomposites Increased length of shoot and root
of fenugreek plants
Sustained release of nanocomposites, reduced
bioaccumulation of Ce, and environmental pollution
Mary Isabella
Sonali et al. (2022)
Green route synthesized Azospirillum-
capped nano ZnO
Improved seed germination rate &
leaf area index of vigna radiata and
sustainable production
Chlorophyll and carotenoid contents improved Manivannan et al.
(2021)
ZnO nanoparticles Seedlings of rice Reverse chromium stress, induce the activity of
enzymes related to ascorbate-glutathione cycle and
overexpression of APX, DHAR, GR, and MDHAR
Prakash et al.
(2022)
TiO2 nanoparticles synthesized using Citrus
medica peel extract
Improved seed germination of
Capsicum annuum
Supplying nutrients and functions as catalyzing agents Prakashraj et al.
(2022)
Green nanocomposites of TiO2–ZnO Effective germination followed by
growth of Solanum lycopersicum
Improved adsorption and stimulating transportation
of essential nutrients
Roy and Yadav
(2022)
Chitosan-silicon nanocomposites Seedling vigour index of maize
increased
Induced activities of antioxidant-defence enzymes,
equalize redox-homeostasis in cells.
Kumaraswamy et
al. (2021)
MgO nanoparticles Affect the growth of spinach Enhanced ROS generation followed by oxidative stress Gautam et al.
(2023)
Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology 58 (2024) 103220
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Fig. 2. Different modes of nanoformulated pesticides and fertilizers and their mechanistic models.
within 24 h, contrasting with a burst release of 82.3% from naringin suspension. The naringin-loadedneem oil nanoemulsion demon-
strated notable antibacterial activity and was assessed against bacterial blight in cluster beans. Agricultural applications are explored
by Barbhuiya et al. using niosome nanostructures loaded with Azadirachta indica seed oil (Barbhuiya et al., 2024). In addition to of-
fering low costs and high encapsulation efficiency, niosomes are biodegradable and comprise nonionic surfactants (tween 80). They
prepared optimally shaped niosomes with a diameter of less than 100 nm by utilizing different ratios of surfactant and stabilizer. As
compared with plant pathogens Xanthomonas and Pantoea, these nanoparticles were effective antimicrobials. The study conducted
by Pasquoto-Stigliani et al. developed poly (ε-caprolactone)-based nanocapsules with neem oil and assessed their toxicity (Pasquoto-
Stigliani et al., 2017). Three formulations were created, resulting in stable nanocapsules around 400 nm. Toxicity assay showed in-
creased toxicity in formulations containing oleic acid alongside neem oil, but all neem oil-containing formulations effectively inhib-
ited bacterial growth. Soil microbiota remained unaffected by neem oil nanocapsules over 300 days, while adverse effects were ob-
served only in formulations containing oleic acid during phytotoxicity studies. Thus, caution was advised in using oleic acid as a sup-
plement in nanocapsules for agricultural purposes to minimize potential toxicity. Several other examples of nanopesticides are given
in Table-2.
3.3. Nanoherbicides in agricultural growth
The common use of herbicides in agriculture is to control weeds, and these herbicides are dependent on a number of factors such
as light, water, and nutrients in order to function effectively, which can sometimes lead to competition with crops in the field (Okeke
et al., 2022). It is true that herbicides are used excessively and indiscriminately in crop production as a means of boosting crop pro-
ductivity, yet they are having adverse effects on the environment. It includes contaminating water bodies, causing toxicity to organ-
isms that are not targeted, and having negative impacts on the health of humans (Chaud et al., 2021). The mechanism by which these
herbicides work is that they attack specific biochemical pathways or enzymes within the plants, disrupting their normal growth
processes and ultimately leading to their death. For instance, glyphosate herbicide hinders the function of an enzyme known as 3-
enolpyruvylshikimate-5-phosphate synthase. During plant growth and development, this enzyme plays a crucial role in the biosynthe-
Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology 58 (2024) 103220
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V. Kiran et al.
Table 2
Potential nanoformulated pesticides used in technology-based farming.
Active components/nanopesticides Nanostructures used Applications Ref.
Imidacloprid & indoxacarb High molecular weight chitosan The diameter of nanoparticles was 200–400 nm
and highly effective against the 2nd instar larvae
of S. littoralis
Sabry et al.
(2021)
Imidacloprid Poly (styrene diacetone acrylamide) Controlled release of the pesticides with lower
T50 value.
Qian et al.
(2012)
Neonicotinoid imidacloprid &
pyrethroid lambda-cyhalothrin
Nanoliposomes made of phosphatidylcholine &
cholesterol
Synergistic effect against M. persicae Graily-Moradi
et al. (2021)
Thiamethoxam Cellulose nanocrystals with 18.7% loading
efficiency (LE) & 83.7% encapsulation efficiency
(EE)
Significantly superior against Phenacoccus
solenopsis than commercial formulations
Elabasy et al.
(2020)
Thiamethoxam Polymeric micelles of Pluronic F127 & P123
with 85.14 nm diameter & 94.5% EE.
Effective against D. citri at a half concentration of
commercially recommended concentrations.
Regina Assalin
et al. (2022)
Atrazine Nanocapsules of poly-ɛ-caprolactone Significantly reduces rhizosphere bacterial
metabolism and alter their structure
Zhai et al.
(2020)
Beta-cyfluthrin Nanoemulsions of beta-cyfluthrin and DMSO
with varying proportions.
1:2 formulations were highly effective and
confirmed 100% mortality against 5th instar
nymphs D. koenigii
Lanbiliu et al.
(2024)
Emamectin Sodium alginate polymeric nanoformulations 70% lethality rate against Armyworms at 20 mg/L
concentration for 16 days
Huang et al.
(2024b)
Emamectin benzoate Nanogel suspension of poly (vinyl alcohol)-
valine
Stable at all temperatures, hardness of water and
laccase responded pesticide releases on demand
Zhang et al.
(2022a)
Copper-based pesticides Cu(OH)2-nanopesticides Soil microbial community affected at structural
and functional state.
Peixoto et al.
(2021)
Pheromone Sandwiched in graphene oxide (GO) & amine-
modified GO
Provided extended life to pheromones enhancing
trapping of pests.
Kaur et al.
(2021)
Deltamethrin KIT-6 mesoporous silica nanoparticles Enhances pesticide effectiveness by reducing the
oviposition of Sunn-pest as well as nymphal
population
Alizadeh et al.
(2022)
Deltamethrin Carboxymethyl chitosan-modified GO pH-responsive controlled release of pesticides,
better leaf adhesion.
Song et al.
(2022)
sis of aromatic amino acids. This enzyme is ultimately blocked by glyphosate, which leads to a disruption of amino acid production,
which ultimately results in plant death due to metabolic disturbances. Acetyl-CoA carboxylase is also known to be inhibited by com-
mercially available herbicides such as diclofop and haloxyfop. The other herbicides, phosphinothricin and isoxazole, target glutamine
synthetase and hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase, respectively, to suppress the biosynthetic routes of plants that they use for their
growth. Extended contact with these potent herbicides available on the market can harm various human organs, such as the lungs,
liver, and kidneys, and may even lead to cancer. Using excessive amounts of these herbicides can also cause changes in the soil micro-
biota, thereby altering the growth of plants as a result. Nanoencapsulated herbicides are gaining attention due to their ability to pro-
vide sustained release over time, targeting specific organisms, reducing the quantity of free herbicides required, and enhancing
bioavailability.
Kumar et al. developed an eco-friendly clove oil-based nanoemulsion to enhance the solubility and release control of atrazine, a
herbicide (Kumar et al., 2022). Using food-grade surfactants (tween 80 & phosphatidylcholine) and ultrasonic emulsification, they
achieved a particle size below 200 nm with high encapsulation efficiency (approximately 95%). The formulation, free of organic sol-
vents, offers the potential for sustainable weed control and agri-food applications. Kumar et al. utilized a eucalyptus oil-in-water na-
noemulsion as an eco-friendly carrier for delivering the water-insoluble pesticide emamectin benzoate (Kumar et al., 2021). The na-
noemulsion was prepared using low-energy emulsion phase inversion and high-energy probe sonication methods with food-grade
emulsifiers. Evaluation of surfactant systems showed higher encapsulation efficiency in the emulsion phase inversion nanoemulsion.
The eucalyptus oil nanoemulsion exhibited superior antiphotolysis and leaf adhesion abilities compared to free emamectin benzoate
and commercial formulations. Both nanoemulsions displayed slow and sustained release, indicating their potential as effective pesti-
cide formulations. Carvalho et al. developed zein nanoparticles with atrazine herbicide and assessed their efficacy against Brassica
juncea and Zea mays, as well as their soil mobility and uptake in Bidens pilosa tissues (Carvalho et al., 2023). The nanoformulation
showed excellent colloidal stability, encapsulating atrazine with over 90% efficiency. It significantly improves herbicide efficacy
against B. juncea, even at doses 80 times lower than recommended, without harming crops. Fluorescent labeling reveals nanoparticles
accumulate in root systems, with limited transport to above-ground parts. Nanoencapsulation doesn't enhance herbicide mobility in
soil, remaining concentrated in upperlayers. This suggests the nanoformulation's potential as a precise weed management tool. A few
more nanoherbicides reported by the researchers are tabulated in Table 3.
3.4. Nanosensors or nanobiosensors are involved in modern agriculture
Agricultural output is steadily rising due to advancements in science and technology that have introduced a wider array of crop
varieties, synthetic chemical fertilizers, pest-control solutions, precision farming techniques, and automated systems for monitoring
plant development, soil health, and atmospheric conditions (Dhanaraju et al., 2022). On the other way, environmental pollution has
been caused by intensive farming, unsustainable agricultural practices, and uncontrolled use of chemicals and fertilizers. The result of
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V. Kiran et al.
Table 3
Potential nanoherbicides used in modern farming.
Active
components/Nanoherbicides
Nanostructures used Applications Ref.
Paraquat Porous carboxylated carbon nanoparticles capped with
chitosan
Controlled release and weed elimination were
done by photothermal effect and reduced release
in GI tract for safe use.
Dong et al. (2021)
Diuron Lignin based nanoformulations Showed slow biphasic nonlinear release of
diuron at a wide range of pH
Yearla and
Padmasree (2016)
Metsulfuron methyl Pectin nanoparticles with 6.3% LE & 63% EE Improve herbicidal effect and environmental
safety.
Kumar et al.
(2017)
Tribenuron-methyl Zein nanoparticles with 81% EE Enhances the solubility, bioavailability and
perform well on weeds.
Heydari et al.
(2021a)
Tribenuron-methyl Entrapped in oil-in-water (W/O) Pluronic F127
microemulsion with 83% EE
Improve absorption of herbicide due to balanced
distribution on leaf surface.
Heydari et al.
(2021b)
Pretilachlor O/W emulsion of solvent S-200, wall material PM-200
(polyaryl polymethylene isocyanate) & emulsifier tween
60. EE = 96%
Showed delayed release profile & better
herbicidal effect on barnyard grass.
Chen et al. (2020)
Haloxyfop-R-methyl Poly (methylmethacrylate) nano-capsules with diameter
100–300 nm
Showed steady-state release profile for six days. Mahmoudian et
al. (2020)
Imazamox Layered double hydroxide anionic and cloisite cationic
clay.
Reduces water pollution, maintaining efficacy as
herbicide and soil compatibility.
Khatem et al.
(2019)
2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic
acid
Timethylammonium functionalized mesoporous silica
nanoparticles (MSN) with 22% LE.
Decreases soil leaching, better bioactivity on
targeted plants, and almost zero adverse effects.
Cao et al. (2018)
Diquat dibromide Negatively charged sulfonated MSN with 13% LE. pH & ionic strength dependant herbicide release,
better herbicidal activity on Datura starmonium
L.
Shan et al. (2019)
Prometryn Starch-controlled porous CaCO3 microspheres Controlled release of herbicide and efficient
control of weeds.
Xiang et al.
(2018)
2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic
acid
Rice husk-based nanosorbents Offers sustained release, reduced leaching, and
better herbicidal effect.
(Abigail M et al.,
2016)
this practice has been soil pollution, as well as contamination of groundwater and surface water bodies, posing significant health risks
to humans (Beegum and Das, 2022). To address the obstacles and limitations of contemporary farming practices, various technologi-
cal advancements have emerged, with nanosensors being one notable example. A nanosensor is used as a way to detect dynamic
changes to the behavior of nanometer-sized molecules and to determine what is happening to the environment. The use of nanosen-
sors can include the capability of detecting soil humidity levels, pesticide residues, nutrient requirements, and plant pathogens that
are present within the soil in many different environments (Fig. 3) (Sharma et al., 2021a).
A nanosensor is a sensor device that incorporates sensing components that have been scaled down to a nanoscale. The reduction in
size enables molecules to interact at the molecular level, enhancing sensitivity and detection capabilities as low as 10 ppm (Shaw and
Honeychurch, 2022). There is a growing interest in nanomaterials for sensor applications, including metal and metal oxide nanoparti-
cles, single-walled or multi-walled carbon nanotubes, magnetic and superparamagnetic nanoparticles, nanoprobes, nanowires,
nanofibers, nanosystems based on cantilevers, nanoelectromechanical systems, carbon dots, and quantum dots. A nanobiosensor is
designed on a nanoscale to enable analysis at a subatomic or even atomic level by integrating nanosensors with bioreceptor probes
immobilized for specific target analytes (Dey et al., 2024). With these advanced sensors, biology-based analytical applications can be
performed in real-time, enabling the identification of various analytes, including biomolecules, synthetic chemicals, and pesticides,
among others, as well as metabolites, microorganisms, and pathogens.
In general, a nanobiosensor is composed of analytes to be detected, biological probes or bio-sensitized materials, a transducer, and
a detector. An optimal nanosensor ought to distinguish between target analytes and non-analytes effectively, exhibit long-term stabil-
ity at room temperature, possess high specificity and sensitivity to detect even minute quantities, demonstrate reproducible re-
sponses, and remain minimally affected by external factors such as pH and temperature (Munawar et al., 2019). Additionally, it
should prioritize accuracy, precision, biocompatibility, non-toxicity, portability, and cost-effectiveness as key requirements.
Nanosensors or nanobiosensors can be classified based on their working principle, and optical nanobiosensors and electrochemical
types are very common (Jessy Mercy et al., 2024; Mudenkattil et al., 2022). The analysis of optical nanosensors is carried out spec-
trophotometrically using methods such as absorption of light, fluorescence emission, phosphorescence, surface-enhanced Raman
scattering, and refraction to detect alterations in optical signals. There is significant evidence that these biosensors are capable of
identifying a variety of substances, including nitrites, ROS (reactive oxygen species), and potent bacteria such as Staphylococcus, Sal-
monella, and E. coli, as well as other pathogenic organisms (Thendral et al., 2019). Electrochemical sensors are among the most com-
monly used another sensors because they function as a consequence of the production of electrochemical signals, which result from
the consumption of electrons or their generation during the course of biological interaction. Electrochemical techniques are used in
order to quantify these signals. During the chemical reactions that occur between the biological target on the surface of the nanosen-
sor and the target analyte, ions or electrons are gained or lost, depending on the reaction (Huang et al., 2021). The current, voltage, or
impedance of the nanosensor are measured as a result of this alteration in ions or electrons. It is widely believed that these sensors are
highly favored due to their compatibility with recent advances in miniaturization and nanofabrication technologies, as well as their
Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology 58 (2024) 103220
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Fig. 3. Pictorial representation of the different modes of applications of nanosensors or nanobiosensors in realtime sample analysis that affects precision farming.
high levels of sensitivity, low power consumption, robustness, affordability, low maintenance, rapid response, low detection limits,
and ease of use that make them highly desirable (Khazaee Nejad et al., 2024).
Wu et al. described the development of near-infrared fluorescent SWCNTs as sensors to detect hydrogen peroxide, a marker of
plant stress (Wu et al., 2020). These sensors specifically targeted hydrogen peroxide within the typical plant range and were effective
in monitoring plant health under various stressors. Despite their introduction, they did not noticeably impactplant cell death or pho-
tosynthetic rates, highlighting their biocompatibility. Overall, these nanosensors hold promise for early stress detection in plants, po-
tentially advancing our understanding of plant stress responses and agricultural practices. The study conducted by Tryfon et al. fo-
cuses on microwave-driven selective synthesis of polyol to create various Ca-based NPs, such as Ca(OH)2, Ca(OH)2–CaCO3, and
CaCO3, serving as nematicides and pH adjusters (Tryfon et al., 2019). By using different precursors and polyols, the composition is
controlled, resulting in inorganic/organic hybrid formulations with enhanced stability and controlled release. Testing on Meloidogyne
incognita and Meloidogyne javanica J2 (second stage juveniles) nematodes reveals the effectiveness of all Ca-based NPs, with Ca(OH)2
showing the highest efficacy due to the release of hydroxyl anions. There are several nanoparticle-based sensors and biosensors tabu-
lated in Table 4.
Electronic nose (e-nose) and electronic tongue (e-tongue): Devices such as e-nose & e-tongue mimic the sensory organs of
the human nose and tongue with nanomaterials (Fig. 4). In terms of their purpose, they serve as a means of detecting a variety of
gases and their varying concentrations, including their odors and tastes (Tan and Xu, 2020). This technology plays a crucial role in
the assessment of food and beverage, agricultural products, pharmaceutical products, and personal care items in terms of quality
and quantity. During storage of seeds, for instance, the e-Nose can detect the release of volatile aldehydes from the seeds, thus aid-
ing in preventing decomposition through the timely intervention of volatile aldehydes. The e-tongue is also another type of nano-
sensor device that provides an accurate measurement of various tastes through the use of multiple embedded sensors within the
device (Grassi et al., 2023). Its fundamental operation involves analyzing signals generated by a variety of sensors when they de-
tect the taste introduced into the system.There are also nanoscale smart delivery systems on the market, which can be used to pre-
vent nutrient deficiencies and diagnose plant diseases, thereby providing a more comprehensive form of protection. As a result of
their nanosensor-based design features such as high sensitivity, selectivity, durability, accuracy, and reliability, these nanosensor-
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Table 4
Nanoparticle-based sensors and biosensors for the detection of soil contents, microorganisms, and environmental pollutants.
Nanomaterials used for sensing Biorecognition/analytical materials Sensing types and applications Ref.
Gold nanoparticles (AuNP) Single-stranded (SS)
oligonucleotides functionalized
LSPR & colorimetric detection of genomic DNA of R.
solanacearum, LOD = 7.5 ng
Khaledian et al.
(2017)
AuNP Polyclonal antibodies immobilized Lateral flow immunoassay to detect potato brown rot
caused by R. solanacearum, LOD = 3 × 104 cells/mL
Razo et al. (2019)
AuNP SS DNA of P.infestans DNA based sandwich hybridization, LOD = 0.1 pg/μL Zhan et al. (2018)
MWCNT for pesticide detection Enzyme acetylcholine esterase and
salmon sperm DNA
Cyclic voltammetry & spectrophotometric based
organophosphate (OP) & non-organophosphate neurotoxins
detection, LOD = 0.5–1.0 μM
Zhang et al.
(2015)
3D-graphene AuNPs, nonenzymatic Aminoacetophenone oxime Electrochemical sensors for OP (diethylcyanophosphonate),
LOD = 3.45 × 10−12 M
Huixiang et al.
(2017)
Carbon dots capable of dynamic
quenching
Acetylcholine esterase Fluorometric & colorimetric detection of OP,
LOD = 0.4 ng/mL
Li et al. (2018)
Fe3O4–Au, screen printed carbon
electrode & (CNTs/ZrO2/Prussian
blue/nafion)
Acetylcholine transferase coated Electrochemical biosensors using cyclic voltammetry,
LOD = 5.6 × 10−4 ng/mL
Gan et al. (2010)
Antimony/tin oxide/chitosan &
Ordered-mesoporous carbon
chitosan
Acetylcholine esterase Electrochemical biosensing using cyclic voltammetry &
differential pulsed volatemmetry, LOD = 0.01 μg/L.
Hou et al. (2019)
CNTs for pesticides Acetylcholine esterase/choline
oxidase
Amperometric detecton of OP, LOD = 0.05 μM. Lin et al. (2004)
Nanocomposites of protein & silica Organophosphate hydrolase &
lysozyme
Spectrophotometric and fluorometric detection of paraoxon,
LOD = 35 μM
Ramanathan et al.
(2009)
Liposomes for pesticides Acetylcholine esterase Fluorescence based nanobiosensors for paraoxon detection,
LOD = 10−10 M.
Vamvakaki and
Chaniotakis
(2007)
Bio-electronic nose Odorant-binding proteins Surface acoustic wave resonator, detection of octenol
(LOD = 0.48 ppm & carvone, LOD = 0.74 ppm.
Di Pietrantonio et
al. (2015)
ZnO nanorods modified α-Fe2O3
nanoparticles
Calmodulin Solution gated field–effect transistor based calcium sensors.
LOD = 5 nM
Ahmad et al.
(2018)
Au@Ag nanoparticles Core-shell nanoparticles SERS based detection of difenoconazole, LOD = 0.28 nM Wang et al.
(2019)
Silver-silica core-shell nanoparticles Surface amine modified Colorimetric sensing of pyrethroids. LOD = 1.0 μM. Li et al. (2011)
Ti3C2Tx MXene 2D nanomaterials Silicon-based fabricated electrode Low-cost electrochemical sensor for soil moisture
determination.
Maru et al. (2024)
Graphitic carbon nitride 2D
semiconductor
Metal oxides like copper and iron
oxide nanoparticles
Chemiresistive sensor to monitor methane, relative
humidity and soil moisture content.
Khasim et al.
(2023)
In2O3-graphene-copper nanocomposites Semiconductor-based single-
electrode gas sensor
High sensing capacity for volatile oxidizing (NO2) &
reducing (methane, ethanol, acetone etc.) gases.
LOD = 46 ppm.
Khort et al. (2023)
Carbon dots Red fluorescent carbon dots (rCDs) Fluorometric Cu2+ sensing, LOD = 0.375 nm in water &
11.7 mg/kg in plants.
Lin et al. (2023)
Carbon dots Dual emissive bCDs
(λem = 440 nm) & rCDs
(λem = 660 nm)
Fluorometric detection of parathion-methyl by inner filter
effect of bCDs LOD = 0.14 μM) & glyphosate by Cu2+ based
quenching (LOD = 0.60 μM).
Yang et al. (2023)
Carbon dots Dual emissive Ratiometric fluorescence sensing glyphosphate,
LOD = 0.03 ppm.
Clermont-Paquette
et al. (2023)
based e-tongue and e-nose devices have been found to be indispensable tools with diverse applications in agriculture, forestry, and
food production (Kim et al., 2024).
Sensing based on smart dust:
The term smart dust refers to nanoscale particles that are equipped with a number of sensors and dispersed throughout the air via
wireless technology. The purpose of these sensors is to measure parameters such as the presence of light, present and ambient temper-
ature, humidity, and noise that are related to the environment. Through GPS, the data collected by the sensors is transmitted to a re-
ceiver, which then interprets the data in order to use it in a practical way (Fischer et al., 2009). The function of smart dust in agricul-
tural settings can be viewed as akin to the function of the eyes, nose, and ears in the human body. Incorporating them into crop devel-
opment provides detailed insights into the dynamics of the environment within the fields, allowing proactive strategies to be imple-
mented in order to mitigate potential threats to production (Ditta, 2012).
Nanobarcode-based sensing: Packaged food items or agricultural products include nano-barcodes, which facilitate their easy
identification and traceability. Due to their ability to generate a wide array of combinations, these nanoscale tags can be used in a
variety of applications, including multiplexed biochemical assays and general encoding (Nile et al., 2020). By using UV lamps and
optical microscopes, it is possible to identify micrometer-sized glass barcodes that are formed through the doping of specific fluores-
cent materials with the aim of increasing their visibility. Creating nano-barcodes involves electroplating metals with inert properties,
such as gold or silver, to form striped nanorods, which act as coding deviceswhen electroplated with inert metals. It can be used to
tag gene expression within biological systems for biological applications. Biotechnology-based crop improvement initiatives are sup-
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Fig. 4. E-nose and E-tongue-based smart nanobiosensors in sustainable farming.
ported by nano-barcode sensors that identify and tag plant genes resistant to environmental stresses, such as diseases, droughts, and
salinity (Sahoo et al., 2021).
Nanobiosensors for genetically modified organism (GMO) detection: GMO are widely employed in agriculture, encompass-
ing various crops like rice, cotton, mustard, tomatoes, and fruits, as part of the green revolution (Kumar and Arora, 2020). These
plants are engineered to possess traits such as resistance to diseases, resilience against insects, controlled or delayed ripening, and en-
hanced essential nutrient content. Despite ongoing discussions, many nations have authorized the cultivation of GM crops, each with
its own set of regulations. While Europe started to relax ban, the US and Asian markets are saturated with GM produce. The trend is
toward implementing labeling requirements for GM plants in numerous countries. The International Service for Acquisition of Agri-
biotech Applications (ISAAA) has sanctioned numerous GM foods globally. However, there is an increasing demand for reliable,
rapid, and straightforward methods to detect GM plants. While conventional techniques like PCR, microarrays, and ELISA exist, they
are labor-intensive and costly. Biosensors, especially those based on DNA, hold promise, though challenges persist in sample prepara-
tion and detecting multiple analytes (Gao et al., 2019). Recent advancements in nanobiosensors emphasize optical and electrochemi-
cal transduction mechanisms. Aghili et al. developed an electrochemical nanomaterial-based biosensor utilizing exfoliated graphene
oxide and Au nano-urchins to modify screen-printed carbon electrodes (Aghili et al., 2017). This modification is combined with a
specific DNA probe and hematoxylin as an electrochemical indicator. The sensor displayed a linear detection range of 40–1100 fM,
with a detection limit of 13 fM. It exhibited selectivity towards the target DNA, along with cost and time-effectiveness and suitability
for real sample environments, thereby surpassing conventional methods.
Chou et al. devised a genosensor targeting genetically modified soybeans, utilizing a simple electrode embedded with uniformly
dispersed single-layer AuNP (Chou et al., 2022). Moreover, a DNA sensing electrode is fabricated through the sputtering of a Au film
onto the substrate, subsequent deposition of 1,6-hexanedithiol and AuNP with sulfur groups, with the capture probe being the com-
plementary sequence of the CaMV 35S promoter. To establish the detection standard curve, target DNA directly extracted from genet-
ically modified soybeans was employed, with the genosensor successfully detecting their presence and offering two calibration curves
based on different percentage ranges. The limit of detection was identified as 1%, and notably, the recovery rates for 4% and 5.7% ge-
netically modified soybean DNA were measured at approximately 104% and 102.4%, respectively, with relative standard deviations
of around 6.2% and 2.5%. This sensing electrode, utilizing AuNP, demonstrates promise for both qualitative and quantitative detec-
tion of genetically modified soybeans and potentially other crops. Liu et al. have introduced a rapid and highly sensitive optical/fluo-
rescence sensing platform that utilizes FAM-labeled single-stranded DNA (FAM-ssDNA) and nanometer-sized Fe-MOF, specifically Fe-
MIL-88 (Liu et al., 2023). Fe-based MIL-88 is characterized by its high specific surface area, affinity for single-strand DNA, and strong
quenching ability. FAM-ssDNA probes, designed to complement the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter (CaMV 35S) target, are
adsorbed onto the surface of Fe-based MIL-88 through π–π stacking and electrostatic interactions. Quenching by Fe-based MIL-88 in-
volves both photoinduced electron transfer and FRET processes. The fabricated nanobiosensor exhibits a linear detection range from
5 pM to 50 nM with a LOD of 0.184 pM and requires less than 1 h for operation. Additionally, it exhibits exceptional anti-interference
performance and accuracy in real sample tests, featuring simplified operation without the necessity for complex immobilization steps,
thus indicating promising potential for GMO crop detection.
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4. Smart food packaging
Precision farming and smart food packaging, combined with cutting-edge nanotechnology, are crucial to ensuring food safety and
security. Using nanoscale technologies in precision farming, crop health can be monitored in real-time, and environmental conditions
can be optimized, allowing targeted interventions aimed at optimizing yields and minimizing risk, resulting in a more productive en-
vironment (Behl et al., 2022). Whereas, the use of smart packaging throughout the supply chain monitors and maintains food quality
using advanced sensors and responsive materials. At every stage of production and distribution, these combinations enhance food
safety and security by leveraging the precision of nanotechnology (Rana et al., 2021). In the past, food packaging was traditionally
used as a static shield, ensuring that food was protected from moisture, oxygen, and impurities to keep its quality intact. However,
there are active and smart packaging solutions on the market as a result of advancements in materials and technology. Active packag-
ing engages with the product and its surroundings to bolster food quality and prolong shelf life, potentially lessening reliance on
preservatives (Saleena et al., 2023). Furthermore, intelligent packaging provides consumers with up-to-date details about the quality
and safety of the food they consume by monitoring food and its environment through the use of a variety of indicators (Fig. 5). Ad-
vancements in these technologies aim to improve food safety and quality while retaining compatibility with conventional packaging.
4.1. Important indicators to assess food quality
Incorporating sensors into food packaging requires precise markers that show the food's condition quantitatively or qualitatively.
The markers are usually associated with alterations in the physical or chemical properties of the food that are indicative of spoilage
(Table 5). When these markers are detected early, they can prevent the consumption of food that has been compromised, thus reduc-
ing the likelihood of foodborne illnesses and potential outbreaks that may occur (Vanderroost et al., 2014). A typical set of markers
for estimating food quality and safety consists of variations in gas release, pH levels, moisture content, temperature fluctuations, and
specific target compounds that are used for assessing food quality and safety. By accelerating oxidation reactions, such as fat and pig-
ment oxidation, oxygen plays a crucial role in combustion and various biological processes. The odorless, colorless carbon dioxide, on
the other hand, inhibits the growth of bacteria and fungi. Eliminating oxygen prevents microbial spoilage by targeting Gram-negative
aerobics such as Pseudomonas (Puligundla et al., 2012). Furthermore, carbon dioxide affects microorganisms' membrane permeabil-
ity, and to extend the shelf life of food products, carbon dioxide levels must be precisely controlled. In order to package non-respiring
foods under modified atmospheres, low oxygen levels (0–2%) are usually used, along with high levels of carbon dioxide (20–80%),
which varies depending on the type of food that is being packed. When the level of gas concentrations fluctuates, this can serve as an
indication of the deterioration of food quality, alerting consumers to the possibility of microbial contamination.As numerous microbial byproducts influence the pH of the food environment, tracking pH changes can be a reliable strategy for
detecting food spoilage (Khan et al., 2024). Microorganisms can flourish both aerobically and anaerobically within food packaging
throughout storage. Lactic acid and acetic acid are produced during the fermentation of glucose, causing the pH of food samples to de-
crease. In addition, ethanol, a byproduct of the metabolism of lactic acid, possesses a subtle effect on pH, albeit to a lesser extent than
water, so its impact on pH is less noticeable in comparison with that of water (Roslan et al., 2023). Keeping food items' textures and
quality intact, as well as extending their shelf life, depends on maintaining stable humidity levels. Across a range of food industries,
Fig. 5. Involvement of nanotechnology in potential smart and active food packaging.
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Table 5
Created sensors designed to oversee the quality of packaged food.
Mode of investigation Sensing procedure Mode of observations Base materials Ref.
Storage time & temperature Kinetic model for ready-to-eat
(RTE) salad
Microbial analysis,
Vitamin-C content &
color change
Polypropylene Tsironi et al.
(2017)
pH-sensitive Colorimetric applied to fish
freshness
Color change Anthocyanins-immobilized chitin nanofiber &
methylcellulose matrices
Sani et al.
(2021)
Temperature sensing Electrochemical Intensity of modulated
LED light
Poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene
sulfonate
Escobedo et al.
(2021)
Color sensing Colorimetric Visual color change Cellulose nanofiber decorated with carbon dots &
anthocyanins
Wagh et al.
(2023)
Ammonia vapor sensing or
total volatile basic
nitrogen (TVB-N)
Colorimetric based on TVB-N
release from chicken breast
Color change and
smartphone
applications
Anthocyanins-doped gelatin films with UV-light &
carbon dots crosslinking
Kilic et al.
(2022)
Humidity sensing Electrochemical sensing &
complex impedance
spectroscopy
Impedance variation Incorporated graphene oxide in polyvinyl chloride in
the presence of tricresyl phosphate
Moustafa et al.
(2021)
Temperature & gas Trimethylamine gas & thermo
sensing
Temperature change &
chemical degradation
Laser-induced hybrid graphene/paper by mobile
devices
Jung et al.
(2022)
Biogenic gas Colorimetric sensing of TVB-N
released from meat
Color change with pH
variation
PEG/PLA/Cd(II) nanoparticles and gold nanoparticles Gholampour et
al. (2021)
Temperature Colorimetric sensor Visual color change Chitosan/gold nanoparticles nanocomposites Wang et al.
(2018)
Time, temperature & pH (2-
12)
Colorimetric sensors Color change from red
to black
Natural film made of tragacanth gummifer/chitosan
nanoparticles/anthocyanins/alumina nanoparticles
Piryaei and
Azimi (2024)
Moisture & gas Color stability, ammonia
sensitivity (TVB-N) &
antimicrobial efficacy
Color alteration Nanosized imidazolate material anchored on
biopolymer of corn-starch/polyvinyl alcohol blend
Huang et al.
(2024a)
Temperature Thermochromic materials used
for colorimetric sensor: yellow
to brick red
Color change in
response to
temperature
Cellulose acetate & curcumin with glycerol and
Cellulose acetate & triethanolamine with sorbitol
Pereira et al.
(2024)
pH & ammonia gas Colorimetric paper sensor to
monitor the quality &
freshness of raw fishes
Visual color change in
response to pH
Anthocyanins from hibiscus flowers fabricated on
cellulose papers
Dubey et al.
(2024)
from dairy to meat to dried goods, this is a necessity. Packages that have been mishandled or exposed to temperature shifts for pro-
longed periods can suffer from fluctuations in humidity levels, leading to compromise in food quality. A heightened humidity level
fosters bacterial and fungal growth, posing a safety risk for food and shortening the self-life; therefore, monitoring humidity levels is
essential (Smith et al., 2004). In examining food spoilage, temperature is another crucial factor, and refrigerated food items are
greatly affected by drastic temperature changes and fluctuations. Since perishable foods like fish and meat are highly susceptible to
microbial proliferation, it is imperative that the temperature is monitored and regulated during storage. In order to analyze a patho-
genic microorganism's development, it is necessary to monitor its chemical emissions during its growth. Volatile amines, histamines,
cadaverines, short-chain carbonyls, and aldehydes are a few of the chemicals that make up this group (Płotka-Wasylka et al., 2015). In
terms of evaluating both the quality and the safety of the food products, monitoring the presence and levels of these chemicals is es-
sential.
4.2. Smart packaging for food waste management
With a projected population of nine billion by 2050, world hunger persists despite increased global food production. A total of 1.3
billion tonnes of food, valued at over $1 trillion, is lost or wasted throughout the supply chain, with over 30% lost or wasted at each
stage (Ganeson et al., 2023). It is possible to feed entire populations by recovering preventable food waste. There have been debates
over the definitions of food loss and food waste, which have overshadowed discussions about their causes, impacts, and prevention.
Food loss occurs pre-consumer, during preparation, and post-harvest processing, while food waste primarily happens at the consumer
level, during distribution and consumption. Food loss encompasses natural shrinkage, decay, and inedible portions, whereas food
waste involves the discarding of edible portions due to negligence or conscious decisions (Wohner et al., 2019). To combat post-
consumer food wastage, it's crucial for individuals to adopt behavioral changes aimed at reducing, reusing, or recycling waste. It is es-
sential to address food loss and waste simultaneously while considering convenience, safety, and quality. As a link between post-
harvest processes and consumers, food packaging plays an important role. However, a significant portion of packaging ends up as
waste alongside food, worsening the problem. Many packaging materials are conventional plastics, which contribute to environmen-
tal pollution and toxicity. Intelligent packaging utilizes features such as color-changing ink or sensors to offer clear and quick infor-
mation, thereby minimizing the risk of misinterpretation that leads to food wastage (Abraham, 2022). In addition, it enhances trace-
ability and fosters trust within the food supply chain. Through technologies such as Blockchain, data from diverse sources can be inte-
grated, including temperature sensors, GPS locators, RFID, and barcodes, along with product analytical and certification information.
With intelligent food packaging applications, food safety and traceability are enhanced, while shelf-life is extended, food safety is en-
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hanced, and traceability is strengthened, with promising prospects for smart kitchen implementation, such as smart refrigerators that
reduce wastage (Liegeard and Manning, 2020).
5. Improvement of food-micronutrient bioavailability
Production, processing, storage, and consumption of food are all being revolutionized by nanotechnology. A wide range of scien-
tific studies have indicated that nanotechnology has the potential to enhance nutrient stability, solubility in water, and absorption in
the human body (Harini et al., 2024; Thirumalai et al., 2024). Especially within nanobiotechnology, there is potential for targeted
drug delivery, allowing medications to pass through the blood-brain barrier for treatments specifically targeting the brain. In addition
to providing health benefits for humans, nanomaterials also contribute to the quality and safety of food. In terms of maintaining good
health and preventing diseases, functional food components such as vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants play a crucialrole. There are
many food-derived substances that have physiological benefits beyond basic nutrition, known as nutraceuticals. NUTRACeuticals is a
term that refers to pharmaceutical and nutritional products that combine aspects of both (Espín et al., 2007). As chronic disease rates
rise around the world, there is an increasing awareness of the importance of dietary supplements, and the demand for these supple-
ments is increasing at an unprecedented pace. There is rapid growth in the nutraceutical market in India, with the market projected to
reach $18 billion by 2025, an increase of $4 billion from the year 2020 (Malve and Bhalerao, 2023). By minimizing the need for addi-
tional ingredients, nanoparticle-based technology offers promising solutions despite chemical instability and poor solubility. Bioac-
tive compounds can be encapsulated within nanoparticle-based systems as a valuable strategy for achieving functional nutritional
benefits, but tailored approaches based on the properties and characteristics of specific nutrients are necessary to achieve the best re-
sults (Arshad et al., 2021).
5.1. Biocompatible nanostructures
In the past three decades, the concept of biocompatibility has been formally defined as the capacity of a material to function ap-
propriately within a specific biological setting. This definition highlights three critical elements: the material's intended purpose, the
suitability of the ensuing biological reaction for its intended use, and the contextual dependence of the response. In 2010, Kohane et
al. characterized biocompatibility in drug delivery as the benign nature of the interaction between a material and its biological milieu
(Kohane and Langer, 2010). Nevertheless, some scholars have broadened this definition to encompass a biomaterial's functional suit-
ability within a particular biological environment. Achieving optimal biocompatibility necessitates ensuring that a material interacts
with the body without eliciting toxic, immunogenic, thrombogenic, or carcinogenic reactions (Naahidi et al., 2013). Crucial consider-
ations for assessment include variations in anatomical responses to materials, intrinsic attributes such as exposure duration, and the
subjective nature of evaluating biocompatibility in terms of risk-benefit ratios and inflammation resolution. The limited comprehen-
sion of biological responses and the inadequacy of testing methodologies underscore the imperative of evaluating biomaterials on a
case-by-case basis within tissue-specific and application-specific contexts. Overall, biocompatibility hinges on factors like material
structure, formulation, and environmental conditions, and the indiscriminate use of the term “biocompatible materials” can be mis-
leading.
Immunocompatibility, a subset of biocompatibility, investigates how the immune system responds to biomaterials, prostheses, or
medical devices, constituting a significant area of inquiry (De et al., 2021). While factors like interactions with blood components,
particle accumulation, and organ clearance are crucial, immune system reactions are paramount. Nanoparticles possess the capacity
to either activate or suppress the immune system, thereby influencing their suitability for specific applications. Nanoparticles may
also exhibit adjuvant properties, bolstering immune responses. Inflammation, a pivotal aspect of immunostimulation, is influenced by
nanoparticle core composition and surface properties, with surface charge being particularly critical. Conversely, immunosuppres-
sion entails dampening or preventing immune system activation, a trait demonstrated by nanoparticles. Surface properties pro-
foundly affect nanoparticle compatibility in the bloodstream, as blood constituents may elicit immune reactions, rendering nanoparti-
cles inert. Hence, preclinical evaluation of nanoparticle biocompatibility necessitates comprehensive studies encompassing factors
such as hemolysis, platelet aggregation, and complement activation (Balasubramanian et al., 2023; Deepika et al., 2023;
Dobrovolskaia, 2015).
Biodegradable nanoparticles are favored for targeted drug delivery, vaccine applications, and micronutrient formulations owing
to their capability to be metabolized internally and cleared from the body, obviating the need for subsequent removal. These nanopar-
ticles can be fabricated from materials like proteins, polysaccharides, and synthetic biodegradable polymers, with selection criteria
encompassing size, drug properties, surface characteristics, biodegradability, and release kinetics. Experimental conditions, such as
models and animal species, may influence biodegradation rates. Conversely, non-biodegradable nanoparticles may accumulate in or-
gans such as the liver and spleen, potentially inducing toxic effects. Therefore, biodegradable nanostructures are the first choice for
formulating micronutrients for their bioavailability.
5.2. Types of nanostructures
Micelles: Nanoparticles exhibit a vast array of sizes, shapes, and compositions, with nanoparticle-conjugated pharmaceuticals
traversing various stages of development within the pharmaceutical landscape (Fig. 6). Micelles, defined as submicron circular enti-
ties ranging from 5 nm to several hundreds of nanometers in diameter, spontaneously form when surfactants in aqueous solutions
reach a specific concentration threshold, termed the critical micelle concentration (Zuccari et al., 2021). Taking advantage of mi-
celles' unique properties, nonpolar compounds can be encapsulated, such as lipids, flavorings, antimicrobials, and vitamins, making
Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology 58 (2024) 103220
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Fig. 6. Nanostructures for improving micronutrient content and bioavailability.
them soluble in water even where they are otherwise insoluble. Although traditionally employed as delivery vectors, recent endeav-
ors have spotlighted micelles as carriers for essential dietary constituents.
Polymeric nanoparticles: Polymeric nanoparticles, on the other hand, are fashioned from a matrix of biopolymers bound to-
gether via intermolecular forces or covalent bonds, yielding resilient structures. These nanoparticles may exhibit a core-shell archi-
tecture comprising a singular biopolymer (Luis et al., 2021). They have emerged as highly auspicious vehicles for nanoscale deliv-
ery, owing to their capacity to encapsulate a diverse array of payloads and their customizable nature, facilitating modulation of sur-
face characteristics. Despite the environmentally friendly attributes of polylactic acid, a prominent material in eco-conscious
nanoparticle formulations, its elevated cost and susceptibility to hydrolytic degradation have constrained its widespread adoption,
in spite of the fact that they find application in biomedical research as well as academic pursuits (Guo et al., 2018).
Diverse colloidal delivery systems can be derived from food-grade biopolymers, such as proteins and polysaccharides. These sys-
tems encompass polyelectrolyte complexes, polymer nanoparticles, hydrogel particles, and filled hydrogel particles. Polyelectrolyte
complexes arise from the electrostatic attraction between biopolymers with opposing charges (Hosseini et al., 2015). Polymer
nanoparticles feature a dense matrix abundant in biopolymers with minimal solvent content, whereas hydrogel particles possess a
more porous network of biopolymers cross-linked either physically or chemically, thereby trapping significant solvent volumes. Filled
hydrogel particles emerge when particulate materials, like lipid droplets, are ensnared within hydrogel matrices. Biopolymer-based
nanoparticles can vary in composition, structure (including homogeneous, core-shell, and dispersion), and dimensions (typically
ranging from 50 nm to 500 μm). By carefully selecting appropriate biopolymers and production parameters, nanoparticles can exhibit
tailored behaviors in both food formulations and within the gastrointestinal tract.
Liposomes: Liposomes, also calledlipid vesicles, consist of readily accessible polar lipids, such as those derived from egg and
soy. Liposomal encapsulation of functional agents is similar to micellar encapsulation (Vimaladevi et al., 2016). However, they
offer distinct advantages over micelles in that they accommodate both water-soluble and lipid-soluble components. Liposomes are
bilayer-encased polymolecular structures with a spherical shape from a structural perspective. Depending on the method by
which they are formed, they can exist in uni- or multilamellar forms, in which one or more bilayer shells are present. In addi-
tion, liposomes are composed of aqueous cores that are chemically identical to the surrounding aqueous environment. As a result
of the charge characteristics of the polar lipids used, liposomes are capable of encapsulating charged, water-soluble ions
(Khanniri et al., 2016). Moreover, liposomes have shown their efficacy in the encapsulation of proteins, thereby providing an en-
vironment that promotes the independent function of proteins by removing contaminants.
Metals and metal oxide nanoparticles: Compared to organic nanoparticles, inorganic nanoparticles typically demonstrate re-
duced toxicity, improved bioavailability, heightened affinity with transporters and biomolecules, and enhanced stability. Nonethe-
less, they do present limitations such as size, shape, interfacial properties, and occasional toxicity. Research has extensively explored
various types of inorganic nanoparticles, encompassing gold, silver, and ceramic nanoparticles, across diverse disciplines (Wahab et
Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology 58 (2024) 103220
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al., 2024). Inorganic nanoparticles can be categorized into three primary groups: transition metals, ceramics, and carbon-based ma-
terials. Gold nanoparticles have a wide range of applications across various domains, with their biological applications arguably
standing out as the most significant. Their similarity to the human body, coupled with qualities such as low toxicity, excellent stabil-
ity, small size, and compatibility with various chemicals, renders them ideal for controlled drug delivery and cancer therapy. Like-
wise, silver nanoparticles have been found to be extensively useful in diverse biomedical applications owing to their distinctive
structure and physicochemical properties at the nanoscale (Goel et al., 2023). Carbon nanotubes have also captured growing inter-
est in the biomedical sector over the last two decades.
Solid lipid nanoparticles: Solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers are emulsions of oil-in-water where the
lipid phase is either fully or partially solidified (Viegas et al., 2023). Similar to regular emulsions, the size and concentration of lipid
particles can be controlled, along with the nature of the interfacial layer surrounding the lipid phase. Solid lipid nanoparticles are
typically formed by creating an oil-in-water nanoemulsion at a temperature above the melting point of the lipid phase, followed by
cooling to induce lipid crystallization. Various techniques, such as high shear homogenization, high-pressure homogenization, ultra-
sound dispersion, cold/hot homogenization, and solvent emulsification/evaporation can be used to produce solid lipid nanoparticles
(Mehta et al., 2023). The stability of these lipid nanoparticles depends on factors like lipid type and quantity, properties of the emul-
sifier, initial droplet size and concentration, and cooling conditions. Solid lipid nanoparticles can protect encapsulated lipophilic
components from chemical degradation by enclosing them within the solidified lipid matrix formed after crystallization. Less-
ordered crystalline phases generally result in improved encapsulation and retention, whereas highly-ordered phases lead to lower
encapsulation and higher expulsion of micronutrients. Research has shown successful encapsulation of curcumin in Solid lipid
nanoparticles, resulting in increased bioavailability and enhanced retention time and stability of curcumin in the mucus layer of
Caco-2 cells compared to conventional emulsions (Guri et al., 2013). A list of nanocarriers that enhance the nutritional values after
delivering it to the target is tabulated in Table 6.
6. Nanotechnology-based effective water management system
Increasing water pollution, population growth, and climate change-induced water scarcity make it increasingly difficult to ensure
reliable access to clean and affordable water. It is not a secret that the global water crisis is dire, with millions of people lacking access
to clean drinking water and thousands of children dying every year as a result of waterborne diseases (Qu et al., 2013). The aging of
centralized water supply systems in developed nations faces pressure to produce water of higher quality with less energy and at a
lower cost, while at the same time, it is almost impossible for such systems to be implemented in developing regions. Reusing waste-
water is becoming increasingly necessary, but the current infrastructure for managing such type of water is incapable of handling
such a demand (Qu et al., 2013). Decentralized water management requires innovative technologies such as nanotechnology, necessi-
tating a paradigm shift. As a result of its versatility, efficacy, and adaptability, nanotechnology holds great promise for making water
treatment more efficient, versatile, and sensible. The integration of this technology into water systems will, however, require careful
consideration of factors such as timing, size, and placement within the treatment process in order to achieve success (Ghaffour et al.,
2013). Water management in the present time urgently requires integrated systems incorporating nanotechnology to meet diverse
needs in a sustainable manner (Fig. 7).
Table 6
Nanocarriers to deliver and enhance nutritional values.
Nutrients to formulate Nanocarriers & compositions Applications Ref.
Vitamin D3 Liposomes were synthesized by mixing
lipids containing propylene glycol and
water
Calcidiol concentration increases in the
plasma of healthy volunteers
Dałek et al.
(2022)
Resveratrol Liposomes made of 2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-
3-phosphocholine and cholesterol
Improved cell absorption, gastric digestion,
bioavailability & reduced RES uptake
Xu et al. (2023)
Turmeric curcuminoids (curcumin,
demethoxycurcumin &
bisdemethoxycurcumin)
Food grade Gamma-cyclodextrin Greater bioaccessibilities & bioavailability Borel et al.
(2023)
Vitamin-D Mixed micelles Better delivery system for vitamin-D and
improves bioaccessibility
Mulrooney et
al. (2022)
Vitamin-B9 & vitamin-B12 Coencapsulated in poly (lactic-co-glycolic
acid) or PLGA
Improved bioavailability and bioaccessibility Ramalho et al.
(2021)
Vitamins D, E, B1 & B2 Coencapsulated in nano starch capsules Better thermal stability, low crystallinity &
better solution for vitamin deficiency
Ahmad et al.
(2023)
Lutein PLGA & PLGA-PEG-biotin nanoparticles Improve solubility & retinal uptake Bolla et al.
(2020)
Quercetin Cyclodextrin-mediated metal-organic
framework (MOF)
Biocompatibility, Controlled release and
exceptional free radical scavenging
Zhao et al.
(2024)
Dietary Fe (III) Tartrate-modified, nano-dispersed
ferrihydrite
Cost-effective iron supplement without side
effect, improved absorption & bioavailability
Powell et al.
(2014)
Vitamin D3 Zein nanoparticles with carboxymethyl
chitosan coating
Enhanced stability and controlled release Luo et al.
(2012)
Anthocyanins Chitosan and olive pectin based
nanoformulations
Better stability, ROS scavenging & controlled
release
Xie et al.
(2023)
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Fig. 7. Engineered nanotechnology-based wastewater management systems.
Scientists are enhancing water and wastewater treatment techniques with nanotechnology. In addition to their large surface area
for adsorption, nanomaterials have potent catalytic properties, antimicrobialproperties for disinfection, superparamagnetism for par-
ticle separation, and distinctive optical and electronic properties that make them attractive for novel water quality monitoring and
treatment procedures (Anjum et al., 2019). In spite of the fact that most of these applications are still in the laboratory research stage,
some of them are beginning to be tested in the field. With high specific surface areas, short intraparticle diffusion distances, and ad-
justable pore sizes and surface chemistries, nanoadsorbents are a significant advancement over traditional adsorbents. Surface modi-
fications enable highly selective targeting of specific contaminants due to their high specific surface area. As a substitute for activated
carbon, nanomaterials like carbon nanotubes are showing promise for removing metals and organic contaminants through a variety
of interactions, including hydrophobic, ionic, and electrostatic interactions (Krishna et al., 2023; Smith and Rodrigues, 2015).
Graphite oxide nanosheets and metal oxide nanomaterials like nanomagnetite and nano-TiO2 are also efficient and cost-effective ad-
sorbents for heavy metals and organic pollutants (Vasquez-Caballero et al., 2023). Their distinctive features, such as superparamag-
netism, enable straightforward separation from water. Moreover, creative concepts like core-shell nanoparticles and custom nanoad-
sorbents designed with specific binding sites present additional opportunities for effective water treatment.
Membrane technology is pivotal in integrated water treatment and recycling systems as it efficiently eliminates various contami-
nants and enables the utilization of alternative water sources like brackish water, seawater, and wastewater (Zhou et al., 2023). These
systems offer automation, require minimal space and chemical inputs, and can be adjusted to different scales due to their modular de-
sign. An effective membrane system depends largely on the membrane material, which has a balance between permeability and rejec-
tion of the solute, which is a key aspect of the membrane. Three nanotechnologies—aligned carbon nanotubes, biomimetic mem-
branes, and thin film nanocomposite membranes—show potential in addressing this balance (Zhang et al., 2022b). Aligned carbon
nanotubes and biomimetic membranes utilize nanochannels (carbon nanotubes and aquaporins, respectively) to facilitate exception-
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ally high permeation rates, although challenges persist in achieving high rejection of salts and small contaminants, as well as in scal-
ing up production. Thin film nanocomposite membranes incorporate nanozeolites into the active polyamide layer, boosting perme-
ability by creating preferential pathways for water while excluding hydrated ions (Bassyouni et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2020). Addi-
tionally, nanozeolites can carry antimicrobial agents, allowing for controlled release and regeneration through ion exchange.
7. Aerial remote sensing
Precision and smart farming result in food safety and security, and aerial remote sensing, particularly through drones, plays a ma-
jor role in this. Measurement of vegetation indices can be done by acquiring images over a range of wavelengths to determine crop
health. Manned aircraft or other satellite-based technology were utilized earlier for this task, but they incurred substantial costs
(Hafeez et al., 2023). In contemporary times, drone-based remote sensing has become increasingly accessible owing to the reduced
weight of the payload devices they can carry. This method proves cost-efficient, labor-saving, and time-saving and enables the acqui-
sition of high-resolution images without harming crops. Drone monitoring systems furnish farmers with aerial views of their crops,
delivering valuable information on factors like water availability, soil quality and composition, pest infestation, and microbial occur-
rences (Inoue, 2020). With this drone system, images are captured across both the infrared spectrum and the visual spectrum, allow-
ing various features to be extracted that can reveal minute alterations in plant health that are not visible to the naked eye. In addition,
this technology can provide weekly or hourly updates on the productivity and health of crops. Farmers can swiftly implement correc-
tive actions to enhance crop management practices when they are able to assess crop conditions frequently. From a smart farming
perspective, the introduction of the NaMo Drone Didi scheme on March 11, 2024, by the Government of India at the Indian Agricul-
tural Research Institute (ICAR) represents a significant advancement in India. By providing rural women with agricultural drones and
training, the initiative enables the adoption of precision agriculture techniques. Drones offer real-time data on crop health, soil condi-
tions, and more, allowing farmers to make informed decisions and optimize resource use. This approach promotes sustainability, in-
creases efficiency, and empowers women in agriculture, aligning with the goals of smart farming.
8. Regulatory & ethical aspects
A profound transformation is taking place in modern agriculture, thanks to precision technologies, including wireless communica-
tion, data analytics, and genome editing. These innovations empower digital farming systems to gather and analyze on-farm data, of-
fering farmers a tailored guidance on seed choices and the precise use of pesticides and fertilizers. Through agricultural genome edit-
ing, extensive data is utilized to alter plant DNA, thereby improving crop productivity by introducing new characteristics. These ad-
vancements are fundamentally altering farming methods and sustainability dialogues within the sector. The integration of these data-
driven precision technologies has led to the term Agriculture 4.0, highlighting the significant influence of the fourth industrial revolu-
tion on farming. Smart agriculture fosters significant income growth, improved decision-making, and heightened productivity, lead-
ing to better services and products (Fielke et al., 2020). However, while agricultural technology companies concentrate on aggregat-
ing farmer data, small-scale farmers frequently feel marginalized and excluded from the benefits. Ethical concerns have taken a back-
seat, with a focus on gathering data without sufficient regard for potential misuse. As big data becomes increasingly prevalent, ethical
considerations regarding data governance, including access, control, and consent, become paramount. Addressing these ethical
dilemmas can offer valuable insights into how data is collected and utilized, thereby narrowing the digital gap and promoting trans-
parency and trust among all involved parties or stakeholders.
A significant portion of gene editing research focuses on developing crops that are resistant to pesticides and herbicides, as well as
their ability to withstand drought and pests containing higher nutritional values. The commercial market has already begun to accept
some gene-edited crops, including soybean oil, which is healthier, and canola, which is herbicide-tolerant. In addition to gene editing,
gene drives enable the rapid transmission of edited traits to offspring, a concept still in its early stages of development or considered
as a proof-of-concept (Clapp and Ruder, 2020). As part of an ongoing effort to control agricultural weeds, gene editing is being inves-
tigated. Different countries treat gene editing differently: while the US and Canada tend toward leniency since foreign DNA is not in-
serted, the EU treats it as a traditional biotechnology. The use of gene drive technology is currently governed by no international
framework, and there is no transparency regarding information about gene-edited crops. In spite of progress, gene-editing applica-
tions in agriculture continue to face challenges related to regulation and transparency. There is polarization around precision agricul-
ture technologiesbecause supporters claim they boost sustainability. Others point to advantages such as boosting productivity and
eco-conscious farming methods. On the other hand, sceptics see digital tools as revolutionary for agriculture, while others emphasize
the need for adaptation in order to combat climate change and wind resources. Nevertheless, there may be divergent viewpoints re-
garding how these technologies might affect the environment and the possibility of potential drawbacks in the future (Mizik, 2023).
Precision farming is expected to play a significant role in agriculture in the future, depending on a number of factors, including
technological, economic, and policy factors. Policy frameworks lay the foundations for the operation of precision farming by provid-
ing the legal frameworks within which it is carried out. Economic considerations are pivotal, with the need for affordable tools for
farmers to make informed decisions, ensuring equitable access across all socioeconomic strata. In order to mitigate the adverse im-
pacts of technological advancements, it is essential that they are used ethically to gain economic and environmental benefits. As pre-
cision farming evolves, automation may increasingly replace manual oversight, shifting farmers' roles toward strategic decision-
making. As a result of this transition, there are ethical implications related to job displacement and the need for equitable retraining
programs. The use of precision farming can also alleviate entrepreneurial risks in areas that have uncertain climate and market condi-
tions, as long as ethical caveats are in place to ensure fairness and inclusivity. Improvements in technical infrastructure and legal
Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology 58 (2024) 103220
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V. Kiran et al.
frameworks are essential for broadening access to precision farming technologies, thereby maximizing their societal benefits while
upholding ethical principles of fairness, accountability, and transparency.
9. Conclusion and future perspectives
Achieving food security and meeting sustainable development goals will not be possible without ensuring food safety. There has
been a long history of having access to safe and nutritious food that has played a vital role in the advancement of societies, alleviating
individual and community members from the constant struggle of procuring food on a daily basis. Considering that there are pro-
jected to be more than 9 billion people on earth by 2050, it becomes increasingly essential for food production to be reliable, safe, and
sustainable. Food security and safety worldwide are threatened by inadequate techniques used in food production, storage, process-
ing, and distribution. New adaptation strategies and interdisciplinary research are needed to safeguard food security and safety
against threats such as climate change, new pathogens, and consumer preferences for minimally processed foods. Developing and de-
veloped economies must work together to address these challenges, focusing on the support of smallholder producers in particular. A
nanoscale material or device offers precise solutions to food safety and security problems. Their unique properties, derived from
quantum effects at the nanoscale, allow them to detect pathogens and environmental changes highly sensitively. The size, shape, and
composition of nanomaterials can be precisely engineered to meet specific requirements. Functionalization with biomolecules en-
hances selectivity. Bottom-up assembly from solutions makes manufacturing cost-effective. Through interdisciplinary collaboration
and innovative approaches, nanotechnology holds significant promise for transforming food safety and security efforts.
In order to ensure food security and safety, nanoscale science and technology can be used. It requires significant investment and
innovation, including advances in nanomaterials and devices, as well as nanosystem design and manufacture. Economically and in
terms of human health, these investments should yield substantial returns. Creating functional nanosystems requires the integration
of sensors with computation, communication, and power devices in order to function effectively. In order to align with the food indus-
try's safety standards and practices, technology adoption challenges include ensuring that the systems are low-cost, low-power con-
sumed, lighter weight, flexible, and non-toxic. It is, nonetheless, important to ensure that the food supply is reliable and safe around
the world, and that's why nanoscience and nanotechnology researchers should hold an optimum position to provide solutions to that
problem.
Funding details
No funding was received.
Disclosure statement
The authors report there are no competing interests to declare.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Venkatakrishnan Kiran: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data curation. Karthick Harini: Writing –
original draft, Methodology, Investigation, Data curation. Anbazhagan Thirumalai: Validation, Methodology. Koyeli
Girigoswami: Validation, Supervision, Methodology. Agnishwar Girigoswami: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Supervi-
sion, Project administration, Investigation, Conceptualization.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgement
Kiran, Harini, and Thirumalai acknowledge CARE for a research fellowship and infrastructural support.
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	Nanotechnology's role in ensuring food safety and security
	1. Introduction
	2. Stage-by-stage revolution in agriculture
	3. Precision farming
	3.1. Nano-fertilizers for agricultural growth
	3.2. Nano-pesticides for precision agriculture
	3.3. Nanoherbicides in agricultural growth
	3.4. Nanosensors or nanobiosensors are involved in modern agriculture
	4. Smart food packaging
	4.1. Important indicators to assess food quality
	4.2. Smart packaging for food waste management
	5. Improvement of food-micronutrient bioavailability
	5.1. Biocompatible nanostructures
	5.2. Types of nanostructures
	6. Nanotechnology-based effective water management system
	7. Aerial remote sensing
	8. Regulatory & ethical aspects
	9. Conclusion and future perspectives
	Funding details
	Disclosure statement
	CRediT authorship contribution statement
	Acknowledgement
	References
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