Impactos Ambientais da Pandemia de COVID-19 no Brasil

Prévia do material em texto

Science of the Total Environment 755 (2021) 142471
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Science of the Total Environment
j ourna l homepage: www.e lsev ie r .com/ locate /sc i totenv
COVID-19 pandemic: Solid waste and environmental impacts in Brazil
Rodrigo Custodio Urban a,⁎, Liane Yuri Kondo Nakada b,⁎
a Pontifical Catholic University of Campinas (PUC-Campinas), Center for Exact, Environmental and Technological Sciences, Postgraduate Program inUrban Infrastructure Systems, Rua Professor Dr.
Euryclides de Jesus Zerbini, 1516 – Pq. Rural Fazenda Santa Cândida, 13087571 Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
b University of Campinas, School of Civil Engineering, Architecture andUrbanDesign, Department of Infrastructure and Environment, Avenida Albert Einstein, 951– Cidade Universitária, 13083852
Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T
• COVID-19 pandemic has hampered ad-
vances in sustainable development in
Brazil.
• Some locations have suspended
recycling programs to safeguard public
health.
• Electric power enough to supply
152,475 households over a month
could have been saved.
• Potable water enough to supply 40,010
people over a month could have been
saved.
• The equivalent of US$ 781,000 has been
disposed in landfills.
⁎ Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: rodrigo.urban@puc-campinas.edu.br
lnakada@unicamp.br (L.Y.K. Nakada).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142471
0048-9697/© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
a b s t r a c t
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 2 June 2020
Received in revised form 16 September 2020
Accepted 17 September 2020
Available online xxxx
Dr. Damia Barcelo
Keywords:
Facemasks
Latin America
Medical waste
Natural resources
Recycling
SARS-CoV-2
TheWorldHealthOrganization has recently declared SouthAmerica the newepicenter of the COVID-19 pandemic, as
Brazil has become one of themost affected countries. Besides public health and economic impacts, social isolation has
also caused indirect environmental effects. The aimof this studywas to assess environmental impacts causedby shifts
on solidwaste production andmanagement due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil.Wehave analyzed data from30
cities, representing a population of more than 53.8 million people (25.4% of the Brazilian population). Unexpectedly,
solidwaste production in themain cities in Brazil has decreased during the social isolation period, possibly because of
reduced activity in commercial areas. The latest data on solid waste in Brazil have revealed that more than 35% of
medical waste has not been treated properly. Furthermore, improper disposal of facemasks has been reported in sev-
eral cities andmay increase the risk for COVID-19 spread. The suspension of recycling programs has hindered natural
resources from being saved, with emphasis on 24,076MWh of electric power and 185,929m3 of potable water – re-
spectively enough to supply 152,475 households and 40,010 people, over a month. Furthermore, total sale price for
recyclable materials during the suspension of recycling programs reaches more than 781 thousand dollars, being
these materials disposed in landfills – demanding an extra volume of 19,000 m3 – reducing landfill lifespan, and
hence causing a double loss: economic and environmental.
© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
(R.C. Urban),
1. Introduction
Worldwide public health and economy have been severely affected by
the COVID-19 pandemic, with deaths and increased economic vulnerabil-
ity especially in middle-income countries (Chakraborty and Maity, 2020;
UN, 2020). Recently, the World Health Organization has declared South
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142471&domain=pdf
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142471
mailto:rodrigo.urban@puc-campinas.edu.br
mailto:lnakada@unicamp.br
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142471
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/
www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv
R.C. Urban and L.Y.K. Nakada Science of the Total Environment 755 (2021) 142471
America thenewepicenter of theCOVID-19pandemic (Feuer, 2020;WHO,
2020), as Brazil has become one of the most affected countries, being cur-
rently the second leading country in number of cases with 1,759,103 con-
firmed cases as of July 09, 2020 (Worldometers, 2020), albeit social
isolation measures have been implemented in the Federal District on
March 11, 2020, in São Paulo state and in Rio de Janeiro state on March
16, 2020 and March 17, 2020, respectively.
Besides the alarming socioeconomic impacts, indirect environmen-
tal impacts caused by social isolation have been described in several
studies, reportingpositive impacts such as cleaner beaches and environ-
ment noise reduction (Zambrano-Monserrate et al., 2020), immediate
improvements in air quality (Bao and Zhang, 2020; Collivignarelli
et al., 2020; Nakada and Urban, 2020), and in surface water quality
(Braga et al., 2020; Yunus et al., 2020). Nevertheless, negative impacts
related to increased solid waste generation and reduced recycling pro-
grams may produce medium- or long-term effects and thus constitute
a reason for concern (Zambrano-Monserrate et al., 2020).
Kampf et al. (2020) have reviewed the persistence of coronaviruses
on different surfaces and have reported viruses' survival on metal for
5 days, on plastic for up to 5 days, on paper for 4 to 5 days, on glass
for 4 days, and on aluminum for up to 8 h. Furthermore, one recent in-
vestigation on the stability of SARS-CoV-2 on several surfaces has re-
ported viable SARS-CoV-2 virus on plastic for up to 72 h, on stainless
steel for up to 48 h, and on cardboard for up to 24 h (van Doremalen
et al., 2020). Considering that plastic plus paper/cardboard represent
64.6% of recyclingmaterials in recycling programs in Brazil, and because
the majority of recycling centers in Brazil are based on manual waste
sorting (Fidelis et al., 2020), COVID-19 infection risk for workers in
recycling centers is high. Therefore, the Brazilian Association for Envi-
ronmental and Sanitary Engineering has recommended the suspension
of recycling programs in Brazil (ABES, 2020a).
The aim of this studywas to assess environmental impacts caused by
shifts on solid waste production and management due to the COVID-19
pandemic.
2. Materials and methods
In this study, we have analyzed data from the Federal District, and all
26 state capital cities of Brazil plus 03 non-capital cities with more than
1 million people, totalizing 30 cities, which were selected based on the
following criteria: i) state capital cities may represent the features of
each state, considering social, environmental and economic diversity
among Brazilian states; ii) data availability; and iii) solid waste produc-
tion associated with large cities with high urbanization rates. So far, a
total of 636,778 COVID-19 confirmed cases have been reported for the
30 analyzed cities, being the number of cases for each city as for July
09, 2020 presented in Table S1.
For the assessment of the impacts on solid waste management system
in Brazil, we have analyzed official time-series data (SNIS, 2019a), and the
latest published data about solid waste management in Brazil (Brazil,
2019), made available by the National System for Sanitation Information.
Estimates of sale prices for recyclable materials were obtained from the
Business Association for Recycling (CEMPRE, 2020). Resources saved by
recycling were calculated according to Eq. (1), adapted from Calderoni
(2003), being resources data presented in Table S2. Environmental and
economic impacts caused by the suspension of recycling programs were
calculated using Eq. (1), considering 30 days of suspension only in cities
where recycling programs were actually suspended.
ResourcesX ¼ ∑ni¼1
Rec:Matn � αXn
� �� 30
365
ð1Þ
where:
Resources X: Amount of resources of type X from recycling
programs
2
X: Sale price; or volume in landfill; or saved: electric power/potable
water/trees/oil/ore/sand
Rec. Mat.n: Daily amount of solid waste of type n: 1: Plastic; 2:
Paper; 3: Metal; 4: GlassαiX: Transformation coefficient of amount of solid waste of type n to
amount of resources of type X
The numbers of daily disposable facemasks potentially used in cities
under study were estimated using Eq. (2) (Nzediegwu and Chang, 2020).
TDF ¼ Pop:� Urb:� FAR� ADFPC
10, 000
ð2Þ
where:
TDF: Total daily disposable facemasks
Pop.: Total population
Urb.: Urban Population (%)
FAR: Facemask acceptance rate = 80%
ADFPC: Average daily disposable facemasks per capita = 2
3. Results and discussion
Different levels of solid waste collection and recycling programs are
observable on data referring to solid waste management in each ana-
lyzed city (Table 1). Recycling programs are not available in three
(10%) of the studied cities, albeit one of these cities (Macapá-AP) has re-
ported recyclable collection, probably by informal workers. Effectively
recovered materials represent only 1%, pointing out: i) low levels of
recycling programs in the studied cities; and ii) high rates of disposal
of recyclable materials following collection due to decreased quality
for recycling or low commercial price. Another important aspect is the
recyclable collection system,which varies between door-to-door collec-
tion and voluntary deposit in containers for recyclables (Campos, 2014;
Ibáñez-Forésa et al., 2018).
The Brazilian Association for Environmental and Sanitary Engineer-
ing has reported decreases in solid waste production, as follows: 16%
in Rio de Janeiro-RJ, 12% in Brasília-DF and Porto Alegre-RS, and 10% in
Fortaleza-CE and Manaus-AM during the first week of April 2020, and
22% – achieving 50% in central and thus commercial area – during
30 days of partial lockdown in Belo Horizonte (ABES, 2020b). In the
city of Campinas-SP solid waste production has decreased 15% during
the first month of partial lockdown, albeit the recycling program has
been suspended and the recyclable materials incorporated into the do-
miciliary solid waste collection (G1, 2020).
A recent study has foreseen an increase in solid waste production
due to social isolation (Zambrano-Monserrate et al., 2020), which has
not happened in Brazil. Because in Brazil up to 200 L-solid waste pro-
duced daily by commercial and service sectors are collected as domicil-
iary waste (Brazil, 2010), the reduction of commercial activities may
explain the decrease in solid waste production.
3.1. Impacts on recycling programs
Being Brazil a middle-income country, the purpose of recycling is
mainly income generation, besides resource recovery (Conke, 2018).
The Brazilian legislation regarding solidwaste (Brazil, 2010) encourages
the integration of informal workers into the formal recycling sector,
being the organization as a cooperative an important means to reduce
socio-economic fragilities (Fidelis et al., 2020; Ibáñez-Forésa et al.,
2018). Considering the continental size of the country with its cultural
and economic diversity, solid waste management also varies from sim-
ilar to low-income countries to similar to high-income countries
(Cetrulo et al., 2018). Informal workers such as waste pickers, itinerant
traders, and middlemen constitute one important characteristic of
recycling programs in Brazil (Conke, 2018), and even formal workers
conduct manual waste sorting in recycling centers. Therefore, the
Table 1
Data referring to solid waste management in state capital cities and in cities with more than 1 million people in Brazil in 2018.
City-state code Population Urb. Collected solid
waste (t)
Door-to-door recycling
collection (%)
Collected
Recyclable (t)
Effectively recovered
materials (%)
Northern
Belém-PA 1,492,745 99 709,492 3.01 3780 0.53
Boa Vista-RR 399,213 98 204,090 NA – 0.00
Macapá-AP 503,327 96 93,287 NA 252 0.27
Manaus-AM 2,182,763 99 943,813 18.32 10,145 1.07
Palmas-TO 299,127 97 85,833 97.57 494.4 0.58
Porto Velho-RO 529,544 91 111,814 31.07 1506 1.35
Rio Branco-AC 407,319 92 124,894 24.50 240.5 0.19
Northeastern
Aracaju-SE 657,013 100 235,456 40.80 1032 0.44
Fortaleza-CE 2,669,342 100 1,533,559 0.00 7170 0.47
João Pessoa-PB 809,015 100 258,932 26.80 13,740 5.31
Maceió-AL 1,018,948 100 385,195 19.87 1433 0.37
Natal-RN 884,122 100 366,080 12.91 2633 0.72
Recife-PE 1,645,727 100 863,732 29.86 1697 0.20
Salvador-BA 2,872,347 100 916,649 0.00 7860 0.86
São Luís-MA 1101,884 94 401,815 0.00 21,868 5.44
Teresina-PI 864,845 94 413,721 0.00 829.8 0.20
Center-Western
Brasília-DF 3,015,268 97 1,267,313 51.30 17,143 1.35
Campo Grande-MS 895,982 99 488,882 55.61 2282 0.47
Cuiabá-MT 612,547 98 185,141 5.82 2649 1.43
Goiânia-GO 1,516,113 100 421,327 93.72 16,955 4.02
Southeastern
Belo Horizonte-MG 2,512,070 100 888,254 15.43 4900 0.55
Campinas*-SP 1,204,073 98 415,197 75.68 3464 0.83
Guarulhos*-SP 1,379,182 100 346,951 11.11 4903 1.41
Rio de Janeiro-RJ 6,718,903 100 3,079,233 44.45 10,889 0.35
São Gonçalo*-RJ 1,084,839 100 230,006 NA – 0.00
São Paulo-SP 12,252,023 99 3,811,785 79.51 33,427 0.88
Vitória-ES 362,097 100 163,831 4.18 1499 0.91
Southern
Curitiba-PR 1,933,105 100 511,222 99.18 10,260 2.01
Florianópolis-SC 500,973 96 209,318 71.59 9514 4.55
Porto Alegre-RS 1,483,771 100 521,473 99.69 11,266 2.16
Urb.: urbanization rate (%); NA: not applicable (recycling program not available); * non-capital cities.
Data source: SNIS (2019a).
R.C. Urban and L.Y.K. Nakada Science of the Total Environment 755 (2021) 142471
Brazilian recycling system is highly vulnerable to the effects caused by
the COVID-19 pandemic, considering both environmental and eco-
nomic impacts of the suspension of recycling programs in Brazilian cit-
ies due to the COVID-19 pandemic (Table 2).
As ameasure to avoid SARS-COV-2 transmission in recycling centers,
14 out of 30 cities have suspended recycling programs. In São Paulo, the
largest city in Latin America, recycling program has not been
suspended; nevertheless, only automated segregation is still working
(São Paulo, 2020b). As a consequence of the suspension of recycling
programs, considerable amounts of natural resources have not been
saved over a month, such as 24,076 MWh of electric power – amount
enough to supply 152,475 households over a month, considering an av-
erage consumption of 157.9 kWh/household∙month (Brazil, 2018), and
185,929m3 of potable water – amount enough to supply 40,010 people
Table 2
Environmental and economic impacts caused by the suspension of recycling programs in Braz
City-state code Sale price
(US$)
Not Saved electric
power (MWh)
Not Saved
water (m3
Northern
Manaus-AM 119,202 3544 27,827
Palmas-TO 4600 142.3 1011
Northeastern
João Pessoa-PB 127,835 3956 28,109
Maceió-AL 12,678 427.8 4037
Salvador-BA 73,128 2263 16,080
São Luís-MA 11,767 389.1 2639
Teresina-PI 4925 192.7 1927
Center-Western
Brasília-DF 193,020 5579 43,030
Campo Grande-MS 24,458 711.4 6348
Cuiabá-MT 24,546 811.6 10,664
Southeastern
Belo Horizonte-MG 45,589 1411 10,024
Campinasa-SP 32,232 997.5 7087
Guarulhosa-SP 50,529 1559 11,056
Southern Florianópolis-SC 56,562 2091 16,091
Total 781,071 24,075.4 185,930
a Non-capital cities; currency exchange: U$$ 1 = R$ 5.50 (R$ 1 = U$$ 0.18); Estimates calc
3
over a month, considering each person uses 154.9 L/day (SNIS, 2019b).
Furthermore, total sale price for recyclablematerials during the suspen-
sion of recycling programs reaches more than 781 thousand dollars,
being these materials disposed in landfills demanding an extra volume
of 19,000 m3 – reducing landfill lifespan, and hence causing a double
loss: economic and environmental.
An important income loss has been reported because of the suspen-
sion of recycling programs usingmanual waste sorting in recycling cen-
ters, albeit this measure was intended to safeguard public health, and
therefore some city governments – for example, Belém-PA and São
Paulo-SP – have approved emergency financial support for recycling-
related workers (MPF, 2020; Jovem Pan, 2020). Because there is a high
rate of turnover in recycling centers (Fideliset al., 2020), at least 6581
formal workers have been affected by the COVID-19 crisis (Table S4).
ilian cities due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
potable
)
Not Saved
trees
Not Saved oil
(barrel)
Not Saved
ore (t)
Not Saved
sand (t)
Volume in
landfill (m3)
4716 2708 135.6 0.0 2386
170.7 100.5 6.1 4.0 107.6
4743 2794 168.7 110.2 2990
687.5 291.2 13.8 14.4 329.7
2713 1598 96.5 63.1 1710
445.9 251.0 14.4 29.7 362.3
330.3 113.8 2.7 22.2 207.9
7334 4496 138.1 88.0 4323
1088 593.0 10.2 8.2 554.2
1838 650.5 1.3 0.0 580.9
1691 996.3 60.1 39.3 1066
1196 704.4 42.5 27.8 753.9
1863 1101 69.9 35.3 1141
2752 1238 31.5 303.2 2526
31,568.4 17,635.7 791.4 745.4 19,038.5
ulated considering recycling suspension for 30 days.
Fig. 1. Estimates of daily disposable facemasks in state capital cities and in cities with more than 1 million people in Brazil, during the COVID-19 pandemic considering each person uses
2 units per day, with acceptance by 80% of total population.
R.C. Urban and L.Y.K. Nakada Science of the Total Environment 755 (2021) 142471
In locations where recycling programs have not been suspended, sales
for recycling materials have also been compromised because some sec-
tors – such as recycling facilities and also middlemen – of the complex
solid waste management system are not fully working (Conke, 2018;
Peduzi, 2020).
3.2. Impacts on medical waste
The latest data onmedical waste in Brazil has shown installed treat-
ment capacity for 479,653 t/year, and an annual production of 252,948 t,
being 63.8% of this amount properly treated (ABRELPE, 2020).
Based on the evidence that medical waste production has increased
up to 6 fold in Wuhan, China due to the COVID-19 pandemic (Calma,
2020), a recent study has foreseen an increment in medical waste pro-
duction (Saadat et al., 2020). Assuming a 2 fold increase in medical
waste in Brazil, the current treatment capacity would be exceeded.
Moreover, although Brazil is one of the developing countries with
most studies on its medical waste (Ansari et al., 2019), improper man-
agement ofmedical waste in smallmedical units is still a reason for con-
cern (Moreira and Günther, 2013).
The COVID-19 pandemic has become more critical in Brazil in mid-
dle April 2020, and non-official preliminary data report an increment
inmedicalwaste production inMay2020 (Azevedo et al., 2020). By con-
trast, estimates on medical waste production in Brazil in the first week
of April 2020 point out a 17% decrease in collected and treated waste
(ABETRE, ABLP, ABRELPE and SELUR/SELURB, 2020), possibly because
of the suspension of non-emergency medical and odontological ap-
pointments from late March 2020 on, and also improperly disposal
among domiciliary waste (Azevedo et al., 2020). Furthermore, increas-
ing use of personal protective equipment such as facemasks and gloves
(Calma, 2020; Zambrano-Monserrate et al., 2020), both in hospitals and
in general, also increases the chances for inappropriate disposal leading
to environmental- (Saadat et al., 2020) and public health- (Nzediegwu
and Chang, 2020) risks associated with potentially infective material.
Recently, a few studies have depicted improper disposal of
facemasks in distinct parts of the world, such as Soko Islands, Nigeria,
Portugal, and Canada (Kalina and Tilley, 2020; Fadare and Okoffo,
2020; Prata et al., 2020). During the social isolation period in Brazil,
the press has reported inappropriate disposal of facemask in several cit-
ies analyzed in this study such as Campinas-SP, Campo Grande-MS,
Goiânia-GO, João Pessoa-PB, Palmas-TO, São Luís-MA and São
4
Gonçalo-RJ. Using the criteria described by Nzediegwu and Chang
(2020), an estimate show that more than 85 million facemasks may
be daily disposed (Fig. 1). Considering the high demand of disposable
facemasks and in order to control improper disposal, the Ministry of
Health of Brazil (MS, 2020) and the Brazilian Health Regulatory Agency
(ANVISA, 2020) have recommended the use of disposable masks only
by health personnel, and the use of homemade reusable fabric facemask
by population in general, according to the World Health Organization
recommendations. One recent study has assessed the effectivity of cot-
ton facemask as an alternative to disposable facemasks and has con-
cluded that daily use of washable cotton facemask by healthy people
in community is a suitable measure (Ho et al., 2020).
3.3. Impacts on solid waste collection in São Paulo megacity
São Paulo is the largest city in Brazil, producing the highest amount
of solidwaste in the country, being data regarding solidwaste collection
monitored by an information systemmaintained andmade available by
the city government (São Paulo, 2020a).
Time-series data on solid waste production from January to April
over the last 11 years (Fig. 2) reveal some impacts on solid waste pro-
duction caused by social isolation measures in the city of São Paulo,
Brazil. As a result of environmental education campaigns as well as in-
spection of irregular waste disposal by the city government (São
Paulo, 2020a), before the COVID-19 pandemic the following situations
have been observed: i) variations in domiciliary solid waste collection,
with a stable trend; ii) increasing recyclable collection; iii) increasing
voluntary deposit in containers for recyclables; and iv) decreasing
amount of solid waste on streets. In April 2020, during the COVID-19
pandemic and consequent partial lockdown, the following situations
have been observed: i) the lowest (276,684 t) domiciliary solid waste
collection over 11 years; ii) increased recyclable collection; iii) de-
creased voluntary deposit in containers for recyclables; and iv)) the
lowest (3887 t) amount of solid waste on streets over 11 years.
3.4. Future perspectives and challenges
The COVID-19 pandemic has caused several impacts on the solid
waste management system in Brazil, considering socioeconomic and
environmental effects, and hence has hampered advances in sustainable
development. The suspension of recycling programs over a month has
Fig. 2.Variations over the last decade (2010−2020) indomiciliary solidwaste collection, domiciliary recyclable collection, voluntary deposit in containers for recyclables (started on 2016)
and solid waste collection on streets and squares in the city of São Paulo, Brazil. Data source: São Paulo (2020a).
R.C. Urban and L.Y.K. Nakada Science of the Total Environment 755 (2021) 142471
hindered natural resources from being saved, with emphasis on 24,076
MWh of electric power and 185,929 m3 of potable water – respectively
enough to supply 152,475 households and 40,010 people, over amonth.
Recycling-relatedworkers have experienced economic issues, albeit the
government has approved emergency financial support.
Given behavior shifts in the post-pandemic period, the solid waste
management system may demand adjustments seeking to: i) increase
both recycling capacity and environmental education, considering the
increment in the use of disposable utensils and also packages from
food delivery and online shopping; ii) encourage training of waste
pickers for adoption of safemethods for recyclable sorting; and iii)mon-
itor both the production and the installed capacity for medical waste
treatment, in order to assess an eventual need for system expansion.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Rodrigo Custodio Urban: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal
analysis, Investigation, Writing - original draft, Writing - review &
editing. Liane Yuri Kondo Nakada: Conceptualization, Methodology,
Investigation, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142471.
5
References
ABES, 2020a. Recomendações para a gestão deresíduos em situação de pandemia por co-
ronavírus (COVID-19). ABES: Rio de Janeiro. http://abes-dn.org.br/?p=33224
(acessed 10 May 2020).
ABES, 2020b. Pesquisa da ABES aponta redução da geração de resíduos domiciliares em
capitais brasileiras no período de isolamento pela pandemia da Covid-19. http://
abes-dn.org.br/?p=33570 (acessed 20 May 2020).
ABETRE, ABLP, ABRELPE e SELUR/SELURB, 2020. Gestão de resíduos na proteção contra a
Covid-19. http://web-resol.org/textos/gestao_de_residuos_na_protecao_contra_a_
covid.pdf (accessed 23 May 2020).
ABRELPE, 2020. Panorama dos resíduos sólidos no Brasil 2018/2019. ABRELPE, São Paulo.
Ansari, M., Ehrampousha, M.H., Farzadkiac, M., Ahmadie, E., 2019. Dynamic assessment of
economic and environmental performance index and generation, composition, envi-
ronmental and human health risks of hospital solid waste in developing countries; a
state of the art of review. Environ. Int. 132, 105073. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
envint.2019.105073.
ANVISA, 2020. Orientações gerais – Máscaras faciais de uso não profissional. Agência
Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária, Brasília http://portal.anvisa.gov.br/documents/
219201/4340788/NT+M%C3%A1scaras.pdf/bf430184-8550-42cb-a975-1d5e1c5a10f7.
(Accessed 24 May 2020).
Azevedo, T., Barcello, F., Tsai, D., Cremer, M., Gaudereto, F., Coluna, I., Albuquerque, I.,
Alencar, A., Zimbres, B., Brandão Jr, A., Costa Jr, C., Piatto, M., Quintana, G., Potenza,
R., 2020. Impacto da pandemia de COVID-19 nas emissões de gases de efeito estufa
no Brasil. SEEG. https://seeg-br.s3.amazonaws.com/OC_nota_tecnica_FINAL.pdf.
Bao, R., Zhang, A., 2020. Does lockdown reduce air pollution? Evidence from 44 cities in
northern China. Sci. Total Environ. 731, 139052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
scitotenv.2020.139052.
Braga, F., Scarpa, G.M., Brando, V.E., Manfè, G., Zaggia, L. 2020 COVID-19 lockdown mea-
sures reveal human impact onwater transparency in the Venice Lagoon. Sci. Total En-
viron. 139612. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139612.
Brasil, 2010. Presidência da República. Casa Civil. Lei n° 12.305, de 02/08/2010. Institui a
Política Nacional de Resíduos Sólidos; altera a Lei n° 9.605, de 12 de fevereiro de
1998; e dá outras providências. http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2007-
2010/2010/lei/l12305.htm (acessed 20 May 2020).
Brasil, 2018. 2018 Statistical Yearbook of electricity 2017 baseline year. EEP: Brasília
http://www.epe.gov.br/sites-pt/publicacoes-dados-abertos/publicacoes/Publicacoes
Arquivos/publicacao-160/topico-168/Anuario2018vf.pdf (acessed 29 May 2020).
Brasil, 2019. Sistema Nacional de Informações sobre Saneamento: Diagnóstico do Manejo
de Resíduos Sólidos Urbanos – 2018. SNS/MDR, Brasília.
Calderoni, S., 2003. Os bilhões perdidos no lixo (The Billions Lost in Garbage). 4 ed. São
Paulo, Humanitas.
Calma, J., 2020. The COVID-19 pandemic is generating tons of medical waste. https://
www.theverge.com/2020/3/26/21194647/the-covid-19-pandemic-is-generating-
tons-of-medical-waste (accessed 20 May 2020).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142471
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142471
http://abes-dn.org.br/?p=33224
http://abes-dn.org.br/?p=33570
http://abes-dn.org.br/?p=33570
http://web-resol.org/textos/gestao_de_residuos_na_protecao_contra_a_covid.pdf
http://web-resol.org/textos/gestao_de_residuos_na_protecao_contra_a_covid.pdf
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0048-9697(20)36000-9/rf0005
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105073
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105073
http://portal.anvisa.gov.br/documents/219201/4340788/NT+%C3%A1scaras.pdf/bf430184-8550-42cb-a975-1d5e1c5a10f7
http://portal.anvisa.gov.br/documents/219201/4340788/NT+%C3%A1scaras.pdf/bf430184-8550-42cb-a975-1d5e1c5a10f7
https://seeg-br.s3.amazonaws.com/OC_nota_tecnica_FINAL.pdf
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139052
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139052
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139612
http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2007-2010/2010/lei/l12305.htm
http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2007-2010/2010/lei/l12305.htm
http://www.epe.gov.br/sites-pt/publicacoes-dados-abertos/publicacoes/PublicacoesArquivos/publicacao-160/topico-168/Anuario2018vf.pdf
http://www.epe.gov.br/sites-pt/publicacoes-dados-abertos/publicacoes/PublicacoesArquivos/publicacao-160/topico-168/Anuario2018vf.pdf
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0048-9697(20)36000-9/rf0030
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0048-9697(20)36000-9/rf0030
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0048-9697(20)36000-9/rf0035
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0048-9697(20)36000-9/rf0035
https://www.theverge.com/2020/3/26/21194647/the-covid-19-pandemic-is-generating-tons-of-medical-waste
https://www.theverge.com/2020/3/26/21194647/the-covid-19-pandemic-is-generating-tons-of-medical-waste
https://www.theverge.com/2020/3/26/21194647/the-covid-19-pandemic-is-generating-tons-of-medical-waste
R.C. Urban and L.Y.K. Nakada Science of the Total Environment 755 (2021) 142471
Campos, H.K.T., 2014. Recycling in Brazil: challenges and prospects. Resour. Conserv.
Recycl. 85, 130–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.10.017.
CEMPRE, 2020. CEMPRE informa número 157 –Material Reciclável. http://cempre.org.br/
cempre-informa/id/115/preco-dos-materiais-reciclaveis (accessed 17 May 2020).
Cetrulo, T.B., Marques, R.C., Cetrulo, N.M., Pinto, F.S., Moreira, R.M., Mendizábal-Cortés,
A.D., Malheiros, T.F., 2018. Effectiveness of solid waste policies in developing coun-
tries: a case study in Brazil. J. Clean. Prod. 205, 179–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jclepro.2018.09.094.
Chakraborty, I., Maity, P., 2020. COVID-19 outbreak: migration, effects on society, global
environment and prevention. Sci. Total Environ. 728, 138882. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138882.
Collivignarelli, M.C., Abbà, A., Bertanza, G., Pedrazzani, R., Ricciardi, R., Miino, M.C., 2020.
Lockdown for CoViD-2019 in Milan: what are the effects on air quality? Sci. Total En-
viron. 732, 139280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139280.
Conke, L.S., 2018. Barriers to waste recycling development: evidence from Brazil. Resour.
Conserv. Recycl. 134, 129–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.03.007.
van Doremalen, N., Morris, D.H., Phil, M., Holbrook, M.G., Gamble, A., Williamson, B.N.,
Tamin, A., Harcourt, J.L., Thornburg, N.J., Gerber, S.I., Lloyd-Smith, J.O., de Wit, E.,
Munster, V.J., 2020. Aerosol and surface stability of SARS-CoV-2 as compared
with SARS-CoV-1. N. Engl. J. Med. 382, 1564–1567. https://doi.org/10.1056/
nejmc2004973.
Fadare, O.O., Okoffo, E.D., 2020. Covid-19 face masks: a potential source of microplastic fi-
bers in the environment. Sci. Total Environ. 737, 140279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
scitotenv.2020.140279.
Feuer, W., 2020. South America is a ‘new epicenter’ of the coronavirus pandemic, WHO
says. https://www.cnbc.com/2020/05/22/south-america-is-a-new-epicenter-of-the-
coronavirus-pandemic-who-says.html (acessed 28 may 2020).
Fidelis, R., Marco-Ferreira, A., Antunes, L.C., Komatsu, A.K., 2020. Socio-productive inclu-
sion of scavengers in municipal solid waste management in Brazil: practices, para-
digms and future prospects. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 154, 104594. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.104594.
G1, 2020. Coronavírus: produção de lixo em Campinas cai 15% durante 1° mês de
quarentena. https://g1.globo.com/sp/campinas-regiao/noticia/2020/04/22/coronavi-
rus-producao-de-lixo-em-campinas-cai-15percent-durante-1o-mes-de-quarentena.
ghtml (acessed 20 May 2020).
Ho, K.-F., Lin, L.-Y., Weng, S.-P., Chuang, K.-J., 2020. Medical mask versus cotton mask for
preventing respiratory droplet transmission in micro environments. Sci. Total Envi-
ron. 139510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139510.
Ibáñez-Forésa, V., Coutinho-Nóbrega, C., Bovea, M.D., Mello-Silva, C., Lessa-Feitosa-
Virgolino, J., 2018. Influence of implementing selective collection on municipal
waste management systems in developing countries: a Brazilian case study. Resour.
Conserv. Recycl.134, 100–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.12.027.
Jovem Pan, 2020. Covas anuncia R$ 5,7 milhões para catadores de recicláveis. https://
jovempan.com.br/noticias/brasil/covas-anuncia-r-57-milhoes-para-catadores-de-
reciclaveis.html (accessed 21 May 2020).
Kalina, M., Tilley, E., 2020. “This is our next problem”: cleaning up from the COVID-19 re-
sponse. Waste Manag. 108, 202–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.05.006.
Kampf, G., Todt, D., Pfaender, S., Steinmann, E., 2020. Persistence of coronaviruses on in-
animate surfaces and their inactivation with biocidal agents. J. Hosp. Infect. 104 (3),
246–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2020.01.022.
6
Moreira, A.M.M., Günther, W.M.R., 2013. Assessment of medical waste management at a
primary health-care center in São Paulo. Brazil. Waste Manage. 33, 162–167. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2012.09.018.
MPF, 2020. Covid-19: MPs e Defensorias recomendam a municípios do Pará proteção a
catadores de material reciclável. http://www.mpf.mp.br/pa/sala-de-imprensa/
noticias-pa/covid-19-mps-e-defensorias-recomendam-a-municipios-do-para-
protecao-a-catadores-de-material-reciclavel (accessed 22 May 2020).
MS, 2020. Ministério da Saúde do Brasil - Nota informativa n° 3/2020-CGGAP/DESF/SAPS/
MS. Ministério da Saúde do Brasil, Brasília http://portal.antaq.gov.br/wp-content/up-
loads/2020/04/1586014047102-Nota-Informativa.pdf. (Accessed 23 May 2020).
Nakada, L.Y.K., Urban, R.C., 2020. COVID-19 pandemic: impacts on the air quality during
the partial lockdown in São Paulo state. Brazil. Sci. Total Environ. 730, 139087.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139087.
Nzediegwu, C., Chang, S.X., 2020. Improper Solid Waste Management Increases Potential
for COVID-19 Spread in Developing Countries. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 104947. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.104947.
Peduzi, P., 2020. Covid −19 gera dificuldades para catadores de materiais recicláveis.
https://agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/geral/noticia/2020-04/covid-19-gera-dificuldades-
para-catadores-de-materiais-reciclaveis
Prata, J.C., Silva, A.L.P., Walker, T.R., Duarte, A.C., Rocha-Santos, T., 2020. COVID-19 pan-
demic repercussions on the use and management of plastics. Environ. Sci. Technol.
54, 7760–7765. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c02178.
Saadat, S., Rawtania, D., Hussain, C.M. 2020 Environmental perspective of COVID-19. Sci.
Total Environ. 728, 138870. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138870.
São Paulo, 2020a. Quantitativos: Resíduos coletados no município. https://www.
prefeitura.sp.gov.br/cidade/secretarias/subprefeituras/amlurb/index.php?p=185375
(accessed 20 May 2020).
São Paulo, 2020b. Período de isolamento social é marcado por menos lixo nas ruas e
aumento da reciclagem nas residências. https://www.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/cidade/
secretarias/subprefeituras/amlurb/noticias/?p=296560 (accessed 21 May 2020).
SNIS, 2019a. Sistema Nacional de Informações sobre Saneamento: Diagnóstico do Manejo
de Resíduos Sólidos Urbanos. 2018. SNIS.
SNIS, 2019b. Painel de informações sobre saneamento: painel abastecimento água. http://
www.snis.gov.br/painel-informacoes-saneamento-brasil/web/painel-abastecimento-
agua (acessed 25 May 2020).
UN, 2020. Note to Correspondents on debt vulnerability and COVID-19. https://www.un.
org/sg/en/content/sg/note-correspondents/2020-05-06/note-correspondents-debt-
vulnerability-and-covid-19 (accessed 22 May 2020).
WHO, 2020. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic. https://www.who.int/emergen-
cies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019 (acessed 28 May 2020).
Worldometers, 2020. Coronavirus. https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/
(accessed 24 May 2020).
Yunus, A.P., Masago, Y., Hijioka, Y., 2020. COVID-19 and surface water quality: improved
lake water quality during the lockdown. Sci. Total Environ. 731, 139012. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139012.
Zambrano-Monserrate, M.A., Ruano, M.A., Sanchez-Alcalde, L., 2020. Indirect effects of
COVID-19 on the environment. Sci. Total Environ. 728, 138813. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138813.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.10.017
http://cempre.org.br/cempre-informa/id/115/preco-dos-materiais-reciclaveis
http://cempre.org.br/cempre-informa/id/115/preco-dos-materiais-reciclaveis
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.09.094
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.09.094
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138882
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138882
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139280
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.03.007
https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmc2004973
https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmc2004973
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140279
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140279
https://www.cnbc.com/2020/05/22/south-america-is-a-new-epicenter-of-the-coronavirus-pandemic-who-says.html
https://www.cnbc.com/2020/05/22/south-america-is-a-new-epicenter-of-the-coronavirus-pandemic-who-says.html
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.104594
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.104594
https://g1.globo.com/sp/campinas-regiao/noticia/2020/04/22/coronavirus-producao-de-lixo-em-campinas-cai-15percent-durante-1o-mes-de-quarentena.ghtml
https://g1.globo.com/sp/campinas-regiao/noticia/2020/04/22/coronavirus-producao-de-lixo-em-campinas-cai-15percent-durante-1o-mes-de-quarentena.ghtml
https://g1.globo.com/sp/campinas-regiao/noticia/2020/04/22/coronavirus-producao-de-lixo-em-campinas-cai-15percent-durante-1o-mes-de-quarentena.ghtml
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139510
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.12.027
https://jovempan.com.br/noticias/brasil/covas-anuncia-r-57-milhoes-para-catadores-de-reciclaveis.html
https://jovempan.com.br/noticias/brasil/covas-anuncia-r-57-milhoes-para-catadores-de-reciclaveis.html
https://jovempan.com.br/noticias/brasil/covas-anuncia-r-57-milhoes-para-catadores-de-reciclaveis.html
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.05.006
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2020.01.022
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2012.09.018
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2012.09.018
http://www.mpf.mp.br/pa/sala-de-imprensa/noticias-pa/covid-19-mps-e-defensorias-recomendam-a-municipios-do-para-protecao-a-catadores-de-material-reciclavel
http://www.mpf.mp.br/pa/sala-de-imprensa/noticias-pa/covid-19-mps-e-defensorias-recomendam-a-municipios-do-para-protecao-a-catadores-de-material-reciclavel
http://www.mpf.mp.br/pa/sala-de-imprensa/noticias-pa/covid-19-mps-e-defensorias-recomendam-a-municipios-do-para-protecao-a-catadores-de-material-reciclavel
http://portal.antaq.gov.br/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/1586014047102-Nota-Informativa.pdf
http://portal.antaq.gov.br/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/1586014047102-Nota-Informativa.pdf
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139087
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.104947
https://agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/geral/noticia/2020-04/covid-19-gera-dificuldades-para-catadores-de-materiais-reciclaveis
https://agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/geral/noticia/2020-04/covid-19-gera-dificuldades-para-catadores-de-materiais-reciclaveis
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c02178
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138870
https://www.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/cidade/secretarias/subprefeituras/amlurb/index.php?p=185375
https://www.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/cidade/secretarias/subprefeituras/amlurb/index.php?p=185375
https://www.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/cidade/secretarias/subprefeituras/amlurb/noticias/?p=296560
https://www.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/cidade/secretarias/subprefeituras/amlurb/noticias/?p=296560
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0048-9697(20)36000-9/rf0125
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0048-9697(20)36000-9/rf0125
http://www.snis.gov.br/painel-informacoes-saneamento-brasil/web/painel-abastecimento-agua
http://www.snis.gov.br/painel-informacoes-saneamento-brasil/web/painel-abastecimento-agua
http://www.snis.gov.br/painel-informacoes-saneamento-brasil/web/painel-abastecimento-agua
https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/note-correspondents/2020-05-06/note-correspondents-debt-vulnerability-and-covid-19
https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/note-correspondents/2020-05-06/note-correspondents-debt-vulnerability-and-covid-19https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/note-correspondents/2020-05-06/note-correspondents-debt-vulnerability-and-covid-19
https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019
https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019
https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139012
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139012
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138813
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138813
	COVID-�19 pandemic: Solid waste and environmental impacts in Brazil
	1. Introduction
	2. Materials and methods
	3. Results and discussion
	3.1. Impacts on recycling programs
	3.2. Impacts on medical waste
	3.3. Impacts on solid waste collection in São Paulo megacity
	3.4. Future perspectives and challenges
	CRediT authorship contribution statement
	Declaration of competing interest
	Appendix A. Supplementary data
	References