Handbook of Modern Sensors 4ed Fraden

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ This eBook Is Provided By www.Plentyof eB ooks.net Plenty of eB ooks (Free eB ooks & Tutorials) is a fr ee e B ooks links library where you can find and download free books in almost any category without registering. For More Free e Bo o ks & Tuto rials Visit www. Plentyof e Bo o ks.net Uploaded By samsexy9 8 Enjoy...! !! ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ Handbook of Modern Sensors Fourth Edition . Jacob Fraden Handbook of Modern Sensors Physics, Designs, and Applications Fourth Edition Jacob Fraden jacob@fraden.com ISBN 978-1-4419-6465-6 e-ISBN 978-1-4419-6466-3 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-6466-3 Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London Library of Congress Control Number: 2010932807 # Springer Science þ Business Media, LLC 2010 All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identi\ufb01ed as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Preface Since publication of the previous, the 3rd edition of this book, the sensor techno- logies have made a remarkable leap ahead. The sensitivi ty of the sensors became higher, the dimensions \u2013 smaller, the select ivity \u2013 better, and the prices \u2013 lower. What have not change d, are the fundamental principles of the senso r design. They still are governed by the laws of Natur e. Arguably one of the greatest geni uses ever lived, Leonardo Da Vinci had his own peculia r way of praying. It went like this, \u201c Oh Lord, thanks for Tho u don\u2019t violate Thy own laws. \u201d It is comfor ting indeed that the laws of Nature do not change with time, it is just that our appreciation of them becomes re\ufb01ned. Thus, this new edition examines the same good old laws of Nature that form the founda tion for designs of vari ous sensors. This has n ot changed much since the previous editions. Yet, the sections that describ e practical designs are revised substantially. Recent ideas and developments have been added, while obsolete and less important desi gns were dropped. This book is about devices commonly called sensors . The invention of a microprocessor has b rought highly sophisticated instruments into our ever yday life. Numerous com puterized appliances, of which microprocessors are integral parts, wash clothes and prepare coffee, play mus ic, guard homes, and control room temperature. Sensors are esse ntial components in any device that uses a digital signal processor. The processor is a device that manipulates binary codes generally represented by electric signals. Yet, we live in an anal og world, where such devices func tio n amon g obje cts th at are most ly no t digi tal. Mo re over , this w orld is ge nera ll y not electrical (apart from the atomi c level). Digital systems, however comp lex and intelligent they might be, must rece ive information from the outs ide world. Sensors are the interface devices between various physical values and electroni c circui ts that \u201cunderstand\u201d only a language of moving electrical charges. In other words, sensors are eyes, ears, and noses of silicon chips. In the course of my engineering work, I often felt a strong need for a book which would combine practical information on diversi\ufb01ed subjects related to the most important physical principles, design and use of various sensors. Surely, I could \ufb01nd almost all I had to know by sur\ufb01ng Interne t or browsing library bookshelves in search for texts on physics, electronics, technical magazines, manufac turer\u2019s v catalogues and websites. Howeve r, the information is scattered over many publica- tions, and almost every question I was pondering required substantial research work. Little by little, I have been gathering practical information on everything, which in anyway was related to various sensors and their applications to scienti\ufb01c and engineering measurements. Soon, I realized that the informat ion I collec ted might be quite useful to more than one person. This idea prompt ed me to write this book and this 4th editi on is the proof that I was not mistaken. In setting my criteria for selecting various senso rs for the new edition, I attempted to keep the scope of this book as broad as possi ble, opting for many different designs described brie\ufb02y (without being trivi al, I hope), rather than fewer treated in greater depth. This volume attempts (immodestly perhaps) to cover a very broad range of sensors and detect ors. Many of them are well kno wn, but describing them is still useful for students and those who look for a convenient refere nce. It is the author\u2019s intention to present a comprehensi ve and up-to-date account of the theory (phys ical principles), design, and practical implementations of various (especially, the newest) sensors for scienti\ufb01c, industrial, and consumer applications. The topics include d in the book re\ufb02ec t the author\u2019s own preferences and interpreta- tions. Some may \ufb01nd a description of a particula r sensor either too detailed or too broad or, on the contrary, too brief. In most cases, the author tried to strike a balance between a detailed description and simplicity of coverage. It is clear that one book cannot embrace the whole variety of sensors and their applications, even if it would be called something like \u201cTh e Encyclop edia of Sensors.\u201d This is a different book and the author\u2019 s task was much less ambitious. Here, an attempt has been made to generate a reference text, which could be used by students, researcher s int erested in mode rn instru mentation (applied physicists and engineers), sensor designers, applicatio n engineers and tec hnicians whose job is to understand, select and/or desi gn sensors for practical systems. The prior editions of this book have b een used quite extensively as desktop references and textbook s for the related college cours es. Comments and sugges tions from the sensor designers, professors, and students prompted me to implement several changes and correct errors. I am deeply grateful to those who helped me to make further improvements in this new edition. I owe a debt of gratitude and many thanks to Drs. Ephraim Suhir and David Pintsov for assist ing me in mathematical treatment of transfer functions and to Dr s. Todd E. Mlsna and Sanjay V. Patel for their invaluable contribution to the chapter on chemical senso rs. Even t houg h th e book is int ende d fo r the sc ient i\ufb01 c and en gine er ing co mmun iti es , as a rule , te chni cal de sc ript io ns an d math emat ic tr eatm en ts do no t re quir e a back grou nd be yond a high sc hool cu rr icul um. Sim pl icit y of descri pt ion an d intui - tive ap pr oach we re the key re qui reme nt s that I set for my self wh ile wo rki ng on the manu scri pt . My true goal wa s not to pile up a co llec tion of in for mat ion bu t rather to enti ce the re ader in to a crea tive pr oces s. As Plut ar ch said ne arly tw o mill en nia ago, \u201c Th e mind is not a vess el to be \ufb01l le d but a \ufb01r e to be ki ndle d .. . \u201d San Diego, California Jacob Fraden April, 2010 vi Preface Contents 1 Data Acquisiti on .......................................................... 1 1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Sy stems ....................................... 1 1.2 Sensor Classi\ufb01cation ................................................. 7 1.3 Units of Measure ments .............................................. 1 1 References . . ............................................................... 1 2 2 Sensor Characteris tics ................................................... 1 3 2.1 Transfer Function .................................................... 1 3 2.1.1 Mathematical Model .......................................... 1 4 2.1.2 Functional Approxi mation s ................................... 1 5 2.1.3 Polynomial Approximations .................................. 1 6 2.1.4 Sensitivity ..................................................... 1 7 2.1.5 Linear Piecewise Approximation ............................. 1 8 2.1.6 Spline Interpolati on ........................................... 1 9 2.1.7 Multidimensional Transfer Functions . ....................... 1 9 2.2 Calibration ........................................................... 2 0 2.2.1 Computation of Transfer Funct ion Pa rameters .............. 2 2 2.2.2 Linear Regressi on ............................................ 2 5 2.3 Computation of Stimulus ............................................ 2 6 2.3.1 Computation from Linear Piecewise Approximation ........ 2 6 2.3.2 Iterative Comput ation of Stimulus (New ton Method) ....... 2 8 2.4 Span (Full-Scale Full Scal e Input) .................................. 3 0 2.5 Full-Scale Output ............................ ........................ 3 1 2.6 Accuracy ............................................................. 3 1 2.7 Calibration Error .................................................... 3 4 2.8 Hysteresis ............................................................ 3 5 2.9 Nonlinearity ......................................................... 3 6 2.10 Saturation ............................................................ 3 7 2.11 Repeatability ......................................................... 3 8 2.12 Dead Band ........................................................... 3 8 2.13 Resolution ........................................................... 3 8 vii 2.14 Special Properties ................................................... 3 9 2.15 Output Impedance ................................................... 4 0 2.16 Output Format ....................................................... 4 0 2.17 Excitation ............................................................ 4 1 2.18 Dynamic Charac teristics ............................................ 4 1 2.19 Environmental Factors .............................................. 4 5 2.20 Reliability ............................................................ 4 7 2.21 Application Charac teristics .......................................... 4 9 2.22 Uncertainty .......................................................... 5 0 References . . ............................................................... 5 2 3 Physical Principles of Sensing ................... ....................... 5 3 3.1 Electric Charges, Fields, and Poten tials ............................. 5 4 3.2 Capacitance .......................................................... 6 0 3.2.1 Capacitor ...................................................... 6 2 3.2.2 Dielectric Constant ........................................... 6 3 3.3 Magnetism ........................................................... 6 7 3.3.1 Faraday Law .................................................. 6 9 3.3.2 Solenoid ....................................................... 7 1 3.3.3 Toroid ......................................................... 7 2 3.3.4 Permanent Magne ts .................... ....................... 7 2 3.4 Induction ............................................................. 7 3 3.5 Resistance ........................................................... 7 7 3.5.1 Speci\ufb01c Resisti vity ........................................... 7 9 3.5.2 Temperature Sensitivi ty ...................................... 8 0 3.5.3 Strain Sensitivity ............................................. 8 4 3.5.4 Moisture Sensitivity .......................................... 8 5 3.6 Piezoelectric Effect .................................................. 8 6 3.6.1 Ceramic Piez oelectri c Materials ....... ....................... 8 9 3.6.2 Polymer Piezoelectri c Films .................................. 9 3 3.7 Pyroelectric Effect ................................................... 9 6 3.8 Hall Effect ......................................................... 1 0 3 3.9 Thermoelectric Effects ............................................ 1 0 6 3.9.1 Seebeck Effe ct ............................................... 1 0 6 3.9.2 Peltier Effect ................................................. 1 1 1 3.10 Sound Waves ...................................................... 1 1 3 3.11 Temperature and Thermal Properties of Materi als ............... 1 1 6 3.11.1 Temperature Scales ........................................ 1 1 7 3.11.2 Thermal Expansion ........................................ 1 1 8 3.11.3 Heat Capacity .............................................. 1 2 0 3.12 Heat Transfer ...................................................... 1 2 1 3.12.1 Thermal Conduction ....................................... 1 2 2 3.12.2 Thermal Convection ................. ...................... 1 2 5 3.12.3 Thermal Radiation ......................................... 1 2 6 viii Contents

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