AnimalBehaviourpdf

Prévia do material em texto

imagine
inspire
educate
enjoy
conserve
believe
care
Education Service
An
im
a
l B
eh
a
vi
ou
r 
& Learning
Animal
Behaviour
 
Marwell Zoological Park, 
Colden Common, Winchester, 
Hampshire, SO21 1JH 
 
Telephone: 01962 777407 
Facsimile: 01962 777511 
Email: marwell@marwell.org.uk 
Website: www.marwell.org.uk 
Registered Charity No: 275433 
 
Our Mission 
 
Marwell is dedicated to the conservation of wildlife and 
other natural resources. We work to conserve species 
and their habitats, and advocate environmental and 
social responsibility in support of these goals. 
 
Our Aims 
 
• To conserve species and their habitats, locally & 
globally. 
• To encourage understanding and inspire care for the 
natural world. 
• To undertake and share results of scientific studies. 
• To understand our impacts and improve our 
environmental performance. 
• To invest in people and provide opportunities for 
personal and professional development. 
• To communicate our mission and the value of our 
work for wildlife, the environment and society. 
• To develop and maintain a world class visitor centre 
and zoological park in support of our charitable 
objectives. 
 
Marwell Education Service Page 1 
 
 
Contents 
 
 
 
Page 2: Ethology: The Study of Animal Behaviour 
 
Page 5: Zoo Research Guidelines: Project Planning and 
Behavioural Observations 
 
Page 9: Interpreting Behaviour 
 
• Sulawesi crested macaque 
• Nyala 
• Amur tiger 
 
Page 13: Animal Enrichment @ Marwell 
 
 
Page 15: General References and 
Recommended Reading 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Marwell Education Service Page 2 
 
Ethology: 
The study of Animal Behaviour 
 
Modern behaviourists attempt to explain behaviour patterns in terms of the underlying 
physiological processes involved, i.e. the operation of the sensory nervous system. In the past 
vitalist studies (field based) and mechanistic studies (laboratory based) have both been used to 
study behaviour (such as the ability to measure hormone levels in the blood) to try and gain an 
understanding of motivation, stimuli and responses involved. 
 
In a captive situation, as seen at Marwell, an understanding of animal behaviour is essential to 
the maintenance of healthy and contented animals. 
 
Example 1 – understanding how group hierarchy is organised in a species allows keepers to 
provide the optimum group sizes with minimum aggression. 
 
Example 2 – understanding the essential stimuli that should precede courtship and mating may 
lead to greater success in breeding programmes. 
 
 
STIMULI 
These can be internal (physiological) or external. 
 
1. Motivational The physiological state of being hungry is a motivational stimulus 
 that encourages the animal to search for food. 
 
2. Releaser The sight of food is a releaser stimuli, inducing a full range of 
feeding behaviour. Releaser stimuli may appear simple but can elicit a 
series of complex behaviour patterns, e.g. the red dot on the beak of an 
adult herring gull stimulates the chick to peck it, and this in turn causes the 
adult bird to regurgitate food which the chick can then eat. 
 
3. Terminating These stimuli bring a particular behaviour to an end, e.g. a full 
stomach terminates feeding behaviour. 
 
MOTIVATION 
This term describes the internal state of an animal which precedes a specific act of behaviour. 
To elicit feeding behaviour an animal should be motivated by hunger. If the animal has just 
eaten, the sight of food does not bring about feeding behaviour. The animal is said to be 
unmotivated as far as eating is concerned though it may well be motivated towards some other 
behaviour such as sleeping. 
 
Motivation originates from the animal’s internal physiological state, as 
governed by various hormone levels in the blood. These may be controlled 
by external factors known as motivational stimuli (see above). In birds for 
example, sexual behaviour is induced by increasing day length. Receptors in 
the eyes detect the daylight and send nervous impulses which result in the 
Marwell Education Service Page 3 
 
pituitary releasing gonadotrophins which bring the bird into a reproductive state. The bird is now 
motivated and will respond positively to releaser stimuli such as the appearance of a potential 
mate. 
 
TYPES OF BEHAVIOUR 
Behaviour is a result of interplay between an organism and its environment. In the classical 
study of behaviour there is a lot of “pigeon-holing”, but in reality it is usually impossible to look at 
particular aspects of behaviour in isolation. 
 
1. Species-specific behaviour. This is a behaviour pattern common to all members of a 
species, e.g. courtship display, territorial marking, etc. It may be referred to as instinctive in as 
much as it occurs in individuals reared in isolation. 
 
2. Individual-specific behaviour. Includes patterns learned during an animal’s lifetime, 
e.g. dogs learning tricks, and blue tits removing milk bottle tops. 
 
A particular behaviour pattern will inevitably be the result of ‘instinct’ and ‘learned’ behaviour 
and will be modified by the demands of the environment. 
 
LEARNING AND BEHAVIOUR 
Learning is an adaptive change in behaviour as a result of experience. It involves changing old 
behaviour patterns and developing new ones in response to changing environmental conditions. 
Such behaviour cannot be inherited but the capacity to learn can. 
 
Learning can be divided into five categories. Not all types of animal exhibit all types of learning. 
 
1. Habituation 
If an animal is subjected to repeated, harmless stimuli it may cease to respond to further 
stimulation. In this way the performance of unnecessary behaviour is prevented. Examples 
include a snail which ceases to withdraw its eye stalks when repeatedly touched. By eliminating 
unnecessary behaviour, an animal can spend more time on useful activities such as feeding. 
 
2. Associative Learning 
An animal learns to associate a particular response with a reward or punishment, and adapts its 
behaviour accordingly. 
 
i) The conditioned reflex (classical conditioning): The classic example of associative learning is 
demonstrated by Pavlov and his salivating dogs. An example of this form of learning in the wild 
might be: a young animal associates the sight of a predator (the unconditioned stimuli) with the 
need to flee (the unconditioned response). In time the animal may learn to associate the 
behaviour or alarm calls of other species with the appearance of the predator. Later still the 
animal may flee as a result of hearing just the calls of the other species, in which case the calls 
are the conditioned stimulus and fleeing the conditioned response. 
Conditioning allows an animal to maximise its rewards while minimising punishment. 
 
ii) Trial and error learning (operant conditioning): The animal associates 
reward or punishment with its own action rather than outside stimulus. 
Thorndike used a problem box which could be opened from the inside with a 
lever. A cat was shut in the box. Eventually, by exploring its surroundings, 
the cat would trip a lever that opened the door. On repeated trials the cat 
increasingly concentrated its efforts around the site of the lever until it 
Marwell Education Service Page 4 
learned to move directly to the lever and open the door. The cat had learned to concentrate on 
rewarding behaviour. The development of co-ordination in young mammals and birds is 
probably due to trial and error learning. Intelligence is sometimes measured by the time an 
animal takes to cease making errors, the complexity of the situation to which it can respond and 
the period it retains information. 
 
3. Latent (Exploratory) Learning 
Many animals explore their surroundings and store useful information for future use. A rat 
placed in a maze will explore. Later, when hungry and placed in the maze, it was found that the 
rat discovered the reward in fewer trials, thanrats that had had no previous experience of the 
maze. The rat used its previous experience when it was motivated to eat. Exploratory behaviour 
is characteristic of more intelligent animals and is invaluable to survival in a complex 
environment. 
 
4. Insight Learning 
Intelligence can, in part, be assessed by the complexity of a problem solved and the speed at 
which it is done. In humans, a sudden ‘brainwave’ can overcome an apparently insoluble 
problem. Insight is often described as the ability to reason, to draw together past experiences 
and apply them to new situations. Insight learning has been credited to humans and to chimps. 
 
5. Imprinting 
A behaviour characteristic of vertebrate young. During a critical time, often the first few hours 
after hatching/birth, offspring learn to recognise their parent/s and follow them. Konrad Lorenz 
showed that newly hatched goslings followed the first moving object they saw... be it a goose or 
a human. In the wild, parents would be the first object seen – imprinting on them means 
youngsters would be less likely to get lost. Parents imprint on their own young to avoid the risk 
of wasting energy rearing another animal’s offspring. In the zoo, imprinting can cause all sorts of 
problems. An animal that is hand-reared by its keeper can be difficult to reintroduce to a group 
of its own species. Great care must be taken to minimise ‘humanisation’. 
 
 
Memory 
All learning requires some sort of memory; in simple organisms memory may consist of 
chemical blockers at a synapse. ‘Intelligent’ animals have far more complex storage and 
retrieval systems, usually associated with the major sense organs and always linked to the rest 
of the body via an intricate nervous system. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Marwell Education Service Page 5 
 
Zoo Research 
Guidelines: 
Project Planning and Behavioural 
Observations 
 
BIAZA RESEARCH GUIDELINES (ABRIDGED VERSION) 
 
Scientific investigations are the basis for understanding the animals in a zoo, assessing the way 
they are cared for and how they interact with their zoo environment. Through careful research, 
we can improve animal management, husbandry, welfare, breeding, diets etc. Research 
conducted in zoos can also contribute to the conservation of animals in-situ (in their range 
state). In zoos it is possible to study animals closely, which can be an excellent training for 
observations in the field. Zoos also provide a valuable opportunity to train young scientists and 
other interested parties in scientific research techniques. 
 
1. Formulating the research question and initial practicalities 
 
Identify the question(s) and the species upon which you wish to focus. Consult your 
teacher/supervisor to make sure that these are appropriate for a zoo project. A thorough 
literature search on both the species and the question is then the next step. Electronic 
databases such as ‘Web of Science’ are the easiest way to search for scientific work on a 
particular topic. 
 
The Internet and reports on previous zoo projects, which can be obtained by contacting Zoo 
Libraries or Zoo Research Coordinators, can be useful. However, the source and accuracy of 
Internet material should be carefully considered. Also previous project reports may be unreliable 
and inaccurate due to the restricted input from zoo personnel or poor supervision. Read 
unpublished projects critically and decide if the information is valid. Avoid following on from a 
scientifically unsound project unless you can make changes and improve on it. Do not base 
your project too closely on a previous study as this may be classed as plagiarism. 
 
Example: If you were interested in studying the effect of visitor numbers on the behaviour of a 
group of macaques, your literature search should cover 'macaque behaviour' both 'in the wild' 
and 'in zoos' plus 'visitor effects on zoo animals/primates'. 
 
Discuss the project with your teacher before contacting the zoo or animal collection. A list of 
suggested projects may be available from the Zoo Research Coordinator. 
Check carefully what your course requires with regards to the write-up of the 
project and whether these requirements can be fully met by the intended zoo 
project. For example, are descriptive statistics adequate or is statistical 
hypothesis testing a requirement? 
 
Marwell Education Service Page 6 
 
Find out the registration procedure for conducting a project at the zoo you have chosen. Start by 
contacting your teacher who might have zoo registration forms or information leaflets. If there is 
no information available, contact the Zoo Research Coordinator. It is helpful, and often a 
requirement, to have a short, typed project proposal to submit to your teacher and the zoo. 
 
Identify your study animals and determine any group structure. Ask the zoo for identification 
sheets or a copy of the taxon report for the species of your interest. The taxon report gives 
individual information on age, sex, parents, etc. Check through any previous project reports that 
are available on these animals (ask the Research Coordinator or the Zoo Librarian). Previous 
reports may not only hold information on the individuals but often also contain enclosure maps. 
Determine whether identification of individuals is possible within your time constraints. It might 
be sufficient for your particular research question to subdivide the population by sex or age 
group. 
 
2. Developing the research design 
 
Practicalities and Responsibilities 
 
Consider what types of projects are appropriate for a zoo environment. For example invasive 
studies that require a Home Office License may be possible in a laboratory but will not be 
accepted in a zoo. For ethical reasons it is unlikely that you will be able to collect data that 
would require separating individual animals from a group (e.g. for individual feeding trials) or 
catching or anaesthetising the study animals. 
 
Discuss with your teacher and if necessary with the Zoo Research Coordinator how feasible 
your initial design will be to implement. The project needs to work around zoo regimes (e.g. 
animal feeding times, keeper’s rota) and avoid disrupting the animals or the keepers. Check the 
husbandry regime for your study animals and bear in mind that you may not be able to observe 
them at certain times (e.g. outside of zoo opening times or when they cannot be seen from 
public viewing areas). By handing in a preliminary proposal well before the start of your project, 
the zoo will have the opportunity to inform you about any possible problems. 
 
Always keep to the arrangements that you made with zoo staff (e.g. for putting enrichment 
devices into enclosures) and ensure that you turn up on the days and at the times agreed. Be 
sure to inform the keepers and/or the Research Coordinator if you make changes to your 
research plans. 
 
Experimental Design 
 
Identify independent and dependent variables in your experiment. The independent variable is 
the factor that you, as the researcher, will manipulate. The dependant variable is what you will 
measure. The independent variable can be manipulated either directly or indirectly. 
 
Example: Independent variables might include the addition of enrichment devices (directly 
controlled by you) or visitor numbers (indirect measure since you cannot control it). The 
dependent variable might be position of the animal(s) in the enclosure or behaviour frequencies 
or durations. 
 
If your project requires observation of detailed behaviour you will need to 
construct an ethogram. This is a detailed list of objectively described, 
mutually exclusive behaviours that you will focus on to answer your research 
Marwell Education Service Page 7 
 
question(s). These behaviours provide you with measurable units for which you can record 
frequencies and durations or latencies. 
 
Think carefully about the context of your data collection – what else might be going on at the 
same timeand possibly affecting it? Eliminate as many confounding variables as possible so 
that the only factor that affects your dependent variable is/are your independent variable/s. 
Those that cannot be eliminated should be controlled for as far as possible and acknowledged 
and discussed in your project report. 
 
 
So comparing the general behaviour of a scorpion and a penguin is not the best 
idea because there are too many variables. 
 
 
Example: Animals may reduce their activity when visitor numbers increase but does this also 
coincide with higher temperatures due to better weather? 
 
Choosing Sampling Methods 
 
Exactly what data you collect depends on your hypothesis. The variables you measure should 
be chosen to best describe what is of interest to answer the research question. Avoid taking 
unnecessary data by remaining focused on your hypothesis. 
 
Example: Instead of collecting general data on, for example, everything that each individual of 
a group does, you might focus specifically on where individuals are found in the enclosure and 
behaviour shown there. If you are looking at the effect of enrichment devices, you might focus 
on behavioural elements relevant to the device (e.g. foraging and feeding) or focus more 
broadly on changes in time budgets, but it would not be necessary to collect data on details of 
e.g. social behaviours. 
 
 
 
Data Collection in the Zoo 
 
I. Why are you gathering data? 
 
Many behaviourists have studied animals out of personal interest. It is however becoming 
increasingly important to study and record the natural behaviour of animals as this may be used 
to help conserve the species in the wild. Other reasons for study may be to improve our 
management of captive animals or to investigate the relationship a species has with its 
ecosystem. 
 
II. Difficulty of Making Accurate Observations. 
 
The animals should ideally be in their natural habitat and should be undisturbed by your 
presence. (How easy is this to achieve?). Alternatively the animals under study 
should become acclimatised to you over a period of time. Your presence may 
affect other species nearby, which could influence the behaviour of the 
animals you wish to study. 
 
 
Marwell Education Service Page 8 
 
III. How to Record. 
 
There are several methods which can be employed. These include hand-held tape recorder 
(must ensure voice does not intrude on animals under study), recording using note pad and 
shorthand and still photography, video/sound recording. 
 
IV. What and When to Record. 
 
Decide when to collect the data. You need to consider time of day, visitor numbers, 
temperature, weather conditions, animal breeding season etc. Make sure you plan your data 
collection so that you have enough time to answer your questions within such constraints and 
allow extra time for unexpected problems. Please note when interpreting the results of a short-
term project that the outcome cannot be seen as being representative for the animals' behaviour 
all year round! 
 
Consider how /when /how often etc. to record the data and ensure you are using the most 
appropriate sampling method to answer your question. This is important in determining whether 
your data are suitable for statistical analysis, so do check if you intend such analysis. 
 
Example: You might study one focal animal at a time, select individuals out of subgroups or 
scan the behaviour of the whole group at the same time point. Sampling methods include; ad 
lib, focal and scan behaviour sampling. Recording can be continuous, instantaneous, frequency, 
etc. 
 
The number of observations you take will depend on how many animals you have available, 
how many different experimental conditions you are planning to compare, the probability tests 
you have decided to use (if any) and how strong the effect of your independent variable is. 
Decide how long you will leave between sampling periods (among other factors, this will depend 
on the duration of the behaviours observed) and how you will avoid bias when choosing a 
subject to sample. It is important that these issues are carefully considered to avoid generating 
errors in interpreting results and/or any statistical analyses. If certain individuals are more 
active/visible, their behaviour may be recorded repeatedly (and so be over-represented in the 
results) instead of obtaining data from all individuals evenly. 
 
Example: To avoid bias, pick subjects at random or in a set order rather than focusing on the 
animal displaying the most interesting behaviour at that time. This might result in lots of, e.g. 
'inactive' or 'out of sight' behaviour being recorded but, even if this seems less interesting to 
you, the observer, it is still valid data. 
 
Once you have planned your data collection it is very valuable to carry out preliminary 
observations (a pilot study) to iron out any unforeseen problems with your research design or 
sampling strategies. It also enables you to judge realistically how long the data collection for the 
whole project will take and to plan a timetable accordingly (with extra time added for further 
unforeseen problems!). 
 
Marwell Education Service Page 9 
Interpreting Your Results 
 
Take care when interpreting your results to reconsider the planning and design part of the 
process and think back over any confounding or irrelevant variables. Did any others arise during 
the course of your data collection (e.g. new animal arrived in collection, new feeding method, 
strong weather change)? How might these, individually and together, have affected your 
results? You need to discuss these thoroughly; in some studies they have a larger effect than 
the independent variable. Consider the value of your results for the observed zoo animals and 
also, if appropriate, how applicable these results are for the subject species in other zoos/wild. 
 
THINGS TO CONSIDER WHEN INTERPRETAING ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR 
 
DO NOT use Preconceptions 
 
Example: 
 
You might have 
preconceptions that all cats 
hate water – this is not the 
case with Amur tigers. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
DO NOT use Assumptions 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
DO NOT be A
 
Anthropomorph
nonhuman orga
 
 
 
 
 
Example: 
 
One would assume that 
red-bellied piranhas eat 
animal flesh all the time. 
However they have often 
been observed eating fruit. 
nthropomorphic 
ism is the attribution of human motivation, characteristics, or behaviour to 
nisms or inanimate objects. 
 
 
Example: 
 
A smiling macaque is not a
“happy” macaque. It has 
been discovered that when 
primates show their teeth it
is often a fear or 
aggressive response and 
not a positive response as 
with humans. 
Marwell Education Service Page 10 
Sulawesi black crested macaque 
 
 
Th
in 
 
So
lad
do
inc
 
Th
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Th
te
be
 
G
is 
of
gr
sm
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Fact File……………… 
 
Habitat: Tropical mangrove forest on the 
 Indonesian island of Sulawesi 
 
Diet: Leaves, roots, sprouts, buds, fruit, 
insects & caterpillars 
 
Behaviour: Highly social, average 1 male to 
3.4 females 
 
Life span: 18 years 
 
Gestation period: 162- 186 days 
 
e Sulawesi Crested Macaque (Cybopithecus niger) is a monkey despite having little to show 
the way of a tail. 
cial Harmony…..is achieved by every member of the group having a place on the ‘social 
der’ although an individual’s position can change for all sorts of reasons. For example, the 
minant male may be ousted by a stronger rival and an adult female’s status tends to 
rease when she comes into season. 
e Hierarchy… 
 1. Dominant male 
 ↓ 
 2. Females on heat (in season) 
 ↓ 
 3. The juvenile son of the dominant male 
 ↓ 
 4. Expectant mothers and mothers with new babies 
e juvenile male is not yet sexually mature but has become sexually active. He continually 
sts his status among his group peers and his father tolerates this behaviour, presumably 
cause his son poses no threat as a potential father. 
rooming…. is a socialactivity which reinforces relationships. Touching 
a sign of reassurance and acceptance, emphasising the individual’s sense 
 ‘belonging’ to a group. No matter what rank they hold, each individual is 
oomed by someone else presenting themselves to be touched and 
oothed. 
Marwell Education Service Page 11 
Facial expressions and displays…. are used by the dominant male to signal his 
authority to others. He warns young males off by throwing his head back and opening his 
mouth to reveal his teeth. He will stand on all fours with shoulders hunched making himself 
look as big as possible. Sulawesi Crested Macaques have mobile heads and flexible faces, 
allowing for a wide range of facial positions and expressions. The “fear grin” with the crest of 
hair raised, is an indication of anxiety or alarm. 
 
Pink, fleshy bottoms…. are a brilliant way of keeping the group together, as they are easy 
to see in the dark, dense rainforest and act as a “follow 
me” signal. Until puberty, these patches of skin called, 
ischial callosities, are quite pale in colour. When sexual 
maturity is reached gonadal hormones cause a 
heightened colouration of the skin in both sexes. For 
the females, the skin colour is exaggerated every 
month and is accompanied by an increased swelling. 
Both are visual indications that she is in season. 
Sulawesi black crested macaques are polygamous i.e. 
they do not have fixed breeding partners. Females in 
season will first invite the dominant male to mate but if 
he seems uninterested she may invite a lower ranking 
male within the group to mate with her. 
 
Newborn infants….are often the focus of attention for youngsters of both sexes, as well as 
other mothers and females. If one of the group is interested in touching the infant, they will 
approach the mother, sit down at arms length and stretch out their hand tentatively. Although 
the infant is dependant on its mother for milk for many months, it will start becoming 
independent at around 4 months and as it gets older and stronger it will become more 
adventurous, leaving its mother to play with other group members. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Marwell Education Service Page 12 
Nyala 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
In
for
dim
frin
cu
ma
 
Al
 
If 
sig
 
 
 
Fact File………………………………………… 
Scientific name Tragelaphus angasi 
Distribution South Africa, from North Natal to 
Malawi 
Status in the 
wild 
Lower Risk – conservation 
dependant 
Gestation period 7 – 7.5 months 
Number of 
young 
Usually 1 
Sexually mature 2 years 
Lifespan Up to 16years in captivity 
Notable features ‘Sexually dimorphic’ – the male and 
female differ in appearance and 
colouration. Males use their horns 
for impressing females and digging 
up tubers. 
troduction…Nyala are medium sized antelope that inhabit riverside forests and woodlands 
ming herds up to 40 animals, browsing on fruit, leaves and tubers. Nyala show ‘sexual 
orphism’. The buck (male) has a shaggy dark grey coat with faint white stripes and a long 
ge along the underside. They have a white chevron between their eyes and well developed 
rved horns. The doe (female) is smaller with a bright chestnut coloured coat with boldly 
rked stripes. The doe does not have horns. 
arm… Nyala don’t have the speed of open ground antelope, so relies on camouflage to 
escape predators. But when there is danger nyala will not 
only run away but also warns the other individuals in the 
group. It does this by raising its tail to reveal a white 
underside and rear and by emitting an alarm bark. Other 
nyala will see and hear these signals and immediately run 
off. This behaviour is common to many species of 
antelope. 
 
 
 
 
 
nyala are disturbed by something that constitutes a threat it may react in several ways to 
nal to the others that something is wrong: 
• by nodding their heads 
• twisting their heads from side to side 
• opening and closing their mouths 
Marwell Education Service Page 13 
Dominance displays…A herd of nyala consists of several groups each led by one buck with 
a few females and their young. Dominance hierarchies exist among the males and these 
determine which males have access to the females. Behaviour displays between males 
establish which individual is dominant. Two bucks will fluff up the hair on the ridge of their backs 
(to make them look bigger) and slowly walk forwards parallel to each other. Usually one will 
decide that the other is too big to challenge and will back down, forsaking any claims over the 
females in the group. However, if neither back down they will engage in a head to head tussle, 
interlocking horns. This can lead to death of one of the animals. Sometimes bucks can be seen 
practising for these fights on branches or bushes. 
 
Courtship…Female nyala come into season every three weeks. During this time a male may 
escort a female for several days if 
unchallenged. A courtship ritual may then 
take place with the buck following the doe 
kicking her back legs. If she accepts him, 
mating will follow. Calves are generally 
fathered by the most dominant buck. 
 
 
Mother & Calf…Nyala almost always 
bear single calves. The newborn calf is 
concealed in dense undergrowth or tall 
grass away from the main herd, its 
camouflage helping it hide from predators. 
The mother returns at regular intervals to 
feed the calf. She communicates to the calf by making clicking and creaking noises with her 
tongue. 
 
Marwell Education Service Page 14 
Amur Tiger 
 
 
 
Int
The
alth
tige
 
Sc
Am
terr
fors
For
the
Sce
whe
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Fact File………………………………………… 
Scientific name Panthera tigris altaica 
Distribution North Korea, North East 
China, and Eastern 
Russia 
Status in the wild Critically endangered 
Gestation period Approximately 108 days 
Number of young Usually 3 - 4 
Sexually mature 3 – 4 years 
Life span Up to 20years in 
captivity, less in the wild 
Notable features The tiger has white spots 
 
 
 
 
on the back of their ears 
that are used for 
communication 
 
roduction 
 Amur tiger (formerly Siberian tiger) is the largest of all big cats. It is a solitary cat, and 
ough it is unusual to find adult tigers living together for long periods in the wild, Marwell’s 
rs are kept in pairs to ensure the best possible breeding success. 
ent marking 
ur tigers are territorial, one male occupies a large range which overlaps the smaller 
itories of several females. This gives ample opportunity to mate with many females without 
aking his territory. The territory must be large enough to provide a plentiful supply of food. 
 the female this will have to be sufficient to feed both herself and her cubs. Adult tigers mark 
ir territorial boundaries by spraying urine on prominent landmarks, this is scent marking. 
nt marking is a labour saving device which means that the tiger doesn’t have to be every 
re at once. 
 
Greetings 
Tigers recognise each others scent, so when family 
members meet they greet each other by rubbing noses, 
sniffing, touching and licking. Strangers approach with 
extreme caution as for them physical contact of any kind 
might be misconstrued as an attempt to attack. 
 
 
 
 
 
Marwell Education Service Page 15 
Scent marking 
Fighting can be fatal, so it is usually avoided by displays of aggression. Whatever the reason for 
the display the visual signals are very clear. The aggressor’s body posture is head on so that 
he/she can stare directly at the other individual with eye to eye contact. The back is raised and 
fur erected to increase body size, and the tail swished from side to side. Snarling reveals its 
teeth and the ears lay flat to show their prominent white spots which signal imminent danger. In 
contrast the submissive animal lowers its body posture, redirects its gaze so to avoid eye to eye 
contact, keeps its mouth shut, and its ears forward so to keep the warning spots hidden. 
 
Mating 
Males and females lead solitary lives, but when the femaleis on heat (in oestrus) the male will 
seek her out, following a pheromone (scent) trail. The pair consort for several days, perhaps 
mating many times. The female will crouch so that the male can mount her. To keep her still the 
male may hold the females head or neck in his mouth. 
 
Parental responsibilities 
These are left to the mother. In the wild the female will seek out a suitable den where she can 
give birth and then leave her cubs safely whilst she hunts. 
The cubs are blind at birth and dependant on their mother to 
 
P
T
a
s
 
S
S
p
a
 
provide them with milk and meat (when they have been 
weaned). As the skills of hunting and killing require practice, 
the cubs will stay with their mother for up to 2 years until they 
can fend for themselves. The routine after feeding usually 
includes licking each others faces. This is an act of hygiene 
as well as mutual trust, the gentle contact helps to 
strengthen the parent-offspring bond. 
lay 
his activity not only allows the animal to ‘let off steam’ by getting rid of excess energy, but it 
lso fulfils another important function – staging mock battles and chases help to develop the 
kills which will later be vital for successful hunting. 
talking 
talking is probably an instinctive part of cat behaviour, but an aspect that needs a lot of 
ractice and muscle development before it is a worthy tool in the art of hunting. Anything 
nimate or inanimate can be used for target practice. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Marwell Education Service Page 16 
Animal Enrichment @ Marwell 
 
The Marwell Behaviour Management Group 
 
The group was formed to address the behavioural aspects of welfare of the animals housed at 
Marwell, and to make key staff available in a workable forum, to achieve the objectives below. 
 
The two main aims of the group are to: 
 
i) Stimulate and preserve species typical behaviour in captive populations, through the 
management of their environment, by providing animals with opportunities to behave in a 
naturalistic way. “Species typical behaviour” are those actions carried out by a specific 
species which are not carried out by any other. This refers to individual behaviours, such 
as leaping to catch a bird. To behave in a “naturalistic way” means that in general an 
animal’s behavioural repertoire closely resembles that of a wild counterpart, therefore it 
refers to an animal’s broader activities. 
ii) Prevent or reverse the development of abnormal behaviour patterns, i.e. those which 
would never be seen in a wild counterpart such as stereotypies like pacing etc. 
 
This will be achieved by: 
 
i) Improving enclosure designs and husbandry routines that have an impact on behaviour. 
ii) Introducing novel enrichment techniques. 
 
The group will also endeavour to: 
 
i) Inform the public, researchers and zoo personnel of the group’s activities, and 
ii) Encourage and facilitate scientific assessment of the effects of any modifications to the 
animal’s environments. 
 
Group composition 
 
The group should consist of a representative of each of the six animal sections, a representative 
of the curatorial staff and the enrichment co-ordinator. 
 
It is also desirable to invite other staff to facilitate the actions of the group i.e. a member of each 
of the following departments: 
 
MBMG Set-up
Curators
AILO
Maintenance Fluid
Keepers
Education
Director
Head
Keepers
Chairman +
Enrichment
Co-ordinator
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Marwell Education Service Page 17 
Group meetings 
 
The meetings will be chaired by a member one of the section representatives. The chairman will 
be appointed for a term of one year. On the eleventh month of the term the issue of a new 
chairman will be added as an agenda item for that meeting. The group will discuss a 
replacement chairman. As before, the Chairman must be a member of the keeping staff. 
Following this discussion, nominations will be made and the group will vote on the subject. In 
the event that a suitable chairman cannot be found, the current chairman can be re-elected. 
 
Meetings will be organised and administrated by the Enrichment Co-ordinator, who will also 
provide an agenda and take the minutes for each meeting. 
 
The group will meet once a month throughout the year. An annual review will be compiled which 
will detail the progress of the meeting objectives, the role and function of the group as well as 
reviewing the terms of reference. 
 
As a part of their duties the Enrichment Co-ordinator will also serve the group by sourcing 
relevant materials, carrying out scientific assessments, source students for the evaluation of 
enrichment, arrange “spin-off” meetings and compile and catalogue details of group projects 
and disseminate to relevant parties. 
 
Mechanism of project flow through the group. 
 
• Discussion (within group or within section) 
• Final idea 
• Curatorial approval 
• Financial backing 
• Baseline data collection 
• Create and implement enrichment 
• Photograph and/or film animal’s reactions 
• Enrichment data collection 
• Remove enrichment 
• Post enrichment data collection 
• Analyse data 
• Report to group 
• Write report/ notes 
• Post on website 
 
 
 
 e
o
 
Some examples of the 
nrichment carried out 
at Marwell can be seen 
n the back page of this 
booklet. 
Marwell Education Service Page 18 
 
References 
Wehnelt, S, Hosie, C, Plowman, A, and Feistner, A, (2002) BIAZA Zoo Research 
Guidelines: Project Planning and Behavioural Observations. (See 
http://www.biaza.org.uk). 
 
Recommended Reading 
 
Adams, DC and Anthony, CD (1996) Using randomisation techniques to analyse 
behavioural data. Animal Behaviour 51: 733-738. 
 
Alcock, J (1993). Animal Behaviour 
 
Altmann, J (1974) Observational study of behavior: sampling methods. Behaviour 
49: 227-267. 
 
ASAB (2001) Guidelines for the treatment of animals in behavioural research and 
teaching. Animal Behaviour 61: 271-275. 
 
BIAZA Research Group (2002) Research Sampling Guidelines for Zoos. BIAZA, 
London. 
 
Bostock, S St C (1993) Zoos and Animal Rights. Routledge, London. (see chapter 
on ‘Science in Zoos’) 
 
Burghardt, GM (1996) Introduction: Research and welfare in animal exhibit 
facilities. In The Well-being of Animals in Zoo and Aquarium Sponsored 
Research, Burghardt, GM, 
 
Caro, TM, Roper, R, Young, M and Dank, GR (1979) Inter-observer reliability. 
Behaviour 69: 303-315. 
 
Chow, IA and Rosenblum, LA (1977) A statistical investigation of the time-
sampling methods in studying primate behavior. Primates 18: 555-563. 
 
Crockett, CM (1996) Data collection in the zoo setting emphasising behavior. In: 
Mammals in Captivity; Principles and Techniques, Kleiman, DG, Allen, 
ME, Thompson, KV and Lumpkin, S (eds). University of Chicago Press, 
Chicago, pp.545-565. 
 
Dunbar, RIM (1976) Some aspects of research design and their implications in the 
observational study of behaviour. Behaviour 58: 78-98. 
 
Dytham, C (1999) Choosing and Using Statistics – A Biologists Guide. Blackwell 
Science Ltd. Oxford. 
 
Feistner, ATC and Price, EC (2000) Working together for conservation: A win-win 
strategy for zoos and universities. In Proceedings of the 2nd Annual 
Symposium on Zoo Research, Plowman, AB (ed.), BIAZA, London, 
pp. 23-30. 
 
Fitzroy Hardy, D (1996) Current research activities in zoos. In: Mammals in 
Captivity; Principles and Techniques, Kleiman, DG, Allen, ME, Thompson, 
KV and Lumpkin, S (eds). University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp.531-
536. 
 
Fouts, R (1995) Science in zoos: arrogance of knowledge versus 
humility of ignorance. In Ethics on the Ark: Zoos, Animal 
Welfare and Wildlife Conservation, Norton, BG, Hutchins, M, 
Stevens, EE and Maple, 
 
Marwell Education Service Page 19 
 
TL (eds) (1995) Smithsonian Institution Press, London, pp.277-285. 
 
Grafen, A (2002) Modern Statistics for the Life Sciences. Oxford University Press, 
Oxford. 
 
Harcourt, AH (1978) Activityperiods and patterns of social interaction: a neglected 
problem. Behaviour 66: 121-135. 
 
Hinde, RA (1973) On the design of check-sheets. Primates 14: 393-406. Kraemer, 
HC (1979) One-zero sampling in the study of primate behaviour. Primates 
20: 237-244. 
 
Hurlbert, SH (1984) Pseudoreplication and the design of ecological field 
experiments. Ecological monographs 54(2): 87-211. 
 
Hutchins, M (1988) On the design of zoo research programs. International Zoo 
Yearbook 27: 9-18. 
 
Hutchins, M, Dresser, B and Wemmer, C (1995) Ethical considerations in zoo and 
aquarium research. In Ethics on the Ark: Zoos, Animal Welfare and 
Wildlife Conservation, Norton, BG, Hutchins, M, Stevens, EE and Maple, 
TL (eds) (1995) Smithsonian Institution Press, London, pp.253-276. 
 
Hutchins, M, Paul, E and Bowdoin, JM (1996) Contributions of zoo and aquarium 
research to wildlife conservation and science. In The Well-being of 
Animals in Zoo and Aquarium Sponsored Research, Burghardt, GM, 
Bielitski, JT, Boyce, JR and Schaeffer, DO (eds), Scientists Center for 
Animal Welfare, Greenbelt, pp. 23-39. 
 
IUDZG/CBSG(IUCN/SSC) (1993) The World Zoo Conservation Strategy; The Role 
of the Zoos and Aquaria of the World in Global Conservation. Chicago 
Zoological Society, Chicago. 
 
Kleiman, DG (1992) Behavior research in zoos: past, present, and future. Zoo 
Biology 11: 301-312. 
 
Kleiman, DG (1995) Criteria for the evaluation of zoo research projects. Zoo 
Biology 4: 93-98. 
 
Kleiman, DG (1996) Special research strategies for zoos and aquariums and 
design of research programs. In The Well-being of Animals in Zoo and 
Aquarium Sponsored Research, Burghardt, GM, Bielitski, JT, Boyce, JR 
and Schaeffer, DO (eds), Scientists Center for Animal Welfare, Greenbelt, 
pp. 15-22. 
 
Kleiman, DG, Allen, ME, Thompson, KV and Lumpkin, S (eds) (1996) Wild 
Mammals in Captivity; Principles and Techniques. University of Chicago 
Press, Chicago. 
 
Lehner, PN (1987) Design and execution of animal behavior research: An 
overview. Journal of Animal Science 65: 1213-1219. 
 
Lindburg, DG and Fitch-Snyder, H (1994) Use of behavior to evaluate reproductive 
problems in captive mammals. Zoo Biology 13: 433-445. 
 
Manning, A (1979). An Introduction to Animal Behaviour 
 
Martin, P and Bateson, P (1993) Measuring Behaviour; An Introductory 
Guide Second Edition. Cambridge University Press, 
Cambridge. 
 
McConway, K (1992) The number of subjects in animal behaviour 
experiments: is Still still right? In Ethics in research on animal 
Marwell Education Service Page 20 
 
behaviour: readings from Animal Behaviour, Dawkins MS and Gosling M 
(eds), Academic Press for the Association for the Study of Animal 
Behaviour and the Animal Behaviour Society, London. 
 
Medawar, PB (1981) Advice to a Young Scientist. Pan Books, London. 
 
Mellen, JD (1994) Survey and interzoo studies used to address husbandry 
problems in some zoo vertebrates. Zoo Biology 13: 459-470. 
 
Miller, S (1984) Experimental Design and Statistics. Second Edition. Methuen, 
London. Sutherland, WJ (2000) The Conservation Handbook: Research, 
Management and Policy. Blackwell Science Ltd, Oxford. 
 
Norton, BG, Hutchins, M, Stevens, EE and Maple, TL (eds) (1995) Ethics on the 
Ark: Zoos, Animal Welfare and Wildlife Conservation. Smithsonian 
Institution Press, London. 
 
Rhine, RJ and Ender, PB (1983) Comparability of methods used in the sampling of 
primate behavior. American Journal of Primatology 5: 1-15. 
 
Robinson, MH (1998) Enriching the lives of zoo animals: Where research can be 
fundamental. Animal Welfare 7: 151-175. 
 
Ryder, OA (1995) Zoological parks and the conservation of biological diversity: 
Linking ex situ and in situ conservation efforts. Journal of Environment and 
Development 4(2):105-120. 
 
Ryder, OA and Feistner, ATC (1995) Research in zoos: A growth area in 
conservation. Biodiversity and Conservation 4(6): 671-677. 
 
Saudargas, RA and Drummer, LC (1996) Single subject (small N) research 
designs and zoo research. Zoo Biology 15: 173-181. 
 
Still, AW (1982) On the number of subjects used in animal behaviour experiments. 
Animal Behaviour 30: 873-880. 
 
Stoinski, TS, Lukas, KE and Maple, TL (1998) A survey of research in North 
American zoos and aquariums. Zoo Biology 17: 167-180. 
 
Sutherland, WJ (ed.) (2000) Ecological Census Techniques, a Handbook. 
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 
 
Thiemann, S and Kraemer, HC (1984) Sources of behavioral variance: 
implications for sample size decisions. American Journal of Primatology 7: 
367-375. 
 
Thompson, SD (1993) Zoo research and conservation: Beyond sperm and eggs 
toward the science of animal management. Zoo Biology 12: 155-159. 
 
Tinbergen, N (1963) On aims and methods of ethology. Zeitschrift für 
Tierpsychologie 20: 410-433. 
 
Tyler, S (1979) Time-sampling: A matter of convention. Animal 
Behaviour 27: 801-810. 
 
Wemmer, C, Rodden, M and Pickett, C (1997) Publication trends in zoo 
biology: A brief analysis of the first 15 years. Zoo Biology 16: 3-
8.