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Energy Conversion and Management 131 (2017) 18–31
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Energy Conversion and Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier .com/locate /enconman
Sustainable waste management: Waste to energy plant as an alternative
to landfill
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.11.012
0196-8904/� 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: federica.cucchiella@univaq.it (F. Cucchiella), idiano.dadamo@
univaq.it (I. D’Adamo), massimo.gastaldi@univaq.it (M. Gastaldi).
Federica Cucchiella, Idiano D’Adamo ⇑, Massimo Gastaldi
Department of Industrial and Information Engineering and Economics, University of L’Aquila, Via G. Gronchi 18, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 17 June 2016
Received in revised form 3 November 2016
Accepted 5 November 2016
Available online 11 November 2016
Keywords:
Environmental analysis
Financial analysis
Social analysis
Sustainability
Waste to energy
a b s t r a c t
The management of municipal solid waste (MSW) has been identified as one of the global challenges that
must be carefully faced in order to achieve sustainability goals. European Union (EU) has defined as
Waste to Energy (WTE) technology is able to create synergies with EU energy and climate policy, without
compromising the achievement of higher reuse and recycling rates. The methodology used in this paper
is based on two levels. A strategy analysis defines the amount of waste to incinerate with energy recovery
considering different approaches based on unsorted waste, landfilled waste and separated collection rate,
respectively. Consequently, it is evaluated the sustainability of a WTE plant as an alternative to landfill for
a specific area. Two indicators are used: the Reduction of the Emissions of equivalent Carbon Dioxide
(ERCO2eq) and Financial Net Present Value (FNPV). Furthermore, a social analysis is conducted through
interviews to identify the most critical elements determining the aversion toward the WTE realization.
The obtained results show the opportunity to realize a 150 kt plant in the only electrical configuration.
In fact, the cogenerative configuration reaches better environmental performances, but it is not profitable
for this size. Profits are equal to 25.4 € per kiloton of treated waste and 370 kgCO2eq per ton of treated
waste are avoided using a WTE plant as an alternative to landfill. In this way, the percentage of energy
recovery ranges from 21% to 25% in examined scenarios and disposal waste is minimised in order to pre-
serve resources for the future.
� 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Sustainability is a cross-disciplinary topic that is analysed by
researchers, policy makers and community members. Protection
of people and the environment and conservation of resources are
the goals of waste management [1–3]. In the context of sustainable
waste management (SWM), sustainability is defined the assess-
ment of environmental, economic, and social impacts of available
waste treatment options [4]. SWM is tangible when the generation
of waste and harmful substances is minimised, the reused (using
materials repeatedly), recycled (using materials to make new prod-
ucts) or recovered (producing energy from waste) materials are
maximised, and disposal waste is minimised in order to preserve
resources for the future [5–7].
The European Commission adopted a Circular Economy Pack-
age, in which the proposed actions can contribute to closing loop
of product lifecycles [8]. Several works have defined that the mate-
rials in informal waste dumps or in structured landfills is the oppo-
site of a closed loop system [9,10]. The opportunity to valorise, as
materials (Waste to Product (WTP)) and/or as energy (WTE), cer-
tain waste streams is strategic for public health and environmental
protection [11,12].
Several methods have been proposed to evaluate SWM, e.g.
exergy analysis, life cycle assessment (LCA), exergetic life cycle
assessment (ELCA), analytical hierarchical process (AHP), life cycle
costing (LCC) and discounted cash flow (DCF) [13,14]. Many works
have reviewed the sustainability ofWTE technologies. They defined
it as an opportunity for a sustainable production of energy [15], giv-
ing a contribution for supplying renewable energy [16] and for tack-
ling climate change [17]. Consequently, WTE plant provides a
method of simultaneously addressing the problems of energy
demand,wastemanagement and greenhouse (GHG) emissions [18].
Energy, economic and environmental (3E) impacts of WTE for
MSW management are evaluated by [19], considering several
WTE technologies including the landfill gas recovery system, incin-
eration, anaerobic digestion (AD) and gasification. The 3E results
indicate incineration as the best solution, when combined heat
and power (CHP) is considered. Instead, AD is more favourable,
when only electricity is produced. Other comparisons are proposed
in literature: e.g. WTE present the best performing technology in
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F. Cucchiella et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 131 (2017) 18–31 19
comparison to mechanical biological treatment (anaerobic and aer-
obic) in according to environmental, economic and social criteria
[20] and WTE plants present economic and financial benefits,
new employment opportunities and the reduction of GHG emis-
sions as alternative to landfill use [21].
The literature review reveals that a work that analyses together
environmental, economic, and social impacts of WTE plant in a
specific area as an alternative to landfill use is absent in literature.
This paper attempts to fill this gap by evaluating the sustainability
of this technology. A case study of an Italian region (called
Abruzzo) is conducted. A strategic analysis is proposed as the ini-
tial step of a decision-making process. It defines the amount of
waste to send to incineration based on energy recovery. Three dif-
ferent approaches based on unsorted waste, landfilled waste and
separated collection rate are used to define the amount of recov-
ered waste and furthermore, two kinds of energy recovery (CHP
and only electrical configuration) are analysed to evaluate environ-
mental and economic performances.
The remainder paper is organized as follows: initially, the liter-
ature preview is described in Section 2 and data and methods of
waste management in Europe and Italy are presented in Section 3.
Subsequently, methodology and input data are illustrated in Sec-
tion 4. Obtained results are subdivided into two parts: a strategy
analysis is presented in Section 5 and financial, environmental
and social assessments are proposed in Section 6. Conclusions
and some general considerations are presented in Section 7.
2. Literature review
The EU waste hierarchy Directive 2008/98/EC defines the prior-
ities in waste management: it gives preference to waste prevention
and minimization, then to reuse and recycling, then to energy
recovery and finally to disposal (landfill) – Fig. 1.
A WTE technology is a treatment process of recovering energy
in a form of heat, electricity or transport fuels from a waste source
[23]. Mass-burn incineration (MBI) is the most commonly used
WTE technology. This type of incineration includes large-scale
combustion of waste in a single-stage chamber unit where com-
plete combustion or oxidation occurs, characterized by high oper-
ating temperatures [26]. The last generation of WTE plant is
characterized by an improvement concerning the performance of
the chemical conversion process, but also by advanced technolo-
gies for pollution control systems[24]. Consequently, today it
can be seen as efficient industrial unit for destroying hazardous
Fig. 1. Waste managem
organic substances, recovering energy and materials, and saving
landfill space [25].
Non-combustible materials, e.g. glass, metals, inert waste and
the organic fraction of waste (e.g. food waste, agricultural) are
basically eliminated before proceeding to incineration [27]. It trea-
ted several types of waste such as solid, liquid (e.g. domestic sew-
age) and gaseous (e.g. refinery gases). However, municipal solid
waste (MSW) represents the most common application [28]. Six
categories of MSW are examined by [29]. This work has shown that
the best practice is to recycle paper, wood, and plastics, to anaero-
bically digest food and yard waste, and to incinerate textile.
Environmental impacts of MSW management have been stud-
ied extensively, including a number of LCA studies [30]. The dis-
posal of waste in landfills presents serious and dangerous effects
on the ecosystem [31] and incineration with energy recovery
achieved better environmental performances than recovery of bio-
gas from landfill across all impact categories, except for human
toxicity [32]. Environmental improvements concerning the com-
bustion WTE unit can be achieved sending a larger percentage of
bottom ashes to an up-to-date process for recovery of materials
[33]. WTE plants are able to destroy completely hazardous organic
materials, to reduce risks due to pathogenic microorganisms and
viruses and to concentrate valuable as well as toxic metals in cer-
tain fractions [34]. A comparison between two kinds of energy
recovery is proposed by [35]: the environmental convenience cor-
responds to the cogenerative configuration, while the economic
advantages are linked to the only electrical one.
Some successful aspects of applying WTE techniques are: (i)
green fuel pellets utilized for heating supply; (ii) paper and pulping
industry wastes utilized for CHP plant; (iii) animal residues utilized
for biogas production and (iv) MSW/wastewater treatment plant
utilized as a district energy supply centre [18]. Furthermore, the
presence of a low share of biowaste in mixed MSW decreases the
moisture content of the waste, increasing the heating value.
Besides of this, authors have highlighted as a high share of plastic
increases the heating value and the non-renewable share of energy
in the waste material. Also, an high presence of paper and card-
board produce the same effect, although they are characterized
by a lower heating value [36].
WTE can play a key-role in SWM, without compromising
the achievement of higher reuse and recycling rates [37]. In
fact, this technology is able to create synergies with EU energy
and climate policy [38] guided by the principles of the EU waste
hierarchy [8].
ent hierarchy [22].
20 F. Cucchiella et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 131 (2017) 18–31
3. Current status in Europe
The latest data available in Eurostat database highlight that the
municipal wastes are treated in different ways in the EU 28 in 2014
[39]: 28.2% are recycled, 16.1% are composted (Eurostat shows it as
biological treatment), 27.3% are incinerated (total incineration
including energy recovery) and 28.4% are landfilled. Furthermore,
treatment methods differ substantially among the member states:
on one hand, Germany, Belgium, Sweden, Denmark, Netherlands
and Austria have a share of landfilled waste below 4% and, on
the other hand, it is greater than 50% in thirteen countries – Fig. 2.
As can be seen from Fig. 2, the Italian situation requires urgent
actions because 34% of MSW was conferred into landfills in 2014
and recently the Government has proposed to develop an inte-
grated system of WTE plants. Based on ISPRA data [40], Italian
waste generation amounted to 29,655 kt in 2014 (+0.3% compared
with 2013) and separated collection rate was equal to 45.2% (+2.9%
compared with 2013), reaching the target set by the legislation for
2008 after six years.
Consequently, this value is very far from the European target of
65% fixed for 2012, only Veneto (67.6%) and Trentino Alto Adige
(67.0%) have reached this goal – Fig. 3. Eleven regions have a value
greater than Italian average and three regions (Piemonte, Valle
d’Aosta and Sicilia) present a reduction of separated collection rate
in 2014 than the previous year. In Italy, there are regional differ-
ences in the waste management approaches adopted. A sustainable
approach is followed by Veneto, Trentino Alto Adige and Friuli
Venezia Giulia, that recycle great quantities of MSW, and by Lom-
bardia, that, as well as several virtuous European Countries (Fig. 2),
minimizes the quantities of MSW conferred into landfills, by using
both recycling and energy recovery [22].
The amount of waste recovered by WTE plants has increased
from 5815 kt to 6279 kt (+8%) in 2013–2014 period. It depends
on the amount of special waste (+558 kt), whereas the quantities
of urban waste have decreased from 5396 kt to 5302 kt. The per-
centage distribution is in 2014: unsorted waste (43%), dry fraction
from mechanical biological treatment (27%), secondary solid fuels
(14%) and special waste (16%). A great amount of waste is treated
in the northern regions (e.g. Lombardia 39%, Emilia Romagna 17%,
Piemonte 11%) and a portion of waste is conferred into foreign
WTE plants (e.g. Germany) with related costs [40].
In this paper Abruzzo, an Italian region located in the centre of
the Country, is proposed as case study – Fig. 4. Recycling and
47
34 33 27 24 26 31 18
28 22 28 28 28
49
3
17
21 16
17 27
32
6
15
18
17
17 16 18
12
6
35
44 50 54
48 38
56
50
35
35 27 27 21
1
1 1 1 1 1 4 8
17 18 26 28 28 34 39 4
Recycled (%) Composted (%)
Fig. 2. Municipal waste treated
composting activities have been launched, while energy recovery
is not used. The principle of territorial self-sufficiency, which rep-
resents a key-element of EU waste policy, cannot be reached due to
waste that are conferred into landfills. In this direction, Govern-
ment has proposed the installation of a WTE plant in Abruzzo.
4. Materials and methods
The methodology used in this paper is based on two levels. In
the first one, a strategic analysis is proposed (Section 4.1), while
in the second, input data useful to a sustainable analysis are
described (in Sections 4.2–4.4). The definition of the amount of
waste valorisation with energy recovery for a specific area is nec-
essary to quantify the plant size, in order to evaluate environmen-
tal, economic (and/or financial) and social performance.
4.1. The amount of waste valorisation
The amount of waste, that cannot be recycled or composted, has
two options: (i) energy recovery or (ii) landfill. Several papers cited
in Sections 1 and 2, indicated WTE plants as preferable over land-
filling. The proposed strategic analysis quantifies the amount of
waste to be incinerated with energy recovery. This value depends
on two sets of data: (1) the generated waste amount and (2) the
MSW strategy adopted by decision-maker [41]. It can be calculated
through several approaches depending on the following reference
variables:
� Unsorted waste.
� Landfilled waste.
� Separated collection rate.
There is a clear relationship among these three variables and
this paper evaluates the final choice. For example, a strategy anal-
ysis is proposed in Fig. 5 considering values proposed in Fig. 4. It is
based on four steps: (1) inputs are defined in according to statisti-
cal data of the specific area and (2) flows of waste are calculated
considering these values. The amount of treated waste is not
directly comparable with those on waste generation due to
imported and/or exported waste. For this reason, this work
hypothesizes that these values are the same. The amount of sorted
waste is obtained multiplying separated collection rate and the
4
16 21 16 23
25 21 23
13 6
16
5
15 8 3
14 11 17 3
6 10 2
12
6
4
11 2 4
5
8
21 15 12 19 10 9
2
12 2
2 49 53 55 56 59 60
74 75 76 81 82 83 88 92
Incinerated(%) Landfilled (%)
in 2014 in the EU 28 [39].
Vitor Monteiro
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67.6 67.0
60.4
57.6 56.3 55.2 54.3 53.0
48.9 47.6 46.1 45.2 44.3 42.9
34.6 32.7
27.6 25.9
22.3
18.6
12.5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Year 2014 (%) Year 2013 (%)
Fig. 3. Separated waste collection rate in the Italian regions [40].
662
627
600 593
2011 2012 2013 2014
Generated waste (kt)
33.0 37.9
42.9 46.1
2011 2012 2013 2014
Sorted waste (%)
440 387 342 319
2011 2012 2013 2014
Unsorted waste (kt)
248
118 93 78
2011 2012 2013 2014
Landfilled waste (kt)
Fig. 4. Statistical data in Abruzzo [40].
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Extra Scenario - Unsorted waste
Base Scenario - Unsorted waste
Extra Scenario - Landfilled waste
Base Scenario - Landfilled waste
Extra Scenario - Separated collection rate
Base Scenario - Separated collection rate
Fig. 5. The amount of waste to incinerate with energy recovery (kt) – an example.
F. Cucchiella et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 131 (2017) 18–31 21
amount of treated waste and consequently, the remaining amount
is called unsorted waste. Landfilled waste is typically a share of
unsorted waste, that it is not sent to incineration based on energy
recovery. Subsequently, (3) decision-makers can choose to use as
variable of reference or the amount of unsorted waste, or the
amount of landfilled waste, or the level of separated collection rate.
22 F. Cucchiella et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 131 (2017) 18–31
For each variable of reference, two levels of analysis (Base and
Extra) are proposed and the criteria used for each scenario is func-
tional to the goal to be achieved (minimise the landfill use). For
example, the amount of treated waste in a WTE plant can be
choose equal to the maximum amount of reference variable in
Extra scenario, while it is equal to the half of previous value in Base
one. Considering, the value in landfill equal to 78 kt (see Fig. 4) the
valorised amount is equal to 78 kt and 39 kt in Extra and Base sce-
narios, respectively. Finally, (4) decision-makers choose the
amount of waste to incinerate with energy recovery in according
to values previously obtained that range from 39 kt to 319 kt.
Given the amount of waste to be incinerated with energy recov-
ery, future scenarios can be evaluated considering (1) the gener-
ated waste amount that ranges during the years and (2) the
target to reach in terms of mix of MSW management. Furthermore,
it is possible to analyse: (i) the comparison between centralized or
decentralized solution and (ii) the plant size. The choice concerns
the decision to locate one (centralized solution) or more (decen-
tralized solution) WTE plants in a given geographical area (e.g.
regional or provincial) is strictly linked to the overall quantities
of waste to treat and it also depends on political intentions. In fact,
the principle of territorial self-sufficiency can be applied specifi-
cally to provincial or regional areas. However, it is appropriate to
satisfy the principle of proximity, under which waste should be
disposed as close as possible to their source of production. The
plant size is a direct consequence of the centralized or decentral-
ized solution [42].
4.2. Environmental inputs
WTE plants, as several industrial activities characterized by a
combustion process, produce emissions and consequently there
are health risks for the population living nearby and the deteriora-
tion of air quality in the zone near the plant [43]. For this reason,
the localization of plants should be far from the urban context.
There are studies, in which is demonstrated that these risks can
be minimised [44] and remarkable external benefits can be
obtained [45].
The technological development has permitted to construct
modern WTE plants with a significantly better environmental
impact than those in the past [46]. Modern multi-stage filter sys-
tems do not only eliminate the bulk of the fly ash, but they are also
capable of removing fine particulates. As consequence, the fly ash
content of flue gas was continuously reduced from >150 mg/N m3
to <5 mg/N m3. Furthermore, there is more than thousand fold
decrease in emissions of lead and cadmium [34]. Air pollution con-
trol systems conducted in WTE units confirm the production of
toxic and hazardous flue gases after the high-temperature inciner-
ation [47]. Consequently, each existing plant requires efficient and
rigorous controls [48].
Environmental assessments are evaluated in terms of sustain-
ability in waste sector considering the land, waterways or air pol-
lution and the GHG emissions capture [5]. This paper does not
propose a new LCA, but it is based on literature values. The goal
is to quantify the emissions of kg of CO2eq avoided by incinerating
a ton of waste with energy recovery instead of placing it in a land-
fill. The indicator used is ERCO2eq (also known as ERcd):
ERCO2eq�unit ¼ ECO2eqðLNDÞunit � ECO2eqðWTEÞunit ð1Þ
ERCO2eq ¼ ERCO2eq�unit � QW ð2Þ
where ERCO2eq-unit is the unitary reduction of the emissions of carbon
dioxide equivalent using a WTE plant as an alternative to landfill;
ECO2eq(LND)unit is theunitary amountof the emissions of carbondiox-
ide equivalent released by a landfill; ECO2eq(WTE)unit is the unitary
amount of the emissions of carbon dioxide equivalent released by a
WTE plant and QW is the amount of treated waste.
Literature values (see Sections 1 and 2), Directive 2008/98/EC
and the experience of several European countries (see Fig. 2) high-
light as energy recovery can contribute a significant reduction of
pollutant emissions in comparison to landfill use. The CO2 emis-
sions derive from the landfilling option mainly due to the combus-
tion of methane, while the amount emitted by a WTE plant result
from the combustion of plastics [49].
From one side, emissions from WTE plant and from the other
side, avoided emissions from landfill elimination also from substi-
tuted thermal and electric plants, are characterized by a high
uncertain due to specific operative conditions. In fact, concerning
the landfill there are several configurations as (i) open dumpsites,
(ii) sanitary landfill with no provision for landfill gas capture, (iii)
effective landfill gas collection and flaring and (iv) production of
biogas and its utilization for electricity production. The value of
emissions (ECO2eq(LND)unit) varies in a wide range from 0.09 to
1.2 tCO2eq per ton of waste [50]. Concerning WTE plant, the emis-
sions (ECO2eq(WTE)unit) released depends on: (i) waste feed compo-
sition and different waste collection schemes (189–598 kg fossil
CO2 per ton of waste) [51], and (ii) the characteristics of the com-
bustion process (359–769 kgCO2eq per ton of waste) [52].
Given the uncertain of operative conditions of both WTE plant
and landfill, in this paper is chosen to follow the approach used
in other works. It is based directly on the unitary amount of
avoided emissions by a WTE plant as an alternative to landfill. In
particular, these values are referred as cogenerative configuration:
� ERCO2eq-unit between 430 and 480 kgCO2eq per ton of waste in
function of national energetic mix [53].
� ERCO2eq-unit between 360 and 500 kgCO2eq per ton of waste in
function of characteristics of landfill [54].
� A review on this topic has fixed an average ERCO2eq-unit equal to
500 kgCO2eq/t waste [21].
This paper evaluates two configurations of WTE plant (cogener-
ative and electrical) in according to study proposed by [55]. Envi-
ronmental performances for a plant that treated 421,000 t/y are
proposed in Fig. 6. From one side there is an increase in CO2 and
SOX as a consequence of the activation of the plant and from the
other side there is a decrease in NOX and dust (PM10).
4.3. Financial inputs
Economic assessments are evaluated in terms of sustainability
in waste sector considering the development of new enterprises
and new jobs, affordable access to energy with low level of carbon,
the gain of economic value from materials otherwise considered
waste,and cost savings minimising the amount of residual waste
[5].
The main purpose of the financial analysis is to use the project
cash flow forecasts, whereas the economic analysis is based on
accounting the prices that allow to modify market price distortions
and to consider the externalities which are able to generate social
costs and benefits [56]. The relationship between profitability and
plant size is verified in several works presented below.
Economic Net Present Value (ENPV) is positive also for small
plants and economic results have higher values than financial ones
due to two aspects: (i) the conversion factors have a direct impact
especially on the investment items, determining a reduction of
their weight and (ii) the positive value of social cost of carbon, that
is the estimated price of the economic damages caused by each
addition ton of pollutant emissions released into the atmosphere
[21]. Instead, financial results define as: (i) the minimum sizing
for a positive FNPV is 300 kt; (ii) the profitability is strictly linked
Vitor Monteiro
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90,000
25 -20 -110
140,000
20 -140 -180
CO2 SOX NOX PM10
Cogenerative configuration Electrical configuration
Fig. 6. Emissions released in a WTE plant (t/y) [55].
F. Cucchiella et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 131 (2017) 18–31 23
to the subsidies; (iii) larger plants are characterized by very consis-
tent profits; (iv) a low reduction in the degree of saturation of the
plant can cause relevant losses and (v) investment costs produce
the most significant changes among all critical variables [57]. Other
works highlight as the profitability of WTE plants can be verified
also for 270 kt plant under specific operative conditions [58] and
the discount rate influences significantly Net Present Value (NPV)
between �2.1 million $ and 7.4 million $ [59].
In this paper DCF methodology is used and FNPV, Financial Rate
of Return (FRR) and Financial Discounted Payback Period (FDPP)
are selected as reference indexes. The financial model is reported
below [57]:
FNPV ¼
Xn
t¼0
ðIt � OtÞ=ð1þ rÞt ð3Þ
XFDPP
t¼0
ðIt � OtÞ=ð1þ rÞt ¼ 0 ð4Þ
Xn
t¼0
ðIt � OtÞ=ð1þ FRRÞt ð5Þ
It ¼ RUW;t þ ROW;t þ RS;t þ RSPE;t þ RSHE;t ð6Þ
Ot ¼ CLCS;t þ CLIS;t þ CLS;t þ CLNS;t þ CGA;t þ CEN;t þ CWA;t þ CRW;t
þ CISG;t þ CEASW;t þ CR;t þ CRD;t � RV;t � Ctax;t ð7Þ
QW ¼ QUW � pUW þ QOW � pOW ð8Þ
RUW;t ¼ RuUW;t � QUW 8t ¼ ncons::n� 1 ð9Þ
RuUW;tþ1 ¼ RuUW;t � ð1þ rWÞ ð10Þ
ROW;t ¼ RuOW;t � QOW 8t ¼ ncons::n� 1 ð11Þ
RuOW;tþ1 ¼ RuOW;t � ð1þ rWÞ ð12Þ
RS;t ¼ RuGC � QW � pEL � pBF 8t ¼ ncons::ncons þ nsub � 1 ð13Þ
RSPE;t ¼ RuSPE;t � QW � pEL � pNBF 8t ¼ ncons::ncons þ nsub � 1 ð14Þ
RSPE;t ¼ RuSPE;t � QW � pEL 8t ¼ ncons þ nsub::n� 1 ð15Þ
RuSPE;tþ1 ¼ RuSPE;t � ð1þ rELÞ ð16Þ
RSHE;t ¼ RuSHE � QW � pHE 8t ¼ ncons::n� 1 ð17Þ
RuSHE;tþ1 ¼ RuSHE;t � ð1þ rHEÞ ð18Þ
CLCS;t ¼ CINV=Ndebt 8t ¼ 0::ndebt � 1 ð19Þ
CLIS;t ¼ ðCINV � CLCS;tÞ � rD 8t ¼ 0::ndebt � 1 ð20Þ
CLS;t ¼ CuLS;t � QW quLS
�� � 8t ¼ ncons::n� 1 ð21Þ
CuLS;tþ1 ¼ CuLS;t � ð1þ rLÞ ð22Þ
CLNS;t ¼ CuLNS;t � QW=quLNS
� � 8t ¼ ncons::n� 1 ð23Þ
CuLNS;tþ1 ¼ CuLNS;t � ð1þ rLÞ ð24Þ
CGA;t ¼ CuGA;t � QW 8t ¼ ncons::n� 1 ð25Þ
CuGA;tþ1 ¼ CuGA;t � ð1þ rGAÞ ð26Þ
CEN;t ¼ CuEN;t � QW 8t ¼ ncons::n� 1 ð27Þ
CuEN;tþ1 ¼ CuEN;t � ð1þ rENÞ ð28Þ
CWA;t ¼ CuWA;t � QW 8t ¼ ncons::n� 1 ð29Þ
CuWA;tþ1 ¼ CuWA;t � ð1þ rWAÞ ð30Þ
CRW;t ¼ CuRW;t � QW 8t ¼ ncons::n� 1 ð31Þ
CuRW;tþ1 ¼ CuRW;t � ð1þ infÞ ð32Þ
CISG;t ¼ CuISG;t � QW 8t ¼ ncons::n� 1 ð33Þ
CuISG;tþ1 ¼ CuISG;t � ð1þ infÞ ð34Þ
CEASW;t ¼ CuEASW;t � QW 8t ¼ ncons::n� 1 ð35Þ
CuEASW;tþ1 ¼ CuEASW;t � ð1þ infÞ ð36Þ
CR;t ¼ pR � CE;t 8t ¼ ncons þ nr ð37Þ
CE;t ¼ pE � CINV ð38Þ
CRD;t ¼ pRD � CINV 8t ¼ n� 1 ð39Þ
RV;t ¼ pLLP � ðCINV � 0:5� CE;tÞ þ pSLP � CE;t 8t ¼ n� 1 ð40Þ
24 F. Cucchiella et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 131 (2017) 18–31
Ctax;t ¼ putax � ebt with ebt > 0 8t ¼ 0::n� 1 ð41Þ
Economic nomenclature
CE
 equipment cost
 pEL
 % of produced
electricity
CEASW
 cost of elimination of
ash and slag waste
pHE
 % of produced heat
CEN
 consumed electricity
cost
pLLP
 % of long life parts
CGA
 consumed gas cost
 pNBF
 % of non
biodegradable
fraction
CINV
 investment cost
 pOW
 % of other waste
CISG
 cost of intermediate
services and goods
pR
 % of replacement cost
CLCS
 loan capital share cost
 pRD
 % of remediation &
decontamination cost
CLIS
 loan interest share cost
 pSLP
 % of short life parts
CLS
 labour cost (skilled)
 pUW
 % of urban waste
CLNS
 labour cost (unskilled)
 putax
 % of taxes cost
CR
 replacement cost
 QW
 quantities of waste
CRD
 remediation and
decontamination cost
QOW
 quantities of other
waste
CRW
 raw materials cost
 QUW
 quantities of urban
waste
Ctax
 taxes cost
 quLS
 quantity of waste for
employee (skilled)
CWA
 consumed water cost
 quLNS
 quantity of waste for
employee (unskilled)
CLCS
 loan capital share cost
 r
 opportunity cost
CuEASW
 unitary cost of
elimination of ash &
slag waste
rD
 interest rate on loan
CuEN
 unitary cost of
consumed electricity
rEL
 electricity growth
rate
CuGA
 unitary cost of
consumed gas
rEN
 consumed electricity
growth rate
CuISG
Table 1
Input definition [22,57].
unitary cost of
intermediate services &
goods
rHE
 heat growth rate
Variable Value Variable Value
CuLS
CuEASW 8.99 €/t pR 25%
unitary cost of labour
(skilled)
rGA
 consumed gas
growth rate
CuEN 1.43 €/t pRD 17.14%
C
u
LNS
CuGA 0.62 €/t pSLP 1.7%
unitary cost of labour
(unskilled)
rL
 labour cost growth
rate
CINV 38 k€ (50 kt); 58 k€ (100 kt); 80 k€ (150 kt); 94 k€ (200 kt);
CuRW
118 k€ (250 kt); 144 k€ (300 kt)
u
unitary cost of raw
materials
rW
 waste treatment
decreasing real rate
CISG 4.33 €/t pUW 95%
CuLS 36,000 €/y p
u
tax 36%
CuWA
Cu 21,600 €/y quLS 25,000 t/employee
unitary cost of
consumed water
rWA
 consumed water
growth rate
LNS
CuRW;t 0.87 €/t q
u
LNS 5000 t/employee
ebt
 earnings before taxes
 ROW
CuWA 0.02 €/t r 5%
revenues by other
waste treatment
inf 1.5% rD 3%
It
n 30 y rEL 1%
discounted cash
inflows
RS
 revenues by
subsidies
ndebt 15 y rEN 0.9%
inf
 rate of inflation
 RSHE
ncons 3 y rGA 1.1%
nr 15 y rHE 1%
revenues by heat
selling
nsub 15 y rL 0.4%
n
 lifetime of investment
 RSPE
pBF 51% rW �0.5%
revenues by
electricity selling
pE 55% rWA 0.5%
u
ndebt
 period of loan
 RUW
pEL 60% ROW 18 €/t
p 40% u 86 €/t
revenues by urban
waste treatment
HE RGC
p 3.1% Ru 30 €/t
ncons
 period of construction
LLP
RuGC
SHE
pNBF 49% RuSPE 37 €/t
unitary revenue by
green certificates
pOW 5% RuUW 12 €/t
nr
 period of replacement
 RuOW
QW 50 kt; 100 kt; 150 kt; 200 kt; 250 kt; 300 kt
unitary revenue by
other waste
treatment
nsub
 period of subsidies
 RuSHE
 unitary price of heat
selling
Ot
 discounted cash
outflows
RuSPE
 unitary price of
electricity selling
pBF
 % of biodegradable
fraction
RuUW
 unitary revenue of
urban waste
treatment
pE
 % of equipment cost
 t
 time of the cash flow
Economic and technical inputs data used in this analysis are defined
in Table 1. Plant size ranges from 50 kt to 300 kt. This choice
depends by: (i) the minimum sizing for a positive FNPV in CHP con-
figuration is equal to 300 kt [57]; (ii) the economic result in the only
electric configuration is greater than CHP one [35] and (iii) multi-
plies of 50 kt are chosen in according to the approach used by [21].
Given the FNPV obtained in cogenerative configuration in a pre-
vious work [57], this model is used to calculate financial results in
the only electrical configuration (Fig. 7). It is assumed that there
are no variations of investment costs [35], but however this limit
will be exceeded in sensitivity analysis. The minimum sizing for
a positive FNPV become about 150 kt.
4.4. Social inputs
This topic is rarely analysed in literature [60]. The social accep-
tance of WTE plant requires the involvement of all stakeholders in
order to reduce phenomena that hinder their realization, as Not-In-
My-Back-Yard (NIMBY) and Not-In-My-Term-of-Office (NIMTO)
[61]. They have caused intense debates among public opinion,
environmental associationsand political groups. Their objections
towards these projects have led to major delays or also to their
withdrawal [62].
Three ‘‘assumptions” are typically used against the realization
of the project: (i) the emissions released by the combustion pro-
cess of a WTE plant are more pollutant in comparison to the
methane and other harmful substances released by a landfill; (ii)
-14,875 -14,895 -15,414
-13,371
-10,515
1202
50kt 100kt 150kt 200kt 250kt 300kt
Cogenerative configuration
-8584 -2083
3803
12,253
21,514
39,532
50kt 100kt 150kt 200kt 250kt 300kt
Electrical configuration
Fig. 7. FNPV (k€) based on the plant size [57] and self-made analysis.
F. Cucchiella et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 131 (2017) 18–31 25
a WTE plant reduces recycling activities and it is not seen, instead,
as an alternative to the landfill and (iii) a WTE plant is able to pro-
duce energy, that is also partially renewable, and consequently
there is a great difference with the incinerator [63]. It is opportune
to highlight that when a project is useful to citizens and it is prof-
itable, its delay causes economic losses [64].
Social assessments are evaluated in terms of sustainability in
waste sector considering that minimum social conditions are
met, such as safe working conditions for employees and also the
health and safety levels for the community [5]. This paper proposes
the results of a simple questionnaire where are defined the most
critical issues that determining the aversion towards a WTE plant
construction in a specific area. Face-to-face interviews are used
and this method is preferred to telephone interviews, mailed and
web-based questionnaires [65]. The questionnaire was submitted
to people of all ages and levels of education. Five hundred valid
replies were collected by using the stratified sampling method
and interviews were carried out in universities, public parks,
squares and shopping centres.
5. A strategic analysis
The aim of this section is to compute the quantity of waste val-
orisation in according to approach defined in Section 4.1 consider-
ing values proposed in Fig. 4. Three different approaches are used
in this paper – Fig. 8.
� A previous work has considered several levels of WTE strategy
basing on bottom-up approach considering unsorted waste
[22]. The values obtained were equal to 400 kt, 250 kt (Extra
WTE - Unsorted waste) and 150 kt (Base WTE - Unsorted
waste). The amount of waste has considerably decreased over
the past three years (from 440 kt in 2011 to 319 kt in 2014).
Consequently, 400 kt scenario is not realistic, because it can
reduce the recycling activities.
150 kt
100 kt
150 kt
250 kt
150 kt
200 kt
Unsorted waste Landfilled waste Separated collection rate
Base WTE Scenario Extra WTE Scenario
Fig. 8. A strategic analysis – plant size.
� Landfilled waste is equal to about 25% of the unsorted waste.
Historical data highlight its decrease during the last three years
(from 248 kt in 2011 to 78 kt in 2014). Considering that 50 kt is
a lower value than 78 kt, this size must be discarded. Conse-
quently, 100 kt (Base WTE – Landfilled waste) and 150 kt (Extra
WTE – Landfilled waste) are proposed in this work. Also, Italian
Government has proposed for Abruzzo region a plant size that
varies from 100 kt to 150 kt.
� Separated collection rate is equal to 46.1% in 2014, but European
target of 65% was fixed for 2012. Considering this last input, the
generated waste equal to 593 kt and an up-bottom approach, it
is obtained a value equal to 200 kt (Extra WTE – Separated col-
lection rate). If the separated collection rate increases to 70%
or 80%, consequently new values are obtained and they are equal
to 180 kt and 120 kt, respectively. Their intermediate value is
150 kt (Base WTE – Separated collection rate).
Values varies from 100 kt to 250 kt and consequently, the
cogenerative configuration is discarded. In fact, financial results
proposed in Fig. 5 indicate that the minimum size with positive
FNPV is the 300 kt plant considering CHP configuration, while it
is equal to 150 kt plant considering the only electrical configura-
tion. Furthermore, the assessment of single values highlights that:
� 100 kt plant is unprofitable.
� 150 kt plant is the same result of Base WTE – Unsorted waste,
Extra WTE – Landfilled waste and Base WTE – Separated collec-
tion rate scenarios.
� 200 kt is not ambitious, considering that the separated collec-
tion rate has already exceeded the 65% in Veneto and Trentino
Alto Adige. For the same reason, also 250 kt cannot be consid-
ered an adequate solution.
Results of this analysis define that the plant size is 150 kt in the
only electrical configuration. This paper proposes for Abruzzo
region a centralized solution, in which a single facility provides
the service to the whole region. Given this value, the percentage
of energy recovery within the mix of MSW can be calculated
(Fig. 9). For this goal, two variables are defined as follows:
� The amount of generated waste. It is equal to 590 kt in the year
2014 (Fig. 4). In recent years there has been a decline not only
due to consumers’ good habits, but also to economic crisis.
However, waste generated in Italy in 2014 (29,655 kt) has
marked a turnaround with an increase than 2013 (29,573 kt).
So, also the value of 620 kt (obtained as the average of what
generated in the 2011–2014 period, and higher than 30 kt
compared to that of 2014) have been proposed together with
a reduction of the same value, thus obtaining a generated
quantity equal to 560 kt.
54,000
64,500
75,000
46,500
55,500
64,500
ERlow ERavg ERhigh
Cogenerative configuration Electrical configuration
Fig. 10. Environmental results (tCO2eq avoided per year) for a 150 kt plant.
25%
24%
23%23%
22%
21%
560 kt 590 kt 620 kt
Special waste = 5% Total Special waste = 15% Total
Fig. 9. Percentage of energy recovery in municipal waste treatment considering a
150 kt plant.
26 F. Cucchiella et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 131 (2017) 18–31
� The amount of special waste to treated in the WTE plant. It
ranges from 7% to 16% in the 2011–2014 period. Consequently,
two percentage weights equal to 5% and 15% are analysed. In
this way, the amount of treated municipal waste is equal to
142.5 kt and 127.5 kt respectively (considering a 150 kt plant).
For example, the weight of energy recovery is equal to 24% in
MSW mix considering a production of waste equal to 590 kt with
a share of special waste equal to 5%. It is obtained dividing
142.5 kt by 590 kt.
The share of the energy recovery varies from 21% to 25% and it
is an ambitious goal. In fact, virtuous European countries present
the following values (Fig. 2): Germany 35%, Austria 38%, Belgium
44%, Netherlands 48%, Sweden 50% and Denmark 54%.
6. Sustainability analysis
The aim of this paper is to evaluate the sustainability of a WTE
plant as an alternative to landfill. It is referred to the assessment of
environmental (Section 6.1), financial (Section 6.2), and social (Sec-
tion 6.3) impacts.
6.1. Environmental results
The results of this sub-section are based on the data in the lit-
erature proposed in Section 4.2 that show how the construction
of a WTE plant collides with the waste hierarchy, if it is realized
in place of the recycling and composting activities. When, instead,
the energy recovery is an alternative to landfills, an environmental
damage is avoided. However, WTE plant can be not defined as a
complete alternative to the landfill due to its final residues.
In order to calculate ERCO2eq, it is necessary to multiply the vol-
ume of the treated waste for the unit value of environmental sav-
ings (Eq. (2)). This method is based on the assumption that all
waste covered in this plant would have otherwise been sent in
landfill. Values found in the literature have proposed a range of
360–500 kgCO2eq per ton of waste treated in CHP configuration.
Its average value, equal to 430 kgCO2eq/t waste, can be used as ref-
erence value.
The comparison betweenCHP and electrical configuration is
analysed. It is possible to calculate GHG emissions released by a
WTE plant in terms of carbon dioxide equivalent. The corrective
coefficients (1 for CO2 and 310 for NOX), proposed by the IPCC Sec-
ond Assessment Report, are used. This tool not analyses SOX and
PM10 emissions, but the role of CO2 in these plants is determinant
[66]. It is calculated as follows:
90;000� 1� 20� 310 ¼ 83;800 t=y in CHP configuration ð42Þ
140;000� 1� 140� 310 ¼ 96;600 t=y in electrical configuration
ð43Þ
The only electrical configuration produces an amount of emissions
greater of 14% than cogenerative one. Considering this input data
and given the initial value of 430 kgCO2eq per ton of waste treated
in CHP configuration, the unitary value of environmental savings
(ERCO2eq-unit) is equal to 370 kgCO2eq/t waste (obtained by multi-
plying 430 by 0.86 – Scenario ERavg) in the only electrical configura-
tion. ERCO2eq is equal to 55,500 tCO2eq per year considering a 150 kt
plant in the only electrical configuration. While, it would have
amounted to 64,500 tCO2eq per year in CHP configuration –
Fig. 10. The cogenerative configuration leads to lower impact on
the local air quality, lower contribution to GHG formation and fur-
thermore, another environmental advantage is obtained by the
domestic boilers that are turned off.
In order to give solidity to results obtained, alternative scenar-
ios can be evaluated (Fig. 10). ERCO2eq-unit ranges from 310
(obtained by multiplying 360 by 0.86 – Scenario ERlow) to 430
kgCO2eq per ton of treated waste (obtained by multiplying 500
by 0.86 - Scenario ERhigh) in the only electrical configuration.
6.2. Financial results
The results obtained in this part of the work are based on the
input data proposed in Section 4.3. Also in this case it is proposed
a comparison between two configurations, but it is not analysed
the same size. In fact, 150 kt plant in CHP configuration has a neg-
ative FNPV (Fig. 7). The profitability of 150 kt plant in electrical
configuration is greater than one obtained by a 300 kt plant in
cogenerative configuration (Fig. 11). The difference is very signifi-
cant: the first plant reaches a FNPV equal to 25.4 € per kiloton of
treated waste, while the second is only 4.0 € per kiloton of treated
waste. FRR and FDPP provide results that are coherent with FNPV:
the first is slightly higher (6.3% and 5.2%, respectively) than the risk
free value (5%, see Table 1) and the second is lower (22 y and 26 y,
respectively) than the period lifetime (30 y, see Table 1).
Subsidies are the variable that most affects the distribution of
revenues, followed by the sale of electricity. On the side of the cash
outflows, investment costs have a percentage weight greater than
50% and the treatment of ash and slag waste are the main operative
costs (Fig. 12).
In order to give solidity to results obtained a sensitivity analysis
is proposed (Fig. 13). The critical variables are been defined in a
previous work [57]: selling price of electricity, subsidies, invest-
ment cost, cost of ash and slag waste elimination, degree of satura-
tion, risk free and lower heating value.
The profitability is verified in baseline scenario, while FNPV is
positive only in 48% of scenarios evaluated in sensitivity analysis.
The maximum value is obtained considering a reduction of 20%
of investment costs (19,638 k€), while the minimum value is veri-
fied with a degree of saturation equal to 80% (�12,793 k€). The
reduction of the grade of saturation and the decrease of subsidies
cause the unprofitability of project. From one side, WTE plant is
31 44
28
4023
18 16
300 kt - Cogenerative 
configuration
150 kt - Electrical 
configuration
Discounted cash inflows
Subsidies Selling electricity
Selling heat Other revenues
54 53
18 16
28 31
300 kt - Cogenerative 
configuration
150 kt - Electrical 
configuration
Discounted cash outflows
Investment Treatment of ash & slag waste Other costs
Fig. 12. Distribution of cash flows (in percentage).
1202
3803
300 kt -
Cogenerative 
configuration
150 kt -
Electrical 
configuration
FNPV (k€)
5.2
6.3
300 kt -
Cogenerative 
configuration
150 kt -
Electrical 
configuration
FRR (%)
26
22
300 kt -
Cogenerative 
configuration
150 kt -
Electrical 
configuration
FDPP (y)
Fig. 11. Financial results.
F. Cucchiella et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 131 (2017) 18–31 27
able to reduce the amount of waste conferred in landfill. However,
when an oversized plant is chosen, there is the risk of not having
enough waste to treat and/or the reduction of recycling and com-
posting activities. From the other side, the decrease of subsidies
is been applied to renewables during the last years.
6.3. Social results
On the basis of Section 4.4, the results obtained from the admin-
istered questionnaire in the Abruzzo region are reported below
(Table 2).
The results of this analysis show that more than half of the peo-
ple being interviewed believe that recycling cannot be the only
method of waste treatment. Despite that, as shown by the waste
hierarchy, landfill and WTE are placed on the same level (question
1). A role is played by the NIMBY phenomenon: the majority of cit-
izens support the construction of a WTE plant if the plant is built
within the region. When, instead, WTE plant site selection falls
within their city, a landfill is preferred (questions 2 and 3).
There is still an unclear perception of what makes a WTE plant.
In fact, only half of the interviewed people know it as a technology,
in which the combustion process is followed by the energy produc-
tion (question 4). The reduction of emissions is the main critical
factor in the original design of a WTE plant, but also the opportu-
nity to handle a variety of waste is defined interesting (question 5).
Concerning this last aspect, it is widely considered as unsorted
waste and secondary solid fuels are the potential inputs of a WTE
plant. Instead, the recovery of both special waste and residues of
other treatment methods are not taken into consideration
(question 6).
The people’s concern does not stem from reasons related to a
non-confidence with this technology, but it is connected to lack
of control. In fact, in a scenario characterized by a release of emis-
sions higher than legal limits, there is the feeling that this would
not be pursued. This aspect is, also, coupled with the common con-
sideration that the emissions from combustion process can be
much more harmful to those emitted by landfills (question 7). A
further important finding is related to the contribution of WTE
plant to sustainability. This concept is present only in a third of
the interviewed people. They see as the first impact the emissions
released by a WTE plant on local population (question 8).
People are responsible for waste production, but they could
play a relevant role with good practices, as an adequate separate
collection. Unlike what occurs, this effect should be detectable in
bills. On the contrary, 90% of the interviewed people have noticed
an excessive cost growth (question 9). So, it is therefore necessary:
� to identify more direct communication, for example, how many
kilograms of plastic and glass have been recovered from the
recycling and what was done subsequently with these
materials.
� to reduce costs sustained by people, when performance results
are achieved.
Half of the interviewed people have defined as a project must be
realized not only to contrast the climatic change, but also to pro-
duce profits (question 10). A slight majority of adverse answers
is obtained considering the question of whether they agree or
not with the construction of a WTE plant in a region. However,
people in favour do not support this choice because can be sustain-
able, but only to reduce the electrical and thermal energy costs
-5364
-780
8387
12,970
29.6 €/t 33.3 €/t 40.7 €/t 44.4 €/t
Selling price of electricity (37 €/t)
-8585
-5488
-2391
706
68.8 €/t 73.1 €/t 77.4 €/t 81.7€/t
Subsidies (86 €/t)
-12,032
-4114
11,721
19,638
96 k€ 88 k€ 72 k€ 64 k€
Investment cost (80 k€)
-27
1888
5718
7633
10.8 €/t 9.9 €/t 8.1 €/t 7.2 €/t
Cost of elimination of ash & slage waste (9 €/t)
-
12,793
-8644
-4495
-346
80% 85% 90% 95%
Degree of saturation (100 %)
-1679
824
7359
11,614
7% 6% 4% 3%
Risk free (5%)
2662
5081
6609
9.2 MJ/kg 10.9 MJ/kg 12.6 MJ/kg
Lower heating value (10.4 MJ/kg)
Fig. 13. Sensitivity analysis – FNPV (k€).
28 F. Cucchiella et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 131 (2017) 18–31
(question 11). Delays in the development of these technologies are
due mainly to political reluctance (such as NIMTO or aversion for
long-term choices), but other aspects that affect these choices are
the lack of information (for example, that a landfill is more pollu-
tant than a WTE plant), the defence of ecosystems and the capacity
of local authorities to protect their territories from projects
believed unsuitable (question 12).
7. Conclusions
Waste management is a topic characterized by intense public
debate, in which fear of pollution is very high. Information regard-
ing the waste stream is not always known and often is not clear at
the final destination. The transfer of waste products towards other
countries is not an optimal solution; on the contrary, it is neces-
sary to encourage the short chain and the disposal of waste as
close as possible to the place of production. The opportunity to
valorise it, as materials and/or as energy, is applied by several
countries.
This paper proposes a comparison between WTE plant and
landfill. There is a tendency to hinder the construction of a WTE
plant based on the argument that it produces pollution. A share
of consumed products cannot be separated and also, this amount
of waste must be treated in a sustainable way. The results of this
work, in line with the others proposed by both European Commis-
sion and literature, confirm that WTE plant is a reasonable and sus-
tainable alternative technology to landfill without compromising
reuse and recycling rates.
Table 2
Statistical analysis of survey results.
1. Which of these treatment methods is correct?
Recycling 25%
Recycling + Waste to energy 35%
Recycling + landfill 30%
Waste to energy 2%
Landfill 5%
Indifferent 3%
2. Do you prefer a Waste to energy plant or a landfill in your town?
Waste to energy plant 40%
Landfill 60%
3. Do you prefer a Waste to energy plant or a landfill in your region?
Waste to energy plant 65%
Landfill 35%
4. What is a Waste to energy plant?
A combustion process of waste with energy recovery 50%
A combustion process of waste 45%
I do not know about 5%
5. What factors do you consider most critical in the original design of a WTE plant?
Ability to manage more waste 26%
Ability to produce more energy 14%
Emissions of air pollutants 54%
Aesthetic of plant 2%
Local traffic burden 2%
Job creation 2%
6. What are the inputs of a WTE plant? You can choose one or more answers.
Unsorted waste 97%
Dry fraction from mechanical biological treatment 44%
Secondary solid fuels 76%
Special waste 25%
I do not know about 2%
7. How safe do you feel with the technological development of a WTE plant?
Not at all, since controls will be weak 25%
Not at all, since technologies will be not adequate 3%
Enough, if heavy fines will be imposed 21%
Not at all, for reasons of corruption in the control phase 30%
Enough, if monitoring will be intense 18%
I feel very safe 3%
8. The emissions released by a WTE facility affect . . .
Present generations 8%
Present and future generations 30%
Local population 58%
National population 4%
9. What is the effect of waste treatment (separate collection, recycling, WTE) on bill’s cost?
Substantial reduction 3%
Minimum reduction 5%
Minimum increase 40%
Substantial increase 52%
10. In your opinion a WTE plant must be realized if . . .
It is profitable 32%
It is green and also profitable 48%
It is green, but is not profitable 5%
Its benefits are greater than its costs 15%
11. Are you agree or disagree, if a WTE plant is built in your region?
I agree since electricity and heating costs are reduced 43%
I agree because it is a sustainable choice 4%
I disagree since it degrades the aesthetic 14%
I disagree because it is dangerous to local public health 28%
I disagree because there are other sustainable strategies 11%
12. What are the main reasons for delays in the development of WTE plants? You can choose more answers
Incomplete legal framework 5%
Political reluctance 31%
Lack of information 24%
Local authorities strong 19%
Opposition of public opinion 12%
Increased costs 6%
Increased environmental burden 22%
Technological constraints 3%
F. Cucchiella et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 131 (2017) 18–31 29
30 F. Cucchiella et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 131 (2017) 18–31
A case study is analysed in this paper and proposes a WTE plant
to achieve the goal of SWM in Abruzzo region. The amount of
waste, to valorize through the production of energy, is determined
by three different approaches based on unsorted waste, landfilled
waste and separated collection rate, respectively. The choice size
is 150 kt in the only electrical configuration. In fact, the cogenera-
tive configuration is not profitable for this size and, consequently
the maximization of both environmental and economic perfor-
mances is not possible. The percentage of energy recovery in
municipal waste treatment ranges from 21% to 25% representing
a very ambitious goal obtained in the virtuous European countries.
The implementation of this project is characterized by a FNPV
equal to 3803 k€ and ERCO2eq equal to 55,500 tCO2 per year. Fur-
thermore, a sensitivity analysis is conducted to give solidity to
results obtained. From a social perspective, the reduction of costs
in waste bills and a rigid and continuous control on emissions
are able to support the realization of new plants. However, their
implementation requires the approval of public.
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	Sustainable waste management: Waste to energy plant as an alternative to landfill
	1 Introduction
	2 Literature review
	3 Current status in Europe
	4 Materials and methods
	4.1 The amount of waste valorisation
	4.2 Environmental inputs
	4.3 Financial inputs
	4.4 Social inputs
	5 A strategic analysis
	6 Sustainability analysis
	6.1 Environmental results
	6.2 Financial results
	6.3 Social results
	7 Conclusions
	References