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Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Mining as a Business
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Course Objectives
 Give the basic understanding of mining business
 Understand what drives the mining business
 Producer and user knowledge
 Understand the mining economics and drivers in 
economics
 Understand mining methods, costs and their differences 
and selection criteria
 Understand SMC connection in mining and in various 
mining methods and processes
 Promote consultative selling
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Commodities of the Earth
Precious metals:
Gold
Silver
Platinum-Group metals
Base metals
Copper
Lead
Zinc
Tin
Mercury
Antimony
Ferrous metals
Iron
Manganese
Chromium
Nickel
Cobalt
Molybdenum
Tungsten
Vanadium
Light metals
Titanium
Aluminium
Magnesium
Beryllium
Tantalum
Construction materials
Sand, gravel
Cement
Gypsum
Asbestos
Lime
Agricultural 
commodities
Phosphate
Potash
Others
Diamonds
Gems (Jade, Ruby 
etc)
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And… energy minerals:
 Oil + natural gas
 Coal
 Uranium
WORLD PRODUCTION 2005
in tons in tons of oil 
equivalent (toe)
OIL + GAS 6.5 billion tons 6.5 billion toe
COAL 5 billion tons 3 billion toe
URANIUM for 
electricity 
generation
0.7 billion toe
World electricity
Source: BP statistical Review of World 
Energy
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Metal concentrations in earth’s crust
Element Symbol Average 
Concentration 
(%) 
Quantity 
(ton/km3) 
Typical 
Ore grades 
(%) 
 
Aluminium Al 8.1 250 000 000 30 
Iron Fe 5.4 150 000 000 53 
Chromium Cr 0.01 300 000 30 
Nickel Ni 0.008 200 000 1 
Zinc Zn 0.007 190 000 4 
Copper Cu 0.005 135 000 4 
Lead Pb 0.001 35 000 5 
Tin Sn 0.0003 7 000 0.3 
Silver Ag 0.00001 200 0.01 
Gold Au 0.0000003 10 0.001 
 
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.
Au 7 g
Ag 400 g
Ni 7 kg
Cu 25 kg
Zn 60 kg
Fe 2000 kg
WHAT DID YOU GET WITH 100 USD in 2005?
Metal values 
.
Pt 3 g
Diamonds
0.75 ct
(1.5 g)
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Mine Academy
Metals trading and metal prices
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Commodities trading
CS
O
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Gold
 All the gold ever mined would 
easily fit under the Eiffel 
Tower, forming a cube of 
close to 20 m each side
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Gold price and supply
Recyled gold +700 ton/annum
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Gold demand by end-use 2005
63 %
6 %
2 %
1 %
14 %
9 %
5 %
Jew ellery
Electrical
Other industry
Dental
Identif ied investment
Retail investment
Other 
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Major gold producers (2004)
 Newmont with 7 million oz/year
 AngloGold Ashanti : 6.1 Moz/y
 Barrick : 5.0 Moz/y
 Gold Fields : 4.2 Moz/y
 Placer Dome : 3.7 Moz/year
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Mine Academy
Platinum and Palladium Prices
0
200
400
600
800
1 000
1 200
1 400
mars 2004 mars 2005 mars 2006
Platinum Palladium
US$/oz
Average Pt price 2005/06 
$942/oz (up 11%)
Average Pd price 2005/06 
$228/oz (up 4%)
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Sandvik Mining and Construction
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1 %
37 %
41 %
21 %
Investments
Jewellery
Other Industrial
Autocatalysts
Platinum demand by end-use 2005
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Silver 
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Copper 
World Cu-production in 2005 was $45 Billion/year
based on $1.50/pound and 14.5 Million tons/year
USD/ton
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Copper forecast
(International copper study group ICSG April 2006)
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Copper demand by end-use 2005
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Nickel 
USD/ton
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Nickel demand by end-use 2005
3 %5 %
6 %
4 %
12 %
70 %
other
foundry
painting
non-ferrous aloys
aloy steel
stainless steel
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Zinc 
UDS/ton
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Zinc demand by end-use 2005
7 %
4 %
8 %
13 %
16 %
52 %
galvanizing
other
oxides&chemicals
die-casting alloys
brass semis&casting
rolled&extruted
products
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Global mining production and 
mining companies
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What is driving the industry?
World Iron Ore Consumption 2004
China
31 %
Other
10 %
CIS
13 %
Europe
16 %
Sth America
6 %
Nth America
9 %
Japan
11 %
Mid East & 
Africa
4 %
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Mining trends
InvestmentsExploration
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• Reality:
• Availability of people 
• Remote mine locations
• Deeper deposits-demanding underground 
mining environment
• Globalization
• Environmental impact 
• Tougher stafety standards
• Tougher revenue demands
• Impact:
• Increasing labor costs
• Increasing production costs
• Increasing challenges in opening a mine 
• Shorter time to production 
• Standardized mining procedures 
• Solutions:
• Targeted recruitment programs 
• Automation and remote control
Trends in Mining
Increased business understanding
Mine automation
*Automated processes
*Process control
*OptiMine
Automated systems
*AutoMine
*OptiMine
Equipment 
automation
*Data Solo
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Global mining
 25 000 mines producing industrial minerals
 about 100 000 quarries in the world
 2 500 metal mines in the world
 Global metal ore production is 4.5 billion tons/year (total amount of 
rock moved is about 15 billion ton/year)
 84% open-pit mining 
 Iron is almost totally produced by open-pit mining (5% comes from 
underground)
 16% underground mining
 80% of underground mining is done in these 10 countries or 
continents:
 China, South Africa, Chile, Australia, Canada, Kazakhstan, Russia, 
Sweden, Poland, USA
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Global Mining Production – Base metals
Copper 14.5 Mton (Chile 5.4 Mt, USA 1.2 Mt, Peru 1 Mt, Indonesia 0.9 Mt, Australia 0.9 Mt)
Nickel 1.4 Mton (Russia 315kt, Australia 210 kt, Canada 180 kt, New Caledonia 122 kt)
Zinc 9.1 Mton (China 2.0 Mt, Peru 1.4 Mt, Australia 1.3 Mt, Canada 1.0 Mt, USA 0.8 Mt)
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Cu - 20 Major producers and 
operations in 2004
 
Rank Company Major operations country of operation
1 State of Chile (Codelco) Chuquicamata & El Teniente & Andina Chile
2 Phelps Dodge La Candelaria & El Abra& Morenci Chile& USA
4 BHPBilliton Escondida & Ok Tedi Chile & PNG
5 Rio Tinto Escondida & Bingham Canyon Chile &USA
3 Grupo Idustria Minera MexicCuajone & La Caridad Peru & Mexico
6 Freeport McMoran Grasberg/Ertsberg Indonesia
7 Anglo American plc Collahuasi Chile
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Global Mining Production –
Iron, Diamonds, Precious Metals
Iron 1 222 Mton (China 280 Mt, Brazil 220 Mt, Australia 220 Mt, India 110, Russsia 95 Mt)
Diamond 70 Mct (Congo 20 Mct, Australia 19 Mct, Russia 12 Mct, Botswana 7,5 Mct)
Gold 2470 t (South Africa 344 t, USA 247 t, Australia 242 t, China 210 t, Russia 180 t)
PGM 408 t (South Africa 241 t, Russia 110 t, Canada 22 t, Usa 18 t)
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Uranium - Top producing countries 
% out of world total productionTotal world production of U3O8 in 2004: 48 000 tons @ 
$30/lb. (2005 price level) = US$ 3.1 billion 
Uranium spot prices have tripled in less than three years.
8
227
8
95
Major Producers
Cameco (Canada)
Cogema (France)
ERA (Australia)
KasAtomProm (Kazakhs
WMC (Australia)
Rössing (Namibia)
29
Source: World Nuclear 
Association 
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The Top 10 in Global Mining (2004)
Controlling company Rank Country Share of total Cumulative 
2002 value of mine share
production 
(%) (%)
1 Anglo American 1 UK 6.7 6.7
2 BHP Billiton 3 Aus/UK 3.9 10.6
3 Rio Tinto 2 UK 3.8 14.4
4 Norilsk Nickel 6 Russia 3.1 17.5
5 CVRD 4 Brazil 2.9 20.4
6 Codelco 7 Chile 2.1 22.5
7 Newmont 4 USA 2.0 24.5
8 Noranda 13 Canada 1.4 25.9
9 Barrick 8 Canada 1.3 27.2
10 Phelps Dodge 12 USA 1.3 28.5
(Source: Raw Materials Group)
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Codelco
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Anglo American plc (Anglo), UK
 The “Oppenheimer family company”
 Dominance in Gold declined considerably (since 1975 from 45 % 
down to 11.5 % of western production)
 Produces:
 Gold, PGM-group metals, Diamonds, Chromite, Copper, Zinc, 
Manganese, and various rare earth minerals
 Major operations: 
 Diamonds: Jwaneng (50 %), Venetia, Orapa (50 %), Finch, 
Premier,...
 Gold: Tautona, Kopanang, Bambanani, Mponeng, Jerritt 
Canyon (70 %), ...
 PGM: Rustenburg, Potgietersrust, Amandelbult, Union, ...
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BHP Billiton
 2005 result
 Turnover US$31.8 billion
 EBIT US$9.3 billion
 Pprofit of US$6.5 billion
 Cash flow after interest and tax of 
US$8.7 billion 
 08/2005 market capitalisation was 
US$92 billion
 Operates in: 
 Al, Cu, Mg, Fe,U,Ni, Ag, Ti, energy 
coal and metallurgical coal, 
substantial interests in oil, gas, 
liquefied natural gas and diamonds
 Major operations: 
 Iron: Mount Newman (AUS )
 Copper: Escondida (with Rio Tinto), 
OK Tedi 
 Silver: Cannington
 Nickel: Leinster, Perseverance
BHP Billiton is a merger of BHP Limited 
and Billiton Plc in 2001.
In 2005 BHP Billiton completed the 
acquisition of WMC: 37,000 employees 
and 100 operations in 25 countries
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BHP Billiton
Value creators 
 Safety and the Environment 
 Integrity 
 High Performance 
 Win-Win Relationships 
 The Courage to Lead Change 
 Respect for Each Other
 Return on shareholders investment
 Our customers and suppliers are 
benefiting from our business 
relationships. 
 The communities in which we operate 
value our citizenship 
 Every employee starts each day with a 
sense of purpose and ends each day with 
a sense of accomplishment. 
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• Gross turnover $ 14 Billion; 32 000 employees; 60 operations 
worldwide
Rio Tinto Group
Corporate Head Office in London UK
•Main products: Iron, Copper, Diamonds, Gold
•Major operations
•Fe: Hamersley 
•Cu: Bingham Canyon, Escondida, Palabora
•Diamonds: Argyle, Diavik,
•Cu/Au: Grasberg underground expansion projects, 
Kelian, Cortez, Bingham Canyon
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Rio Tinto-Safety is company core value
Goal-Zero injuries
 10 rules for employers
 All injuries and occupational illnesses are 
preventable 
 Safe behavior is a condition of employment. 
 Our managers demonstrate visible felt 
leadership and commitment to safety 
 We all work together to continually improve 
performance 
 We fully comply with our safety standards
 We identify, assess and effectively manage 
all risks 
 We identify root causes of all incidents and 
take actions to prevent recurrence 
 We are trained and competent to fulfill our 
safety responsibilities 
 Excellent safety results are always 
recognized 
 We recognize the importance of safety away 
from work
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CVRD-Companhia Vale do Rio Doce
Main product: Iron ore
Major operations: 
•Iron: Mina Gerais, Carajas, Capanema (54 %)
•Manganese: Azul Manganese, Urucum (50 %)
•Gold: Igarape Bahia, Fazenda Brasileiro
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Mining mergers / acquisitions
Year Buyer Target Sector 
2000 Billiton Worsley Aluminium 
2000 Newmont Mining Battle Mountain Gold 
2000 Alcan Algroup Aluminium 
2000 Billiton Rio Algom Copper 
2000 Rio Tinto North Diversified 
2001 Anglo / Central Holdings De Beers Diamonds 
2001 BHP Billiton Merger (DLC Company) Diversified 
2001 Barrick / Homestake Merger Gold 
2002 
 
Newmont 
 
Normandy 
 
Gold 
2004 Alcan Pechiney Aluminium 
2004 Norilsk Nickel Stillwater Platinum 
2004 BHP Billiton WMC Nickel 
2004 Xtrata MIM Diversified 
2006 Barrick/Placer Dome Merger Gold 
2006 Inco/Falconbridge/PhelpsDodge Merger (pending) Nickel 
2006 Mittal Arcelor Iron 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Stages in a mine life
Sandvik Mining and Construction
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Stages in the Life of a Mine
EXPLORATION
DEVELOPMENT
MINING AND 
PROCESSING
REHABILITATION
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Mine Academy
EXPLORATION MINE DEVELOPMENT MINE PRODUCTION
ORE
RESERVE
PROJECT
FEASIBILITY
GENERAL
MINE
DEVELOPMENT
PRODCUTION
DEVELOPMENT
PRODCUTION
DRILLING
AND
BLASTING
LOADING 
AND
HAULING
HOISTINGPRIMARY
CRUSHING
VENTILATION
DEWATERING
COMMUNICATIONS 
ELECTRICITY, WATER AND COMPRESSED AIR SUPPLY
MATERIALS SUPPLY & HANDLING 
- logistics, purchase, stores, distribution and transport)
MAINTENANCE
- Vehicles, machinery, fixed installations, roadways, permanent excavations
PERSONNEL TRANSPORT
MINE SURVEY
ADMINISTRATION
SU
PP
O
RT
 P
RO
CE
SS
ES
SMC’S INVOLVEMENT IN UNDERGROUND MINING PROCESSES
MARKET LEADERSHIP
MARKET SHARE GAP
UNDERGROUND HARD ROCK MINING
Our involvement in the mine value chain
NEW!
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Exploration
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Exploration 2003
It takes 25 000 claims staked to find 500 places worth diamond drilling
to find ore worth building one mine.
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Mining investments and 
exploration spending (2004)
Africa
14 %
Asia
6 %
Europe
22 %
Latin America
27 %
North America
15 %
Oceania
16 %
Africa
16 %
Pacific/SE Asia
4 %
United States
8 %
Canada
20 %Latin America
22 %
Australia
15 %
Rest of the World
15 %
ExplorationMining investments
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REGIONAL GEOLOGIC 
EXPLORATION 
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Airborne surveying
 Gravimeter survey
photo by Sander Geophysics Ltd, 
Canada
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Heliborne
 Electromagnetic
survey (Geotech Ltd)
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50 km
N
LISHEEN
Dublin
Dublin
Basin
Shannon 
Trough
SILVERMINES
GALMOY
GORTDRUM
NAVAN
South
Munster
Basin
V VV
VV
E
E
E
E E
E
E
TYNAGH
Gravity map and mines in Ireland
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DETAILED EXPLORATION
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Core drilling
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Core drilling
Hagby-Asahi Onram 1500: up to 1500 m vertical 
depth drilling capacity (Co. acquired by Sandvik in 
2006)
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Core barrels
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CORE DRILLING
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SURFACE
EOH 146.6 METRES
0 10 20 30 40 50
METRES
N1
MEAN SEA LEVEL
NORTH
DIAMOND DRILL HOLE N1 WAS
LOCATED 75 M NORTH-EAST OF
THE RIVER BLACKWATER
TARA'S DISCOVERY HOLE, N1
DRILLED, NOVEMBER 1970
12.2 METRES GRADING
6.4 % ZN, 2.5 % PB
SOUTH
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1.5
2.1
SURFACE
N101 - ORE INTERSECTION
71.6m @ 20.7 % Zn, 4.8% Pb
DDH ASSAYS
Zn+Pb %
N101
BOULDER
CONGLOMERATE
LOWER SANDSTONE 
MARKER
LOWER DARK 
MARKER
MICRITE UNIT 
2-5 LENS FOOT-WALL
200 METRES >
MUDDY LIMESTONE 
LAMINATED BEDS
B FAULT 
RED BEDS 
- 1400 EL -
- 1500 EL -
UPPER DARK
LIMESTONES
100 METRES >
Borehole measurements 
indicating high Pb and Zn 
content
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ORE RESERVE ESTIMATION
Interpreted ore zones
Actual ore zones
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NW SE
ZONE 1 ZONE 2 ZONE 3A FAULT C FAULT
NW SECTION 845NW
F-15
F-40
150m
- PALE BEDS ORE
- CONGLOMERATE GROUP ORE
- NODULAR MARKER
- UPPER & LOWER & SDM DARK MARKERS
- LOWER PALEOZOICSSILURIAN / ORDOVICIAN
MAJOR UNCONFORMITY
- RED BEDS
- LAMINATED BEDS
- MUDDY LIMESTONE
- PALE BEDS
- SHALEY PALES
- BOULDER CONGLOMERATE
- UPPER DARK LIMESTONESARUNDIAN
CHADIAN
COURCEYAN
- ARGILLACEOUS BIOCLASTIC LIMESTONES
- WAULSORTIAN LIMESTONES
EROSION SURFACE
- FAULTING
FINGAL 
GROUP
ABL
GROUP
NAVAN
GROUP
- UPPER & LOWER & SST SANDSTONE MARKERS
LO
W
ER
 C
AR
BO
N
IF
ER
O
U
S
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2-2 LENS
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BLOCK MODEL
0.27 0.28 0.28 0.16 0.09 0.09 0.05 0.14 0.35 0.78 0.85 0.73 0.85 0.78 0.50 0.09 0.06 0.03
0.27 0.50 0.50 0.03 0.00 0.07 0.11 0.40 0.78 1.00 0.90 0.93 0.88 0.50 0.45 0.18 0.09 0.10
0.27 0.28 0.21 0.05 0.00 0.09 0.16 0.50 1.07 1.09 1.22 1.00 1.08 1.00 0.44 0.28 0.09 0.10
0.13 0.31 0.36 0.00 0.44 0.05 0.60 0.74 1.01 1.00 1.20 1.20 1.05 1.10 0.39 0.09 0.05 0.10
0.08 0.09 0.18 0.60 0.66 0.28 0.60 0.60 0.66 0.80 1.00 1.00 0.65 0.78 0.24 0.60 0.05 0.10
0.00 0.02 0.05 0.60 0.28 0.60 0.37 0.80 0.80 0.60 0.99 0.80 0.49 0.66 0.28 0.32 0.28 0.13
0.13 0.09 0.50 0.34 0.85 0.87 0.83 0.85 0.67 0.85 0.34 0.80 0.80 0.78 0.71 0.66 0.09 0.13
0.64 0.78 0.66 0.55 1.15 1.19 0.80 0.80 0.79 0.85 0.73 0.89 0.85 0.50 0.09 0.66 0.28 0.13
0.50 0.85 0.85 1.00 1.69 1.36 0.78 0.88 0.99 1.17 1.36 1.33 1.23 0.87 0.60 0.32 0.22 0.08
0.50 0.66 0.78 1.00 1.22 1.27 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.44 1.00 0.60 0.85 0.09 0.28 0.05 0.08
0.50 0.85 0.78 1.06 1.00 1.10 1.09 0.88 0.98 1.43 1.00 1.12 0.90 0.78 0.43 0.09 0.09 0.08
0.43 0.50 0.77 1.01 1.02 1.00 1.32 1.00 1.63 1.55 1.00 1.00 0.85 0.78 0.66 0.30 0.09 0.10
0.22 0.28 0.68 0.85 0.76 1.00 1.52 1.77 1.74 1.00 1.00 1.05 0.66 0.60 0.05 0.11 0.09 0.10
0.22 0.50 0.78 0.85 0.70 0.70 1.00 1.44 1.20 1.00 0.84 0.85 0.85 0.60 0.18 0.09 0.12 0.10
0.22 0.66 0.78 0.09 0.77 0.50 0.85 0.88 0.66 0.78 0.78 0.85 0.66 0.50 0.33 0.07 0.09 0.10
0.22 0.28 0.04 0.05 0.00 0.50 0.56 0.05 0.22 0.34 0.05 0.66 0.50 0.33 0.05 0.06 0.02 0.00
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Exploration schedule and costs
Cost (USD)
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Orebody evaluation 
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ORE
 What is ore?: ‘a specific mineral resource which can be 
economically exploited under present-day economic conditions’
Different types of copper ore samplesHematite (iron oxide) major iron ore
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Resources / Reserves
 Mineral Resources:
 In-situ mineral occurrence, quantified by geological data and an 
assumed cut-off grade
 Ore reserve:
 The mineable part of a deposit, giving the highest positive NPV for 
the operation
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Categories of Ore Reserves
Measured
-Proven
Indicated
-Probable
Inferred
-Possible
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Typical average grades of ores
Material unit low medium High
Gold g/t 1 - 4 4 - 6 > 6
Silver g/t 30 - 70 70 - 300 > 300
Platinum g/t 1 - 3 3 - 6 > 6
Copper % 0.3 - 0.7 0.7 - 2.0 > 2.0
Zinc % 2.0 - 4.0 4.0 - 6.0 > 6.0
Iron % 30 - 40 40 - 55 > 55
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Mining process
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Mining Process
Example: CODELCO El Teniente
Extraction
Transportation
Crushing
Grinding
Flotation
Tailings
Filtering
Drying
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Loading
Drill
and
Blast
Trans-
porting
Metal Production Chain (Copper)
Mining
Refining Smelting
Waste
disposal
Ore
concentrate
(25 % Cu)
Over-
burden
Ore
(1% Cu)
Crushing
and
grinding Flotation
Reverb
furnace
ConverterAnode
furnace
Electrolytic
refining
Cathode
furnace
Cu
SMC involvement
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Mining
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Crushing and Milling
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Concentrating
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Smelting and Refining
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Mine closure / Reclamation
1994 2001
Golden Cross New Zealand Mine closure 1998
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Mine design
 CRITERIAS
 OREBODY
 ORE
 SURROUNDING ROCKS
 EXTERNAL PHYSICAL 
FACTORS
 ECONOMIC FACTORS IN THE 
DISTRICT
 ECONOMIC FACTORS IN THE 
INDUSTRY
 “The operating cost should not exceed half the market value of minerals 
recovered”
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Mine Layout
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UG Mine Operations
EXPLORATION
DEVELOPMENT
Drifting
Shaft sinking
Raises
PRODUCTION
Drilling
Blasting
Loading
HOISTING
ROCK REINFORCEMENT
Drifts, galleries
Stopes
CRUSHING
SUPPORTING FUNCTIONS
Ventilation
Power supply
Water & air supply
Drainage & pumping
Mine surveying
Communications
ADMINISTRATION MILLINGCONCENTRATING
TAILINGS HANDLING
ENVIRONMENT
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Parameters Increasing Mining Costs
 Thin orebody
 Shelvy dip (< 50 -55)
 Vague ore boundaries
 Weak & fractured rocks
 Hard rock mechanical conditions
 The probability of caving
 Hard, abrasive ore
 Extreme external factors / 
conditions
 Extreme environmental 
requirements
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Mining methods
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UG Mining Methods
Underground mining 
methods
Room and
pillar
Cut and fill
stoping
Shrinkage
stoping
Longwall
mining
Block
caving
Sublevel 
caving
VCR
stoping
Sublevel 
open
stoping
Supported methods Caving methods Unsupported methods
Selective, vein and flat orebody mining Large scale and mass orebody mining
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Mining method Production Dilution Ore loss Ore from Relative
Dev. works cost
t/manshift % % %
Open pit 50..250 5 0..5 - 1,0
Room-and-pillar 10..40 10..15 15..40 5 1,2
Cut-and-fill stoping 5..35 5..10 5..15 5..10 4,5
Shrinkage stoping 5..30 10 10 5..10 6,7
Longwall mining 10..40 10..15 5..15 5..10 1,7
Sublevel stoping 25..120 10..15 5..15 10..15 1,3
UG benching 50..150 10..20 5..15 5..10 1,2
VCR stoping 50..150 10 10 10..15 2,0
Sublevel caving 20..65 20..30 15..30 15..45 1,5
Block caving 25..200 15 5 <5 1,0
Typical Characteristics of 
Mining Methods
SandvikMining and Construction
Mine Academy
Issues to consider when choosing 
a mining method
•Safety
•Recovery
•Gravity assist
•Natural support 
•Mining flexibility 
•Method adaptability
•Mine output
MAXIMIZE
MINIMIZE
•Dilution
•Cost
•Underground 
development
•Ramp-up period
•Environmental Impact
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Shorthole Method-Room and Pillar
“The oldest mining method”
The ore is extracted as open stopes
and part of it is is left as pillars to support the roof
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Room and Pillar
 Conventional 
room and pillar
 Full-face slicing
 Multiple slicing
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
2 pass room and pillar
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Failed pillar
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Room and Pillar-
Requirements and KPI’s
 Relatively flat, horizontal or near to horizontal orebody
• Conventional up to 20 degrees ; Variations up to 45…55 degrees
 Competent hanging wall and ore
 Standard applications in regular shape of ore body and 
good ore boundaries
 Drift and pillar in less regualr orebodies
 Small scale to massive operations
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Room and pillar
 Advantages 
+ Low cost production
+ Little developmental works, most development done in ore
+ Flexible
+ Easy to mechanise
+ Selective mining possible 
+ Dilution relatively low
 Disadvantages 
- Pillars-counts for 15 to 40% 
- Difficult and expensive pillar recovery
- Heavily cyclical 
- Ventilation & infrastructure requires needs special effort 
- Need substancial rock support in poor rock conditions 
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Room and Pillar - Equipment
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Room and pillar-equipment
 Drilling:
• 1…3 boom jumbos – Axera D6, 
Axera D7, Axera T8
• Low profile units Axera LP
• Electrohydraulic / Dieselhydraulic
• Mechsanical cutting option
 Rock reinforcement
• Rock bolters-Axera Robolt 6, Axera 
Robolt 7, Axera Robolt 8
• Meshing units or bolting combined 
with meshing
• Scalers
 Charging & blasting:
• Charging platform or mechanized 
charging vehicles
 Loading:
• Metal mine headings LHD’s-Toro 
006, Toro 007
• Limestome mines LHD’s Toro 0010, 
Toro 0011 and Front end loaders
• Low profile mining-EJC 777 
 Transportation:
• Dump trucks-EJC 520, EJC 530, 
Toro 40, Tor 50, Toro 60, Road 
trucks 
• Belt conveyors
 Crushers
• Typically fairly small fragmentation
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Longwall mining
Method for stratiform orebodies
Excavation proceeds as advancing face (wall)
with drill and blast or mechanical cutting.
Operating area is supported 
Stoped out area can be left open or allowed to cave in
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Longwall mining
In hard rock In coal
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Longwall mining-
Requirements and KPI’s
Horizontal, stratiform deposits with uniform thickness
Large horizontal extension
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Longwall Mining-Reef Mining
 The platinum mining in Africa 
• South Africa-Bushwel complex
• Zimbabwe
• Botswana
 Stratigrafic formation 
• various reefs bearing alternate 
mineralization
 Seams
• From 10 cm to higher
• Manual mining heights abt. 1 m
• Mechanized mining heights 1.7 and 1.1 m
• Mining height trade off of dilution Vs. 
working height
• Orebodies are wide
 Mechanization level low but increasing
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Longwall Mining Equipment
Axera XLP
Seam height 1.1 m
Robolt XLP
EJC 88 XLP loader
Reef mining with Sandvik VAB 
continuous miner
The Voest-Alpine ARM 1100 reef miner
Animation: 
Movie:
21/2/2006/TVP
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Cut and Fill
Methods in which a single excavation pass (cut) is 
completed and backfilled before another cut is made
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Cut and Fill
 Overhand cut and fill stoping
Stoping
direction
- Poor to medium rock conditions
- Some dilution from floor backfill during loading
- Waste / sand backfill/paste
Breast stoping / drifting Back-stoping with uppers
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Cut and Fill
Requirements and KPI’s
 Steeply dipping vein-type orebodies
• Some variations also in flat dipping orebodies
• Large, defined or irregular shaped orebodies
 Valuable ore, requires selective stoping
 Moderate to poor rock conditions in the ore / country rock
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Cut and Fill
 Advantages:
+ Selective 
+ Low dilution and ore loss
+ Highly versatile and easily adaptable in changing conditions
+ Changing ore boundaries are fairly easy to follow
+ Flexible
 Disadvantages:
- High cost (especially undercut and fill with cemented fill)
- Cyclical-excavation and back fill 
- Fairly low efficiency
- Several stopes need to be in operation simultaneously
- Dilution from fill during loading
- Ventialtion may be a challenge specifically during back fill
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Cut and Fill-Equipment
 Drilling
• Axera D05 / D06 / D07
 Charging and blasting
• Manual or mechanized charging platforms
 Loading
• Microscoop, Toro 151 / 006 / 007/ 400, EJC 115
• Diesel and electric units
 Transportation
• LHD’s mostly load to ore passes
• Some times trucking-EJC 520, EJC 530
 Rock reinforcement
• Rock bolters – Axera Robolt 05 / 06 /07
• Cable bolting of hanging wall and some times the ore
 Backfilling
• LHD’s (ejector bucket)
• Dump trucks (ejector tray)
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Shrinkage Stoping
“Vertical, overhand method, 
where most of the broken ore remains 
inthe stope to form a working floor
for the miners and to provide wall
support until the stope is completed
and all ore drawn down”
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Shrinkage Stoping
requirements and KPI’s
 Vertical or steeply dipping orebodies
 The ore must be strong enough to stand without major rock support
 The ore must be chemically stable after blasting to be storaged in the stope 
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Shrinkage stoping
 Advantages:
 Production output easy to adapt to market fluctuations, especially in 
large operations
 Fairly selective (disadvantage at the end of stoping)
 Disadvantages:
 The ore stays in the stopes for a long period
• This ties up capital and delays returns on investments
• May cause chemical effects in the ore
 Requires skilled labour
 Difficult to mechanise
 Hazardous mining method
 Left pillars remain uncovered and cause seismic events later
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Sublevel Stoping
An open stoping method
extracting ore by longhole 
drilling from sublevels.
The blasted ore falls to the 
bottom of the stope,
where from it’s loaded at 
the haulage level
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Sublevel Stoping
 In massive orebodies
 Fan drilling
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Sublevel Stoping
 In massive orebodies
 Underground benching
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Sublevel Stoping
 In narrow veins
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Sublevel stoping
 Productivity drivers
 Stope unit size
• Total tonnage
 Quality of drilling & blasting
• Drilling accuracy => Dilution, ore loss, fragmentation
• Charging & blasting
 Ground control• Stability of stopes 
• Time factor
 Loading & hauling arrangements
• Design of main production level
• Equipment selection
• Fragmentation - managing of oversize
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Sublevel Stoping-
Requirements and KPI’s
 Steeply dipping, fairly regular shaped orebody/ore blocks
 Competent rock – ore and waste
 Rock in hanging wall must be self-supporting during production
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Sublevel Stoping
 Advantages:
+ Enables - drilling, blasting and loading - to be carried out independently. 
+ Low cost per ton
+ Fairly low ore losses in most cases
+ Easy to mechanise
+ No ventilation problems
+ Good set-up for safety
 Disadvantages:
- Selectivity a challenge in irregular ore bodies 
- Coarse fragmentation-secondary breaking need
- Pillar recovery challenging and expensive 
- Large open roof surfaces- waste rock cave in-dilution and ore loss
- Substancial development need
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Sublevel Stoping - Equiment Solo 
1500 Sixty
Cabolt
TORO 0010
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Sublevel stoping-Equipment
 Equipment
 Narrow vein
• Development, Quasar 1F, Axera D5
• Production drilling, Quasar 1L, Solo 
510 RTS, Mercury 1L
• Loading , Microscoop, EJC 115, 
Toro 006, 
• Rock reinforcement Axera Robolt 5
 Medium
• Development worksAxera D5 / D6 / 
D7
• Production drilling Mercury 1L, 
Solo 7
• Loading EJC ,Toro 006, Toro 007
• Rock reinforcement Axera Robolt 5 
/ 6 
 Large-scale
• Development worksAxera D6 / D7
• Production drilling Solo 7 up to 
Solo 1500 Sixty
• Loading Toro 007 / 0010 / 0011
• Rock reinforcement Axera Robolt 
6/7
 Cable bolting
• Cabolt 7
 Raises
• Rhino, Solomatic, Solos
 Rock ransportation
• Conveying
• Trucking, Toro 40/50/60
• Trains
 Crushing 
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
VRM (VCR) stoping
Bulk mining method,
advancing from bottom upwards
in vertical or steeply inclined stopes,
extracting a horizontal slice at each blast.
The blasted material falls down, and is loaded at
main production level.
VRM = Vertical Retreat Mining
VCR = Vertical Crater Retreat
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
VRM (VCR) stoping
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
VRM (VCR) Stoping
Requirements and KPI’s
 Steeply dipping, regular shaped ore body
 Competent rock - wall rock must be self-supporting and stay long enough time 
without backfill
 Advanced practices for charging & blasting
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
VRM (VCR) Stoping
 Advantages:
+ High capacity
+ Easy to mechanise
+ Cost effective
+ Development work is simple
+ Broken ore gives wall support during stoping
+ Safe method
 Disadvantages:
- High expertise required as drilling and blasting techniques must be 
precise
- Ore is tied up in the stope until final drawdown-Lost income 
- Grade control can be a problem
- No flexibility after stope is developed
- Coarse fragmentation
- Left pillars due to unsucessful blasting
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
VRM (VCR) Stoping-Equipment
 Development works
• Axera D06 / D07
 Rock reinforcement
• Axera Robolt 05 / 06 / 07
• Cabolt 
 Production drilling
• DTH and ITH drills
• Solo 7 up to Solo Sixty
 Loading
• Toro 007 / 1400 / 0010 / 0011
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Sublevel Caving
A mass mining method based on 
gravity flow of blasted ore and caving waste rock.
Drilling, blasting and ore extraction is done on 
parallel sublevels developed in the ore body 
at regular vertical / horizontal distances
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Sublevel Caving
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Sublevel Caving
Caving waste rock
Cross cut development
Production holes
Ore (blasted)
Ore pass
Charging
Production loading
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Sublevel caving
 Productivity drivers
 Stoping geometry: Sublevel dimensions, vertical & horizontal 
spacing
 # of drawpoints in production
 # of levels in production
 Even draw from drawpoints
 Optimization of the cycle
 Grade / tonnage control during loading
 Stope opening-slot raising 
 Oversize management
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Sublevel Caving
Requirements and KPI’s
 Large, competent orebody
 Vertical or near vertical orebody
 Caveable side rocks 
 Area that permits surface subsidence
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
 Advantages:
+ Flexible, 2-4 levels can be operated at the same time
+ Easy to mechanise.
+ Several working points- high production capacity can be ensured
+ Much of the development in ore
+ Safe when controlled; no large empty spaces after excavation
 Disadvantages:
- Dilution-Requires continuous and careful monitoring to manage ore 
recovery and dilution
- Ore losses- 20 % to 30 %
- Dilution-15 % to 40 %
- A high degree of mobility from equipment needed
- Forming of air gaps possible
- Ventilation can be difficult
- Surface subsidence 
Sublevel Caving
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Sublevel Caving-Equipment
TORO 2500
Wassara
Axera 7
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Sublevel Caving-Equipment
 Equipment
 Development works – ramps and drifts
• Axera D6, Axera D7, Axera T8
 Development works – raises
• Blind raise boring units, Solomatic, Solos
 Development works rock reinforcement
• Axera Robolt D7/ T8
 Production drilling
• Mercury 1L, Solo 7, Solo Sixty
 Loading
• Electric and diesel
• Toro 007, Toro 1400, Toro 0010, Toro 0011,Toro 2500
 Haulage
• Conveyers, SMC
• Train systems
• Trucks, Toro 40, Toro 50, Toro 60
 Crushing
• Gyratory cruhers, large jaw crushers
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Block Caving
Large scale mining method
based on natural fracturing of rock and gravity flow.
Caving is induced by undercutting the block area,
which destroys its ability to support the overlying area
Broken ore flows down and is extracted through
ore passes or drawpoints
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Block Caving
Conventional method
*little or no mechanisation
*finger raises
*grizzly drifts
*gravitational flow of ore
Trackless method
*mechanised
*includes a separate undercut and extraction 
level
*loading and haulage level is the production 
level 
and includes a network of loading drifts with 
drawpoints
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Block caving
 Advantages:
+ High output with
+ Low production cost-per-tonne 
+ Suitable for low-grade ore
+ Suitable for very weak ore
 Disadvantages:
- Extensive development upfront-high investment 
- Minimum flexibility 
- Heavy drawcontrol needed
- Secondary breaking need
- Possibility of airblasts
- No ore-waste separation 
- All within column is ‘ore’
- Demanding in managing stresses in cave perimeters
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Block caving
Requirements and KPI’s
 Massive orebody with steep dip angle or large vertical dimension
 Sustancial block height
 Rock that will cave 
 Area that permits surface subsidence
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Cavability
One essential measure to qualify cavability is:
 Rock Mass Rating (RMR) which encompasses:
 Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS)
 Rock Quality Designation (RQD) : cumulative length of core pieces 
longer than 10 cm in a core run 
 Hydraulic radius of orebody (area surface/span)
 in situ and induced stresses
 spacing between joints
 joints conditions (hard joint walls or gougy filling, joint aperture…) presence of groundwater
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Rock Mass Rating (RMR)
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Block caving
 Productivity drivers
 Cavability and fragmentation 
 Nr of drawpoints in production
 Even draw from drawpoints
 Design of extraction system
 Handling of oversize
 Caving and rock flow control
 Stability of drawpoint pillars
Traditional way of handling “Hangups”
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
DIABLO REGIMIENTO PROJECT
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Streets Streets Streets Streets Streets Streets Streets Streets
Plant CH 1 17-19-21-23-25-29
17-19-21-
23-25-29
17-19-21-
23-25-29
17-19-21-
23-25-29
17-19-21-
23-25-27-
Plant CH 2 17-19-21-23-25-27
17-19-21-
23-25-29
17-19-21-
23-25-27
17-19-21-
23-25-27
Plant CH 3 31-33 33-35 35-37 37-40
Plant CH 4 15-13 15-13
Plant CH 5
LHD Operating 2 2 3 4 5 7 7 8
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
Streets Streets Streets Streets Streets Streets Streets Streets
Plant CH 1
Plant CH 2 17-19-21-23-25-27
Plant CH 3 39-41 41-43-45 43-45
Plant CH 4 9-11-13-15
9-11-13-
15
7-9-11-13-
15
7-9-11-13-
15 7-9-11-13 7-9-11 7-9 7-9
Plant CH 5 15-13-11 15-13-11-9 13-11-9-7 11-9-7-5 7-5-3-1 5-3-1
LHD Operating 8 9 9 9 7 7 5 4
Distribution of Open Streets and Streets with LHD associated to Crusher Plant, DR Project
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Year
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
61/63L All
(61L underneath 63L)
Annual Progress
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Block caving-Development works
 Undercut level
• Rim tunnels, undercut tunnels, 
long-hole drilling and blasting
 Extraction level
• Rim tunnels,extraction tunnels, 
drawbells, crushing stations 
• Orepasses if there is a separate 
transportation level
 Haulage level development (not 
always)
• Haulage tunnels, crushing stations
• Other transportation tunnels 
(conveyor tunnels)
 Other excavations
• Hoisting shafts, service stations, 
ventialtion tunnels/shafts
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Undercut tunnels
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Block Caving – Development Equipment
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Block Caving – Production Equipment
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
“Medium hang-up”
up to 8 m
Low loose
secondary breaking
Drill and blast 
Ro-Bust
Commando
Mobile hammer
other methods
Managing hangups and 
oversize in block caving
Drill and blast 
Commando
“High hang-up”
Various methods 
Drill and blast 
Water gannon 
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Block caving-Equipment
 Equipment
 Development works
• Drifting-Axera D05 / D06 / D07
• Undercut longhole drilling-Mercury 1L / 1LC10, Solo 7 series
• Rock reinforcement- Axera Robolt 5 / 6 / 7, Cabolt
 Production loading and rock transportation
• Toro 006 / 007/ 0010/ 0011
• Toro 40/ 50/60 , Supra H
 Secondary breaking and hang-up clearance
• Drill and blast: diesel-hydraulic units; non drill and blas units, mobile breakers
• Water gannon
 Crushing
• Gyratory crushers
• Jaw crushers
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Block Caving - Costs
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
SURFACE MINING
The lowest cost mining method
If orebody is close enough to the surface, 
often the initial method to enable fast production & 
positive cashflow -
changing to underground methods 
when waste - ore ratio gets uneconomical
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
PIT DESIGN - Critical factors
 Strip ratio = Waste / ore ratio:
 Depth , shape & angle of orebody
 Pit angle
 Pit angle:
 Rock strength
 Faults
 Joint systems
 Water
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
SURFACE MINING METHODS
 HARDROCK METALS MINING:
 OPEN PIT
 CONTOUR STRIP 
 MOUNTAIN TOP REMOVAL
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Pit Optimization - Example
All
Waste to ore ratio 5 : 1
Mine life 8 years NPV: 10 MUSD
Minimized
Waste to ore ratio 0.4 : 1
Mine life 3 years NPV: 4 MUSD
Optimized
Waste to ore ratio 3 : 1
Mine life 7 years NPV: 11 MUSD
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
MINE ACADEMY 
Mining Processes and Technology
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Driving force in mining industry
= Need for productivity improvement
2001
Ore grades
Metal prices
Productivity
2005
?
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
MINE LAYOUT
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
UG MINE OPERATIONS
EXPLORATION
DEVELOPMENT
Drifting
Shaft sinking
Raises
PRODUCTION
Drilling
Blasting
LoadingHOISTING
ROCK REINFORCEMENT
Drifts, galleries
Stopes
CRUSHING
SUPPORTING FUNCTIONS
Ventilation
Power supply
Water & air supply
Drainage & pumping
Mine surveying
Communications
ADMINISTRATION MILLINGCONCENTRATING
TAILINGS HANDLING
ENVIRONMENT
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
UG MINE OPERATIONS
ORGANISATION OF MINING FUNCTIONS -
Management
Administration
Finance
Human resources
Mine planning
- Geology
- Surveying
- Rock mechanics
- Production 
planning
Development
- Construction
- Engineering
- Drifting
- Production
drilling
Production
- Production 
loading
- Transportation
& Hoisting
- Oversize 
handling
- Crushing
- Process control
Concentrator
- Milling
- Process plant
- Laboratory
- Tailings
Maintenance
- Mobile equipment
- Process plant
- General maintenance
- Electric maintenance
Environment
Research & 
Development
CORPORATE LEVEL
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
UG MINE OPERATIONS
 Cost distribution examples
 Example 1: 
• Underground sublevel stoping operation
• Production volume appr 1Mt/a
Development 22 %
Production 25 %
Backfilling 5 %
Other (Common) 49 %
Materials 10 %
Fuel 2 %
Labor 12 %
Maintenance 28 %
Construction Works 6 %
Electricity 3 %
Water 2 %
Heating 2 %
Transportation 4 %
Administration 4 %
Other 28 %Mine: Total Operating Cost 18.2 USD/t
Per Function Per Category
Crushing 3 %
Milling 18 %
Flotation 36 %
Dewatering 13 %
Tailings handl. 7 %
Other 24 %
Materials 25 %
Fuel 2 %
Labor 17 %
Maintenance 24 %
Construction Works 2 %
Electricity 15 %
Administration 5 %
Other 11 %
Concentrator: Total Operating Cost 7.2 USD/t
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
UG MINE OPERATIONS
 Cost distribution examples
 Example 2: 
• Underground room and pillar operation
• Production volume appr 0.6 Mt/aPer Function
Development 6 %
Production 46 %
Haul & Hoist 11 %
Ventilation &
Dewatering 4 %
UG Crushing 2 %
UG Services 14 %
UG Administration 16 %
Labor 53 %
Fuel 3 %
Electricity 5 %
Other 39 %
Per Category
Mine: Total Operating Cost 18.0 USD/t
Crushing 8 %
Grinding 45 %
Flotation 17 %
Thickening &
Filtration 3 %
Tailings disp. 2 %
Mill Services 9 %
Mill Administration 11 %
Stockpiles 6 % 
Labor 34 %
Reagents 11 %
Electricity 24 %
Other 30 %
Concentrator: Total Operating Cost 12.2 USD/t
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Development works
 Definition: all excavation works that precede full scale 
extraction of the ore in a mine or a stope. 
 In most cases the development excavation continues 
throughout the entire life of themine
 Involve several different excavation and drilling methods 
where both short-hole and long hole drilling and raise 
boring techniques are used.
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Development works
 General development works
 Main ramps, shaft, main transportation levels, crushing stations, 
utility openings, ...
 Cost center: Mine Department (normally defined as an investment 
cost)
 Stope development
 Sublevels, undercuts, slot raises, ore collection system (drawpoints, 
drawbells) etc…
 Cost center: Mine Department operational costs (sometimes reported 
by stope / stoping area)
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Development works
 Typical development excavation 
works include:
 Ramp
 Main shaft
 Drifts for production areas
 Raises 
 Utility openings
 Exploration shafts and tunnels
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Development works -Shaft sinking
 Shaft
 The traditional main access to underground levels
• Personnel & equipment transport down / up
• Ore hoisting
• Side rock handling
• Ventilation
• Taking down Power lines / water / compressed air / 
Communications
 Rule of thumb: Normal location is near the center of gravity 
of the shape of ore body - with an offset by 75 m or more
 To be constructed to the deepest level planned for 
operation
• Rule of thumb: The depth of shaft should be such as to develop 5 
years of ore reserves
• Deepening of an operating main hoisting shaft disturbs production 
considerably
• One alternative to deepening the shaft is to continue downwards 
with truck hoisting
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Development works - Shaft sinking
 Average shaft sinking cost
CIRCULAR SHAFT COSTS
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
0 2 4 6 8 10
Shaft Diameter (m)
C
os
t (
U
S
D
/m
)
100 MPa
200 MPa
300 MPa
(by Western Mine 
Engineering 1997):
Included:
- Shaft collaring
- Excavation
- Reinforcement works
- Equipments
- Supervision
Not included:
- Hoisting equipment
- Permanent installations
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Development works -Shaft sinking
 Full-bottom method
 The whole shaft cross-section is drilled and blasted at the 
same time. To be able to reach longer round lengths, parallel 
cut with large reamer holes is replacing the V-cut that was 
common earlier.
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Development works -Shaft sinking
 Benching / spiral method
 A large portion of shafts are still sunk with manual drilling & 
benching / spiral method
 Half of the shaft face is drilled and blasted at each time. 
Benching is used in square-shaped shafts, while spiraling is a 
variation for round-shaped shafts.
 The drawback with mechanized shaft sinking platforms is 
difficulties in mucking and transportation. 
 Pilot / reaming
 When there is already an access to the lower end of the shaft, 
an efficient way to build the shaft is to first bore a pilot raise to 
the full length, then ream to full diameter by drill and blast 
method with a sinking platform.
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Development works -Shaft sinking
 Equipment selection
 The drilling unit is typically a two- or 
three-boom unit purpose-designed for 
each platform. 
 For design of the unit, the 
manufacturer requires detailed 
information of:
• Shaft dimensions
• Sinking platform dimensions and layout
• Requirements for free space on the 
platform
• Power arrangements
• etc...
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Development works - Raise 
excavation
 A raise = an underground opening that connecting one level to 
another. 
 Purposes: ventilation, ore haulage, opening slots for new stopes, etc. 
 Can be vertical or inclined, as well as long or short.
 Raises can be excavated by:
 raise boring machines 
 or drill and blast methods, which can be divided into:
• Long-hole method
• Raise building
• The Alimak method, and
• The inclined tunnel method
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Development works - Raise 
excavation
 Raise boring
 Non-blasting, mechanized full-face excavation method. 
 Can be used for raises with any inclination from horizontal to 
vertical, and to raise diameters up to 4…5 metres.
 Preparation works require often the excavation of a working 
room and building a concrete floor for the boring machine
 Average daily advance rate 5…10 m
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Pilot Drilling
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Reaming
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
229 
millimeters
5.0 meters
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Rhino 2000 DC
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Reamer heads for
Rhino 2000 series
Ø 5520
Ø 5000
Ø 3130
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Blind raise excavation, fully 
mecanized 
drilling rate : 2m per hour with reamer 700mm diameter
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
 slot hole for
drawbell drilling
 ventilation shafts
Box holing, examples of application
Box Holing… new innovative 
product from Sandvik VAB
to ABH 1600
Box Holer CD
to 
collaring
21/2/2006/TVP
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Development works - Raise 
excavation
 Long-hole method
 Suitable for raises with an 
inclination of more than 45 
degrees, inclination 
required for free flow of the 
rock after blasting. 
 The maximum raise length, 
with good drilling accuracy 
and rock conditions, is 50 
to 60 m. For successful 
raise excavation, the 
maximum hole deviation 
should not exceed 0.25 m.
 Blind uphole raises are 
often required as opening 
slots for production 
(Sublevel caving)
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Development works - Raise 
excavation
 The Alimak method
 Lift-type climber with a 
platform, safety canopy, lift 
basket and - motor. 
 Drilling is performed with 
hand-held drills, or simple 
platform-mounted drilling 
booms from the working 
platform. 
 Charging is done from the 
platform, and before each 
blast the platform is 
lowered down from the 
raise.
 Average daily advance rate 
2…5 m
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Alimak raise-climber (retracted position)
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Development works - Raise excavation
 Raise building (manual)
 The old method of raise excavation. Excavation progresses 
upwards from a working platform that must be built and 
dismantled before and after each blast. Drilling is performed 
with hand-held jackleg drills.
 Advance rate is low, and working under a blasted roof on a 
high platform is hazardous. Therefore raise building method 
has been mostly replaced by more advanced methods
 The inclined tunnelling method
 Excavation progresses from top down similarly to 
conventional drifting. Specially designed drilling and mucking 
machines, for example rail mounted units lowered by a winch, 
are used.
 Can be used for the excavation of raises with intermediate 
inclination (too gentle for rock removal by gravity, or too steep 
for conventional drifting).
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Drifting
 Drifts and ramps
 Form the network which 
connects different parts of 
the underground mine 
• to each others, 
• to the main shaft, 
• to the surface. 
 Drifts are excavated also to 
develop the stopes.
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine AcademyDrifting - ramps
 Ramps (= Declines or Inclines)
 Ramps connect different underground levels 
with each others and to surface. 
 The main access ramp
 Excavated outside the ore body - long enough distance to avoid damage 
to the ramp while excavating the ore, short enough distance to minimize 
horizontal drifting on the production and haulage levels. 
 Typically designed for longer use than the production drifts, so it should 
be excavated in competent rock if possible, and be reinforced for long 
lifetime.
 Common sizes are 4.5 x 4.5 m, adequate for most trackless equipment, 
up to 6.0 x 6.0 m which is required to accommodate dump truck haulage 
together with necessary auxiliary installations (ventilation, electricity, 
water etc). 
 The slope is normally between 1:10 and 1:7, which is suitable for most 
equipment, including loaded haulage trucks. (The steepest grades are 
some 1:5, used in short connection ramps between different mining 
levels)
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Drifting - Level and stope 
development
 Main levels
 Often excavated first as exploration drifts, and secondly as the main 
haulage and transportation drifts.
 The vertical distance between main haulage levels is normally from 50 
to 100 m, going up to 200 meters in some cases.
 Stope development
 Cross-cuts for the production areas
 Sublevels
 Loading and hauling drifts, drawpoints to the stope
 Other: ventilation, rescue etc...
 Drift sizes
 Determined by the rock conditions and equipment selection for drilling, 
loading and hauling
 Enough space has to be left for ventilation tube, utility lines etc
 In mechanized mining commonly from 3.5 x 3.5 m up to 5.0 x 5.0 m
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Drifting - The Drill and Blast Cycle
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Drifting - Drilling pattern
 Major factors in drilling 
pattern design:
 Drift dimensions
 Drift geometry
 Hole size
 Round length
• Fit to the cycle
 Cut type 
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Drifting - Drilling pattern
 Cut types
Parallel 
cut
V-cut
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Blast design
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Burn cut
calculation
ref: Dyno Nobel
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Determination of burden and charges
Ref: Dyno Nobel
Exemple: with 45 
mm holes, using 
ANFO explosive,
the burden 
(distance 
between holes) 
should be 0.95 m 
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Drifting - Drilling pattern
Necessary number of holes - 45mm & parallel cut (excl. reamed 
holes). 
Drilled length = 5.0 m 
Reference: NTH Project report 2A-95: Tunnelling.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
10 20 30 40 50 60
Cross section (m2)
N
um
be
r 
of
 h
ol
es
 (
pc
sbeginner
professional
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Drifting - The Axera Family
T12
T11
T10
T8
D7
D6
D5
D4
(Quasar)
LP
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Drifting - Equipment selection
 Full range of mechanized drilling jumbos from the compact 
jumbos for narrow-vein applications, up to medium-to large 
sized units for drifting and ramp development and 
excavation of underground caverns
 
Minimum 
tunnel size 
(WxH) 
Unit type Nr of booms Max parall 
Coverage 
(WxH) 
Feed length 
range (ft) 
2 x 2 Quasar 1F 1 4.5 x 3.6 6 – 12 
2.5 x 2.5 Axera 5 1 5.5 x 5.2 10 - 16 
3.0 x 3.0 Axera 6 2 6.9 x 5.3 10 – 16 
3.5 x 3.5 Axera 7 2 9.9 x 6.4 12 – 16 
4.0 x 4.0 Axera T8 2- 3 12.8 x 8.5 12 – 18 
3.5 x 1.6 Axera LP126 1 6.5 x 5.3 12 – 16 
3.5 x 1.6 Axera LP226 2 8.2 x 5.3 12 – 16 
 
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Drifting - Equipment selection
 Determining factors are:
• The face areas (mini, maxi) and drift geometry, curves and cross-cuts 
• Ramp grades, conditions of the terrain
• Tramming distances, mine layout 
• Rock conditions
• Hole size and hole length
• Design and scheduling of the work cycle => Required drilling performance 
=> one boom?, two booms?, more?
• Is bolting work by the jumbo required?
• Need for drilling long holes? 
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Drifting - Equipment selection
 Quasar 1F (Axera 4)
• Compact unit for small-size development works or production drilling.
• Minimum tunnel size 2 x 2 m
• The basic version 1F is designed primarily for face drilling, cross-
cutting and bolt hole drilling. 
• 1F NV version has an additional rotation mechanism in boom head, to 
enable up- or downhole drilling very close to the drift walls on both 
sides of the drift (i.e. for cut- and fill production drilling)
2 
m
2 m
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
 Axera 5
 Single boom unit with uncompromized power
 Minimum tunnel size 2.5 x 2.5 m
 XL version extends the maximum reach up to 38 m2. 
 The NV type boom is also available.
 Optional operator cabin available
Drifting - Equipment selection
2.
5 
m
2.5 m
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
 Axera 6
 Compact two-boom drifting jumbo
 Minimum tunnel size 3 x 3 m
 Counter-balanced carrier design
 “Feet on the ground” 
service principle
 The NV version, and cabin model 
also available
Drifting - Equipment selection
3 
m
3 m
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
 Axera 7
 Twin-boom jumbo for ultimate drifting productivity
 Minimum tunnel size 3.5 x 3.5 m
 Engineered with high focus on operator’s comfort and ease of service
 All-hydraulic controls with TB40 or TB60 booms
 High-performance drilling system with electronic controls and the TB60 
booms.
Drifting - Equipment selection
3.
5 
m
3.5 m
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
 Axera T8
 Suitable for large-scale mining operations. 
 Minimum tunnel size 4 x 4 m
 Can be equipped with three drilling booms (TB60) with maximum 
coverage of 68 m2 or with two drilling booms (TB90) with maximum 
reach of 102 m2. 
Drifting - Equipment selection
4 
m
4 m
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Drifting - Equipment selection
 Axera LP
• Extra-low face drill
• Single boom (LP 126)
• Twin-boom (LP 226)
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Axera LP
1.
6 
m
3.5 m
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Drifting
 Axera XLP
 Extra Low Profile face drill
 Can operate in 1 m back heights
1 
m
4 m
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
 Drifting quality
 Right place drilling
 Profile quality
• Over- / underbreak
• Minimum damage from blasting
 Drilling accuracy - Instrumentation 
 Why instrumentation?
• Minimized amount of overbreak, thus less loading and transportation / 
hoisting of waste rock from development in ramps and waste rock.
• Improved safety and decreased need for rock reinforcement
• Even floor of the drifts
− Better road conditions
− Easier loading
• Reduced need to mark up the face
Drifting - Quality
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
 Drilling accuracy - Instrumentation options
TMS
Robust, basic 
instrument 
feed angle 
measurement
Drill bit position 
and feed 
direction 
measurement 
system
Full data 
control system 
for 2-3 booms 
jumbos
Data logging 
and reporting 
system for 
TCAD and 
TDATA
TCAD
TLOGTDATA
Drifting - Equipment selection
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
TMS
 Feed angle and drill depth measurement
 Robust, basic instrument for 
horizontal and vertical feed angle 
measurement
 Options:
• depthmeasurement
• cumulative drilled meters 
counter 
• penetration rate display
• stop and return automatics
Drifting - Equipment selection
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
TCAD
Computer aided drilling
 Online drill bit position and feed 
direction measurement
 Operation based on pre-planned drill 
patterns and tunnel geometry
 Large graphic display showing the 
drill plan together with real drill bit 
position and feed direction makes the 
positioning and alignment of feed 
easy and accurate.
Drifting - Equipment selection
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
TDATA
 Full-automatic drilling
 Full automatic operation of 2-4 booms 
under one operator
 Pre-planned drilling pattern is drilled 
fully automatically
 Round-by-round repeatability 
accuracy gives superior performance 
and advance rate
Drifting - Equipment selection
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
TLOG
Data logging and reporting
 Data logging
• Production statistics
• Hole data as function of hole 
depth
 Reporting and analysis
• Report generation with 
Visual Tunneling software
(Report for Windows)
• Printed or on-screen reports
Drifting - Equipment selection
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Drifting - Equipment selection
 Drilling tools in drifting
 Bits: Diameter (38) 45 - 51 mm
 Rods: Shank thread R32 / T38
Rod Hex32 / Hex 35 / Round 39
Bit thread (R28) / R32 / R35
Length 10ft (3.1 m) to 18 ft (5.5 m)
 Reaming bits: Taper pilot
Button reamer diameter 64 - 102 mm
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
DRIFT & RAMP COSTS
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Drift size (m2)
C
os
t (
U
S
D
/m
3
Drift Supported
Ramp Supported
Drifting - Costs
DRIFT & RAMP COSTS
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Drift size (m2)
C
os
t (
U
S
D
/m
)
Drift Supported
Ramp Supported
From:
Western Mine Engineering
Mining Cost Service
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
 Average advance rates
• For one equipment set (1 jumbo + 1 loader)
• In 3-shift continuous operation
Drifting - Capacity estimations
Average advance rate 
(m/month) 
Conditions 
Single heading Multiple headings 
Easy 
- Competent rock 
- Minimum reinforcement (some 
bolts) 
 
200 - 300 
 
300 – 400 
Average 
- Varying rock conditions 
- Regular support (bolts, some 
shotcrete) 
 
100 – 250 
 
200 – 300 
Difficult 
- Soft & fractured rock 
- Heavy reinforcement (bolts, 
shotcrete, mesh / steel arches) 
 
< 150 
 
100 – 200 
 
 
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Drifting - Capacity estimations
 Tunnel Study
Estimates on:
- Drilling speed
- Time for each stage in the 
drifting cycle (Drilling, charging 
& blasting, loading, rock 
reinforcement etc)
- Total cycle time for one round
- Advance rate - short term or 
long term, with single or 
multiple face operation
- Total cost and cost distribution 
for drilling
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Drifting with Road Headers and 
Continuous Miners
 For rock strengths under 150 Mpa, continuous rock cutting 
technology should be considered as an alternative to drill 
and blast method.
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Application of different technology
Good / Homogeneous
Rock hardness
Stability/
Fracturing
Loose
Hard rock TBM’s
Roadheaders
Shield Machines
Pipe Jacking
Drill & Blast
Mechanical Excavation
with Breaker / SplitterATH
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Soft rock applications
 Coal and industrial minerals (salt, gypsum, potash …)
Potasas del 
Llobregat
Spain
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Hard rock applications (up to 150 
Mpa)
 Alpine Miner ATM 105 ICUTROC
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
ALPINE MINER
PRODUCT RANGE
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
COAL AND INDUSTRIAL MINERALS
 AM 50
 AM 75
 AM 85
 AM 105
 Coal
 Salt and Potash
 Hard rock mining
 Tunnelling operations
HARD ROCK MINING AND CONSTRUCTION
 ATM 50
 ATM 75
 ATM 105 ICUTROC
 AHM 105 ICUTROC
ROADHEADERS
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Rock properties to be measured to qualify 
adaptability for continuous cutting
 Mechanical parameters
 UCS uniaxial compressive strength
 Brazilian tensile strength
 Fracture energy
 Abrasivity Index
 Cerchar abrasivity index (CAI)
 Rock Mass Rating (RMR) which encompasses:
 UCS strength
 Rock Quality Designation (RQD) : cumulative length of core pieces 
longer than 10 cm in a core run 
 spacing between joints
 joints conditions (hard joint walls or gougy filling, joint aperture…)
 presence of groundwater
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Site investigation often necessary!
As well as reference to Voest Alpine rock data bank, containing 
3500 geomechanical datas from rocks all over the world!
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
L
D
F
Unconfined Compressive Strength 
Test
Standard 
specimen:
D = 50 ± 5 mm
L = D ± 10 %
Load:
10 kN/s
Determination 
of:
σc, Estat, Esec, ε, Wf
Rock Testing at VAB RockLab
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Unconfined Compressive Strength Test
Rock Testing at VAB RockLab
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Determination of Fracture Energy
Rock Testing at VAB RockLab
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
D
H
F
Rock Testing at VAB RockLab
Brazilian Tensile Strength Test
Standard specimen:
D = 50 ± 5 mm
L = D/2 ± 10 %
Load:
10 kN/s
Determination of:
σt
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Rock Testing at VAB RockLab
Brazilian Tensile Strength Test
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
90°
70N
10mm X
Detail X
d
CAI = 10 x d [mm]
Rock Testing at VAB RockLab
CAI Rock Abrasiveness Test
CAI Testing
CAI Measuring
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Rock Testing at VAB RockLab
CAI Rock Abrasiveness Test
New Pick before Testing Worn Pick after Testing
Pick Wear Diameter
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Site Investigation at VAB GeoTecDept
Influence of Rock Mass Structure on Cutability
at first sight
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
at second sight
Site Investigation at VAB GeoTecDept
Influence of Rock Mass Structure on Cutability
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
NCR SPC
RMR
I II III
S
pe
ci
fi
c 
P
ic
k 
C
on
su
m
pt
io
n
Rock Mass Rating
N
et
 C
ut
ti
ng
 R
at
e
Site Investigation at VAB GeoTecDept
Approach to RMR System revised for Cutting
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Site Investigation at VAB GeoTecDept
I
II
III
Excavation predominantly by
activation of parting planes:
„RIPPING ZONE“
Activation of existing parting planes
and generation of new fracture planes:
„INTERMEDIATE ZONE“
Excavation predominantly by
generation of new fracture
planes: „CUTTING ZONE“
Approach to RMR System revised for Cutting
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Principle of Operation
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Performance estimation ATM/AHM 
105 IC
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Practical Cutting Rate
 the net cutting rate is the basis for a performance guarantee 
(“clean cutting under full load, no profiling or loading, time read 
out from the relevant amp meter”)
 the practical cuttingrate has to be reduced by the availability of 
the machine (usually above 90 %, based on maintenance)
 it has to be further reduced by the utilisation of the machine (out 
of our influence, usually in the range of < 30 % !) 
 other issues (such as acceptance on the mine site) have also an 
important influence
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Specific Pick Consumption
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Application range of Cutter Heads
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Cutter Head and Pick Selection
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Practical Limits (“rule of thumb”)
 Small cross section (<25 m²)
 15 – 20 bcm/h
 Pick consumption:
 Specific pick consumption 
below 0,3-0,5 picks/bcm
 Larger cross section (>40 m²)
 30 – 40 bcm/h
Close to or out of this range, application could be still
economical under special conditions !
In this case please consult the VAB experts !
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
LONGHOLE DRILLING 
APPLICATIONS
 Production drilling fans
 Slot raises
 Undercut drilling
 Ventilation raises
 Drainage holes
 Cable bolt holes
 Cable holes
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Longhole drilling - Equipment 
selection
 Determining factors are:
• Production parameters 
– Capacity required
– Drilling in production stopes (geometry, drilling directions, hole length)
• Rock conditions
• Accuracy requirements
• Other drilling needs
– Stope development: Opening raises, drawpoints etc
– Raises
– Ventilation, drainage, etc
– Cable bolting
– Other….
• Requirements for machine size
• Dimensions during operation
• Mobility requirements
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Longhole drilling - Equipment 
selection
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
TECHNOLOGY LEVELS
From sophisticated automated 
CAN-bus operated rigs
To simple direct hydraulic 
control systems
Longhole drilling - Equipment 
selection
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Less is more with common components
Wide range of offering tailored to all applications
Commonality of main components
The idea is to design all underground 
equipment using common components. This 
way all product models in the product 
family (e.g. Axera) share maximum number 
of components. This would be the vertical 
compatibility in the product matrix. 
Tamrock is also using the same platform 
(carrier) for different applications (product 
families i.e. Axera, Solo, Robolt & Cabolt). 
This one would be the horizontal 
compatibility in the product matrix.
Smart components
AXERA ROBOLTSOLO CABOLT
LP
10
11
12
SPECIAL
6
7
8
4
5
Longhole drilling - Equipment 
selection
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
51 64 76 89 102 115 127
T51, 76 mm, 87 mm 
tubes
T38, T45, T51, 64 mm 
tubes
T38, T45
R32, T38
Hole Size (mm)
T51, 76 mm, 87 mm 
tubes
ROCK DRILLS
30
25
19,5
17
15
Percussion Power
(kW)
HLX5
HLX5 LT
HL 710S
HL 1010 S
HL 1560 S
MODEL
Longhole drilling - Equipment 
selection
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
SOLO 7-15F
MODEL “KEY”
Carrier size class
4
5
7
Rock drill size
5 = HLX5
7 = HL710S
10 = HL1010S
15 = HL1560S
Model type
C
F
V
P
Longhole drilling - Equipment 
selection
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
4
MODELS
5 7
C
F
V
P
Longhole drilling - Equipment 
selection
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
07 DH
SPECIAL MODELS
09
V
C
Longhole drilling - Equipment 
selection
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Longhole drilling - Equipment 
selection
 Quasar 1L
• Compact Long-hole drilling 
unit for production drilling 
in small-scale and narrow 
vein applications
• Rubber-tired, centre-
articulated carrier
• Minimum drift size during 
operation 2.55 x 2.55 m
• Hole size range 51-64 mm
• Maxi hole length: 20 m
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Longhole drilling - Equipment 
selection
 Mercury 1LC22 
 Compact Long-hole 
drilling unit for production 
drilling in small-to 
medium scale and narrow 
vein applications
• Rubber-tired, centre-
articulated carrier
• Minimum drift size during 
operation 3.0 x 3.0 m
• Hole size range 51-64 mm
• Maxi hole length: 30 m
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
F = Frame C = Classic
V = Versatile P = Parallel
MODEL TYPES, new range
Longhole drilling - Equipment 
selection
V = Versatile
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
F-type
• Rigid front frame enables 
accurate positioning of the 
boom
•Operator safely and 
comfortable under the 
canopy or cabin 
FEATURES new range
Longhole drilling - Equipment 
selection
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
C-type
• Full 360 degree rotation 
coverage without blind 
spots
• flexible drill plane 
orientation
•Ability to drill close to drift 
end
FEATURES, new range
Longhole drilling - Equipment 
selection
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
V-type
• High vertical and 
horizontal coverage with 
boom extension makes this 
drilling unit extremely 
versatile for different 
special applications in 
mining
• Versatile boom 
movements
•Operator safely and 
comfortable under the 
canopy or cabin
•Able to drill close to drift 
end
FEATURES, new range
Longhole drilling - Equipment 
selection
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
P- type
• Full 360 degree rotation 
coverage without blind 
spots
• flexible drill plane 
orientation
• Able to drill close to walls 
and drift end
• Wide parallel coverage
FEATURES, new range
Longhole drilling - Equipment 
selection
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Longhole drilling – Production data
 Full range of mechanized longhole drilling units from narrow-
vein applications, up to massive stoping methods
“Rule-of-thumb” Unit type Rock 
drill 
power 
(Kw) 
Drilling tools Hole 
size 
range 
(mm) 
Hole 
length 
range 
(m) 
Drilling 
capacity 
(drm/8h shift) 
Production 
capacity 
(kton/year) 
Quasar 1L 15 R32/T38 51 - 64 5 - 20 125 - 150 250 - 350 
Mercury 1L 
Solo 5-5 V 
 
15 R32/T38 51 - 64 5 - 30 125 - 175 300 - 400 
Solo 5-5 (C, F, P,V) 17 T38/T45 51 - 76 5 - 35 100 - 150 450 - 650 
Solo 5-7 (C, F, P) 
Solo 7-7 (C, F, V) 
19.5 T38/T45/T51 
64mm tube 
64 - 102 10 - 54 100 - 150 500 - 800 
Solo 7-10 (C, F) 25 T51 
76mm/81mm tube 
89 - 127 10 - 54 100 - 150 900 - 1100 
Solo 7-15 (C, F) 30 T51 
76mm/81mm tube 
89 - 127 10 - 60 100 - 150 900 - 1200 
 
 
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Longhole drilling - Drilling accuracy
 Effects of poor accuracy
 Ore loss
 Dilution
 Uneven fragmentation
Actual
ore boundary
Dilution
Ore loss
Ore loss
Oversize
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Longhole drilling - Drilling accuracy
 Elements of drilling errors
 Alignment (error = f(L))
• Instruments, calibration
• Marking up
• Alignment lasers
• Work practises
 Collaring (error = f(L2 or L3))
• Surface quality
• Stingers
• Control system
• Work practises
 Deflection
• Control system, adjustments
• Drilling tools
 Hole length
Set-up error
Planned hole
Error caused by
bending
Hole length error
Actual drilled hole
Hole-end error
Collaring &
alignment error
Sandvik Mining and Construction
Mine Academy
Longhole drilling - Drilling accuracy
 Effect on drilling accuracy - example
 Production 1.000.000 t/a
 Value of ore 25 USD/t
 Waste rock