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TECHNICAL ARTICLE—PEER-REVIEWED
Fouling and Corrosion in an Aero Gas Turbine Compressor
R. K. Mishra
Submitted: 7 August 2015
� ASM International 2015
Abstract This paper deals with the study carried out on
fouling and corrosion problems in an aero gas turbine
engine which operates from coastal environment. Various
parameters responsible for such problems are presented in
the paper which causes deterioration in performance and
leads to failure of the components. Prevention and control
procedures for fouling and corrosion are also highlighted.
Compressor washes such as performance recovery wash
and desalination wash are found to be very effective in
addressing these issues. The frequency of compressor wash
is to be judiciously worked out from the corrosion rate and
performance deterioration points of view.
Keywords Corrosion failure analysis �
Corrosion fatigue � Environmental degradation �
Gas turbine
Introduction
Many military gas turbines operate from air bases in
coastal regions or from offshore platforms even from small
islets due to strategic reasons. Also many engines takeoff
from unprepared runways and are subjected to arduous
environment. The standard atmosphere is composed of a
mixture of gases. Although the major constituents are
nitrogen and oxygen, there are many other gases such as
argon, neon, helium, hydrogen, xenon, carbon dioxide and
carbon monoxide, methane, oxides of nitrogen, sulfur etc.
are present in dry air. In addition, there is always the
presence of salts, contaminants, and humidity in the engine
inlet air depending on the local condition of the place
where the aircraft or engine is positioned [1]. Their pres-
ence in air deteriorates the engine performance due to
foreign object damage, erosion, fouling, blockage of
cooling passages, particle fusion, and cold and hot corro-
sion [1, 2]. Low-pressure compressor (fan) and high-
pressure compressor being the front-end components of the
engine are affected most due to these elements. Thus,
compressor fouling and corrosion have become a serious
concern, and its control and prevention are of priority for
engine operators. Fouling is the degradation in perfor-
mance of a turbine engine due to the build-up of
contaminants on the various aerodynamic surfaces [3]. An
example of low-pressure compressor fouling is shown in
Fig. 1. It results in a drop in airflow and isentropic effi-
ciency which in turn reduces the thrust or power output of
the engine.
Fouling can also cause engine surge or flame blowout
due to shifting of operating line toward surge line, flow
distortion, and aerodynamic mismatch as shown in Fig. 2
[4, 5]. Investigations have shown that majority of low
thrust, low spool speed, and high exhaust gas temperature
cases are attributed to compressor fouling. Compressor
fouling accounts for about 70–85% of gas turbine engine
performance deterioration. Fouling also has a damaging
effect on compressor blading which deteriorates the
mechanical reliability of the compressor. Compressor
fouling also results in a higher turbine entry temperature
for a given power setting. This causes higher turbine entry
temperature leading to degradation of hot-end components
and higher emission levels.
The parts of gas turbine engines which are operated in a
chemically reactive environment generally suffer from
R. K. Mishra (&)
Regional Centre for Military Airworthiness (Engines),
Bangalore, Karnataka 560093, India
e-mail: rkmishra.drdo@gmail.com
123
J Fail. Anal. and Preven.
DOI 10.1007/s11668-015-0023-8
corrosion. In gas turbines, there occur two types of corro-
sion: cold corrosion and hot corrosion. Cold corrosion
occurs in low- and high-pressure compressors which
operate relatively at low temperature due to wet deposits of
salts, acids, steam, and corrosive gases of various chlorides,
sulfides, and oxides. The corrosion causes reduction in the
cross-sectional properties of the material and also pitting of
the material. Cold corrosion can initiate cracks and met-
allurgical abnormalities in the material. The hot corrosion
occurs in the hot-end components of the engine which are
exposed to high-temperature combustion gases. Rapid
chemical reaction takes place between oxygen and the
material at high temperatures. Degradation becomes more
severe with increasing contaminant concentration and is
highly influenced by temperature [6, 7]. The present study
will focus on cold corrosion and fouling only. The paper
highlights various steps involved in the study for corrosion
prevention in a gas turbine compressor.
Engine Configuration
The present study was carried on a low-bypass turbofan
engine with afterburner. It is a twin-spool engine of 40 kN
thrust class with multi-stage axial fan and compressor each
driven separately by single stage turbines. It has an annular
type combustion system incorporating airblast atomizers.
Schematic layout of the engine is shown in Fig. 3.
The low-pressure (LP) compressor rotor disks are bolted
together, each disk having peripheral flanges to which
blades are secured by retaining pins. The LP stator vane
assemblies are fabricated rings of vanes with inner and
outer platforms The high-pressure (HP) compressor com-
prises machined disks welded together to form a drum into
which rotor blades are keyed. Compressor stator assembly
consists of a series of vanes welded on the outer platform to
form a ring behind each row of rotor blades in each stage.
The low-pressure compressor blades are made of high-duty
Al–Cu 2618A alloy, and the vanes are made of 5056 alloy
(ASTM B316) which has strong corrosion resistance
characteristics.
The other modules of the engine are HP nozzle guide
vanes and turbine rotor, LP nozzle guide vanes, LP turbine
rotor disk, rotor support system, afterburner system, gear
box, and accessories.
Compressor Fouling
Fouling is the build-up of material in cavities and low flow-
rate locations along the air flow path as shown in Fig. 1.
Besides small particles as a cause for fouling, oil vapors,
water, salts, and other sticky substances working individ-
ually or together create a mix of materials that find places
to adhere. These particles adhere to compressor blade
surfaces and turbine blade cooling passages. The effect is
to change clearances, disrupt rotating balance, obstruct and
plug flow paths, and reduce smoothness of rotating and
stationary blade surfaces. Fouling is, however, usually
recoverable since there are methods available to remove
these deposits with online or offline washing or mechanical
Fig. 1 Fouling of a low-pressure compressor in an aero gas turbine
engine
Fig. 2 Drift in compressor operating point due to fouling
Fig. 3 Schematic layout of a twin-spool turbofan engine
J Fail. Anal. and Preven.
123
cleaning. The cost of recovery is interrupted process output
and sometimes extended shutdown. If recovery by cleaning
is not performed, performance suffers. It is possible to
recovery the engine’s performance to close to the original
performance with regular cleanings. An example of change
in engine performance over time is shown in Fig. 4.
Researchers have found out several factors that affect
compressor fouling. The design philosophy of the com-
pressor is itself a major factor that contributes to its
fouling. The other factors are loading of the aerofoil,
incidence angle of the aerofoil, surface smoothness and
nature of coating material, type and condition of airborne
pollutants, and operational environment such as humidity.
Based on these parameters, an index of sensitivity to
fouling (ISF) has been defined by Tarabrin et al. [8, 9].
Fouling iscaused by particles in the range of 2–10 lm. The
variation of quantity of those particles present in a local
atmosphere has a major impact on the rate of fouling [10,
11]. The deposit of particles on the surface of blades takes
plane under the action of inertia forces acting on the par-
ticles and forcing them to move along the curved
streamline. Particles of dirt that collides with the blade
stick to the blade surface. Sticking of dirt increases with the
presence of oily substances.
Impact of Humidity on Fouling
Fouling of engine parts is a result of particles adhering to
water and oil when present on surfaces. Total humidity is
directly related to the partial pressure of water vapor in the
surrounding atmosphere. Generally water is present in the
incoming air due to the pressure drop experienced at the
engine inlet. The rate of fouling is a strong function of total
humidity. As humidity increases, particles will adhere to
the surface, and the performance of the engine deteriorates
[12]. But at high humidity, some amount of the water
present will flow off the aerodynamic surfaces rather than
adhering to the surface. This will result in somewhat
cleaning of the surface. The particulates will be washed
away thus reducing the fouling rate. The inlet pressure drop
leading to droplet formation varies from aircraft to aircraft
and greatly depends on the operating environment as well
as the engine-air intake characteristics.
Erosion
Hard particles 5–10 lm or larger create erosion of the
metal surfaces bounding the air flow path. Figure 5 com-
pares the particle size range for erosion with fouling [13].
Sand is one of the most common causes of erosion due
to its prevalence at the installations of gas turbine.
Impingement of small, hard particles against blade and
stator aerodynamic airfoil shapes repeatedly removes tiny
particles of metal, eventually re-shaping portions of the
parts. In finely tuned contours of highly stressed parts, this
is a double problem. Re-shaping aerodynamic surfaces
changes the air flow paths, roughens the surfaces, changes
clearances, and eventually reduces the cross-sectional areas
that provide the strength necessary to resist the very high
stresses of parts with minimal margins of safety. Also,
changing the blade shape can create stress concentrations.
This in turn reduces the fatigue strength and can lead to
high cycle fatigue failures. The efficiency of the gas turbine
is reduced until excessive stress takes over as the main
cause of problem.
Contaminants
A contaminant consists of any substance which is entrained
in the air flow path in gas turbine engine. A wide range of
substances such as solid particles, gases, and liquids such
Fig. 5 Typical atmospheric dust distribution
Fig. 4 Deterioration of engine performance and its recovery through
cleaning
J Fail. Anal. and Preven.
123
as sea salts, dust, sand, exhaust fumes containing oil and
fuel vapors, particles such as chemicals, fertilizers, mineral
ores, and industrial by-products. The presence of contam-
inants in the environment greatly depends on the location
where it is operated and also on the local activities. They
are also dependant on climatic conditions such as wind
direction, wind speed, temperature, relative humidity, and
precipitation which are constantly changing [10, 12].
Some common contaminants and their typical size are
presented in Table 1. Generally inlet air filtration is widely
used for land based gas turbine engines to prevent perfor-
mance degradation and to prevent unscheduled
maintenance. Ground test beds are also equipped with
suitable filtrations for testing aero gas turbine engines.
Performance Recovery Wash
Compressor fouling is generally addressed by carrying out
periodic compressor wash. These performance recovery
wash uses approved chemical additives to remove deposits
on airflow passages and blade surfaces. Compressor
washing can be accomplished both online and offline [14].
On-line cleaning can be performed in a compressor wash
rig as shown schematically in Fig. 6 with minimal effects
and can cause rapid improvement in a heavily fouled
compressor.
Prior to performing a compressor cleaning, care should
be taken not to disturb the critical speeds of rotors or
natural frequencies of the blades. Engine is allowed for
minimum 45 min to cool down to below 65 �C prior to
activate compressor wash system.
Depending on the ambient temperature, the cleaning
solution tank is filled with appropriate cleaning solution as
given in Table 2. The rinse solution tank is filled with
normal drinking quality water for ambient temperature
above ?2 �C and with water and isopropyl alcohol in equal
volumetric proportion for ambient temperature from ?2 to
�25 �C. Compressed air supply is connected to the wash
tanks. The cleaning solutions are injected into the engine
while motoring the engine at 5% rotor speed for 30 s.
Cleaning solution is allowed to soak for 20–30 min. Then
the rinse solution is injected for 30 s for 2–3 times till the
wash fluid comes out through the exhaust drain valve.
Subsequently, the engine is run to an intermediate power
rating for one to two minutes for drying the engine. The
compressor wash has been found to be very effective to
remove flow paths and blade surfaces and to regain engine
performance. The frequency of compressor wash is decided
based on the environmental conditions that the engine is
subjected to. But it is generally carried out on engines once
in every 25–35 flight hours. As it is not possible to com-
pletely remove the water particles and deposits from
various ports and internal passages, the compressor mod-
ules are dismantled after 100–125 flight hours to physically
clean them for better service life.
Corrosion
Axial compressors suffer aqueous corrosion due to for-
mation of aggressive acids. The presence of airborne salts
and acids of sulfur and nitrogen make the environment
corrosive for compressor material. This generally occurs
during the coastal, marine, or offshore operation of the
engine. The main difference between the operations in
these areas is the high salt concentration in the atmosphere
compared to that in land based operation. The high con-
centration of salt in the atmosphere can also lead to fouling
as explained earlier sections.
Coastal areas refer to the land region within 15 km of
the shoreline. Operation of gas turbines within coastal area
presents a major challenge of higher salt concentrations
and humidity compared to land based application.
Fig. 6 Schematic of compressor wash rig
Table 1 Common contaminants
Grade Contaminants
Coarse[10 lm Leaves, insects, textile fibers, sand, flying ash, mist, rain, pollen and fog
Fine[1 lm Spore, cement dust, dust sediments, cloud, fog, accumulated carbon black, metal oxide smoke, oil smoke
EPA[0.01 lm Metal oxide smoke, carbon black, smog, mist, fumes, oil smoke, aerosol micro particles
J Fail. Anal. and Preven.
123
The salt present in the ambient air is derived from
seawater aerosols carried by the wind. Depending on the
relative humidity, the salt particles may be present in
aerosols, in the sticky state, or as dry particles. The
humidity will also have an effect on the size of the salt
particles or aerosols. Relative humidity lower than 50% can
cause salt particles to reduce in size below 1 lm. The salt
concentration present in the air from the seawater is the
highest at the shore and falls rapidly until approximately
15 km off the shoreline. However, the concentration can
vary significantly depending on the wind speed, direction,
elevation, and topography. Aero gas turbines operated from
ship decksor offshore platforms or from small islets face
similar problems. The corrosion on air intake fairings and
measurement probes are shown in Fig. 7 for the aero gas
turbine engine under study which is stationed and operated
from a coastal region. Air flow passages in the internal
cooling air flow path are also seen affected by corrosion.
In a marine environment, the gas turbines are installed
on ships. The inlet to the engine turbines is typically within
30 m from the ocean surface. However, in offshore appli-
cations, the gas turbine engine inlets are positioned above
30 m from the ocean surface. The primary contaminants in
these cases are salt and seawater. Salt is generated naturally
and is always present in the wet form due to the closeness
of the gas turbine inlet to the ocean surface. The height,
orientation, and location of the engine inlet control the size
and quantity of salt at the inlet. The distance of the inlet
from the ocean surface significantly affects the amount of
sea water and salt aerosols. Concentration of salt decreases
as the height of engine inlet increases above the ocean
surface. The particle size also decreases with height.
In all such cases, the presence and amount of corrosive
species, moisture levels, and materials of engine compo-
nents determine the amounts and rates of corrosion. The
inlet stages of the compressor are the most susceptible to
corrosion damage during normal operation of the com-
pressor. The first few sages of the compressor are the most
susceptible to corrosive attack. These stages generally
operate at subatmoshperic pressure, and the water vapor in
the air condenses into water droplets that readily combine
with the other airborne contaminants. Toward the rear end
of the compressor, the compressed air and water droplets
increase in the both temperature and pressure. Thus, the
liquid water comes back into a gaseous state thereby
reducing the corrosion potential.
The compressor fouling aggravates the corrosion by
allowing the water droplets to form or agglomerate in the
flow path. The flow path deposits tend to hold the acidic
conditions on the surface of the compressor blades and
vanes. Corrosion pitting on airflow paths caused by salt
deposits can be seen in Fig. 8. Pitting corrosion is very
significant in industrial axial flow compressors as well as in
aero engines operating at sandy atmosphere. The pits are
often the crack initiator in blade fatigue failures.
Salt deposits and pitting corrosion marks on blade sur-
face are presented in Figs. 9 and 10, respectively. Pitting in
many materials can lead to failure by corrosion occurring
in localized areas.
Fig. 7 Corrosion seen on air intake fairing and pressure probe
Table 2 Formulation of cleaning solution (by % volume)
Ambient temperature Cleaning agent Aviation kerosene Isopropyl alcohol Water
Cleaning agent: Magnus 1214, R-MC-G21, TURCO-5884 etc.
[2 �C 25 0 0 75
�25 to 2 �C 25 15 20 40
\25 �C 25 15 40 20
Cleaning agent: Ardrox-6367, Turboclean-2, ZOK-27 etc.
[5 �C 20 0 0 80
�5 to ?5 �C 20 0 20 60
�21 to �5 �C 20 0 30 50
\21 �C 20 0 40 40
J Fail. Anal. and Preven.
123
The cause of this local corrosion is related to material
build ups on the surface of the material. The area in or
immediately under the deposit can form a local environ-
ment that is oxygen deprived. Oxygen on the metal surface
is required to maintain the corrosion resistant surface film.
In addition, the localized corrosion can be further accel-
erated by the creation of aggressive acids. The damage
shown in Figs. 7, 8, 9, and 10 can result in mechanical
failure of the component if allowed for prolong period or
preventive measure is not initiated.
Corrosion Prevention & Control
A number of steps are generally considered at design stage
to prevent the compressor from corrosion [15, 16]. Such
steps include
• Selection of suitable materials
• Adaption of appropriate heat treatment process of the
material
• Use of corrosion resistant coatings
In spite of the best design practices, compressor corrosion
is often unavoidable due to its operational environments. In
such case, controlling the corrosion level by cleaning is left
the only choice.
Desalination Wash
Compressor wash at scheduled intervals has been found
very effective in controlling the compressor corrosion.
Flow path wash removes many of the deposits through
either a liquid wash dissolving the deposit or an abrasive
scrubbing of the deposits off the blade surfaces. The two
most commonly used methods of cleaning the compressor
are a liquid wash often referred to as water wash and an
abrasive cleaning [17].
Compressor desalination wash is a recommended prac-
tice worldwide adopted by aero engine operators.
Compressor wash is done by injecting applicable cleaning
fluid into the engine intake using either an installed com-
pressor wash ring or a hand held wash wand. Water-based
non-flammable non-toxic and readily biodegradable blend
surfactants and inhibitors are commonly used as com-
pressor cleaning agents [16]. These agents will have no
harmful effect on the compressor material. The cleaning
fluid formulation for few cleaning agents is presented in
Table 2. The solutions generally have specific gravity of
about 1.0 and pH value of 7.2–7.6.
Alternatively, a motoring wash can also be done at 10–
25% of high-pressure spool speed, and the water or the
cleaning mixture, depending on ambient temperature, is
injected into the engine intake at a rate of 7.5–11.5 L/min
depending on the engine configuration.
Fig. 8 Pitting corrosion in compressor air flow passages
Fig. 9 Deposit of corrosive salts on compressor blade surface
Fig. 10 Corrosion pitting on compressor blade surface
J Fail. Anal. and Preven.
123
Normal drinking quality water or demineralized water is
commonly used as the wash fluid for motoring wash pro-
cedure. Although the quality of water varies according to
location and season, it should meet the following minimum
standards:
(a) Appearance: free of visible extraneous impurities
(b) Total solids: 175 ppm (mg/L) max
(c) pH value: 6.0–8.0 inclusive
(d) Chlorides: 15 ppm (mg/l) max
(e) Sulfates: 10 ppm (mg/L) max
Compressor washing is most effective if it is performed
on a regular basis. The recommended wash schedule is
presented in Table 3. However, the frequency of wash is
decided based on the operational environment and the rate
of corrosion experienced at a particular location. Abrasive
compressor cleaning is accomplished by injecting an
abrasive media into the compressor inlet during normal
operation. Walnut shells, rice, fluid catalytic cracking
(FCC) catalyst, glass beads, and other media have been
utilized. The size and quantity of the cleaner are important
for obtaining a good flow path cleaning and not causing
damage to the compressor flow path components.
Aggressive abrasive cleaning can readily cause erosion
damage to both the corrosion resistant coatings and the
compressor airfoils.
In the present study, 10 aero engines were monitored on
daily basis for 15 days in an air base at a coastal location.
The exercise was started from the day of after the desali-
nation wash of the compressors. Whitish-color salt deposits
and carbon deposits were noticed on LP compressor rotor
blade surfaces. Leading edge of the stage 1 blades was also
observed with minor salt deposits. Mild corrosion noticed
on some of the bolt heads. No corrosion marks noticed on
the rotor flow path area and air intake fairing. The quantity
of salt deposits found to increase up to day 3 or day 4. After
that, the progressive daily variation of salt deposits and
corrosionmarks on the blades and rotor path areas were
found to be negligible. Also no additional area was affected
by corrosion in subsequent days. It was observed that the
engines which have logged less service hours or consumed
less calendar life are less prone to corrosion than the old
engines with less life left.
Further, it was observed that the components of the
engines or aircrafts which are parked inside the hangar
shed with intake and exhaust blanked are less prone to
corrosion than those parked outside. The engines engaged
in night flight were found to be less prone to salt deposits
and corrosion. The problem of corrosion was found to be
more serious during rainy days. Occasional operation from
offshore platforms showed a steep rise in salt deposits and
corrosion spreading to larger areas in LP compressor.
These observations have helped in defining the fre-
quency for desalination wash without sacrificing the life
and performance of the engines and at the same time
avoiding over-maintenance. Adopting compressor wash at
suitable intervals using R-MC-G21 cleaning agent, the
corrosion has been prevented to a large extent. Figures 11
and 12 show almost corrosion-free low compressor pas-
sages and blades which have been significantly improved
compared to that in Figs. 7 and 8.
Compressor-turbine desalination wash is also strongly
recommended when operating in salt laden atmosphere.
When desalination washes are done in conjunction with
each other it is essential that the compressor wash is done
first.
Fig. 11 State of air intake fairing with scheduled compressor wash
Table 3 Compressor wash schedule
Environment Type of wash Frequency
Continuously salt laden Desalination wash Daily. After last flight of day
Frequently salt laden Desalination wash Weekly. To suit engine condition
Occasionally salt laden Desalination wash Bi-weekly. To suit engine condition
All Performance recovery wash Generally at every 30 ± 5 h but based on engine
operating conditions. Motoring wash is recommended
J Fail. Anal. and Preven.
123
Blade Coatings
Application of coatings to rotating and stationary parts has
also become a common practice in gas turbine industries.
These coatings enhance the performance by improving the
resistance to corrosive environments, minimizing the rate of
solid particle and liquid droplet erosion, improving the foulant
release ability of the component and minimizing fretting
between two components. Diffused aluminide, aluminum-
ceramic, and titanium-nitride coatings have been found to
provide good corrosion protection for both high salt and acidic
environments [18–20]. Care should be taken to maintain the
coating for a specified life. But if the coating is lost during
service exploitationordue to handling errors, the exposed area
will suffer pitting corrosion as shown in Fig. 13.
Since frequent compressor wash increases the down-
time of engines as well as an increase in the maintenance
overheads, their frequency should be judiciously selected.
Apart from the desalination wash schedule, the compressor
modules are also dismantled from the engine, and thorough
desalination process is performed. This 2nd level corrosion
prevention procedure is followed in every 6–9 months of
time or after every 100–125 flight hours.
Conclusion
Fouling and corrosion are serious concerns in an aero gas
turbine compressor. This paper summarized the review of
compressor fouling and corrosion problems and practices
followed in gas turbine engines. Further, it presents the
results of comprehensive corrosion studies carried out in
ten aero gas turbine axial flow compressors. The following
conclusions can be made on the basis of the studies:
• The local environment where the aero engine is
stationed or operated can cause very corrosive envi-
ronments in the compressor. Salts and sulfur in the air
are the primary cause for the formation of corrosive
deposits.
• Surface corrosion often occurs on the flow path of
compressors, also on the cooling air passages.
• Compressor blading is the most affected by corrosion
pitting and can cause engine performance deterioration.
• The inlet stages of the compressors are the most
susceptible to in-service corrosion.
• Salt and carbon deposits were noticed on LP compres-
sor rotor blade surfaces. But progressive daily variation
of salt deposits and corrosion marks on the blades and
rotor path areas can be maintained minimum with
frequent compressor desalination wash.
• Engines which have logged less service hours or
consumed less calendar life are less prone to corrosion
than the old engines with less life left.
• The components of the engines or aircraftswhich are parked
inside the hangar shed with intake and exhaust blanked are
less prone to corrosion than those parked outside.
• The engines engaged in night flight were found to be
less prone to salt deposits and corrosion.
• A comprehensive corrosion control program should be
adopted to minimize the corrosion.
• Online water/detergent washing of the compressor at
suitable frequency will help in controlling corrosion.
• Appropriate metallurgy and coatings should be consid-
ered for engine front-end components [18–20].
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	Fouling and Corrosion in an Aero Gas Turbine Compressor
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Engine Configuration
	Compressor Fouling
	Impact of Humidity on Fouling
	Erosion
	Contaminants
	Performance Recovery Wash
	Corrosion
	Corrosion Prevention & Control
	Desalination Wash
	Blade Coatings
	Conclusion
	References