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LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV 2 – LESSONS 6 TO 10 LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 Contents of this class Number of syllables in a word; The structure of the syllable and learn the rules of syllabification (Hyphenation); Cases of silent letters; The differences between rhotic and non-rhotic accents; Stress and Intonation The concept of restricted phonemes The difference between homonym (homophones and homographs = heteronym), and polysemes. The phonological differences between British and American Accents. LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 THE ENGLISH SYLLABLES A syllable is the basic rhythm unit in English. LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 TO FIND THE NUMBER OF SYLLABLES Count the vowels in the word Subtract any silent vowels, (like the silent "e" at the end of a word or the second vowel when two vowels a together in a syllable – diphthongs or digraphs) The number of vowels sounds left is the same as the number of syllables. LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 HOW MANY PHONEMES ARE THERE IN “TIME”? “Time” has 3 phonemes /t/ /i/ /m/. –E at the end of the word is a magic –E. It doesn’t count as a phoneme. Even if a vowel has a double sound, it is 1 phoneme. So, even if the /i/ sounds /ai/, you will have one phoneme. HOW MANY PHONEMES ARE THERE IN “BIBLE”? Five. /b/ /i/ /b/ /l/ /e/. If the word ends in “LE” the “E” is counted. HOW MANY PHONEMES ARE THERE IN “GLOW”? Three. /g/ /l/ /o/. Even if the /o/ has an /ow/ sound, it counts as one phoneme. The /w/ has a mute sound. HOW MANY WORDS ARE THERE IN “WHISTLE”? Five or 6. Five if you pronounce /w/ /i/ /s/ /e/ /l/. Six if you aspire the “H”: /h/ /w/ /i/ /s/ /e/ /l/. LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 Syllables have internal structure: they can be divided into parts. ONSET RHYME NUCLEOUS CODA READ = one syllable Onset = [ r ] Rhyme = [ i:d ] ead Nucleus = [ i: ] Coda = [ d ] SYLLABLE STRUCTURE WINDOW = 2 syllables First syllable: [win] Onset = [ w ] Rhyme = [ in ] Nucleus = [ i ] Coda = [ n ] Second syllable: [ d o ] Onset = [ d ] Rhyme = [ o ] Nucleus = [ o ] (This syllable has no coda) LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 SYLLABIFICATION - GENERAL RULES A split which gives: only one or two letters at the beginning of the second line is NEVER PERMISSIBLE only one or two letters at the end of the first line is UNDESIRABLE, BUT NOT IMPERMISSIBLE. (Exceptions are prefixes, such as re-, di-, etc.). If the word has five letters or fewer, do not divide it. Some grammarians consider six letters or less. IMPORTANT: One thing is the theory and the other is the practice. THEORY PRACTICE Ac-tor actor a-moe-ba amoeba cu-ri-ous curi-ous (or cu-rious) LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 First, divide off prefixes, suffixes and roots which have vowel sounds. Divide off prefixes such as "un/happy", "pre/paid", or "re/write". Also divide off suffixes as in the words "hope/less" and "care/ful". In the word "stop/ping", the suffix is actually "-ping". DON’T DIVIDE THE SUFFIXES. Divide between two middle consonants. For example: hap/pen, bas/ket, let/ter, sup/per, din/ner, and Den/nis. NOTE: The only exceptions are the consonant digraphs. Never split up consonant digraphs as they really represent only one sound. EXCEPTION: except when it would divide a simple base form, e.g. but sell-ing, buzz-er. SYLLABIFICATION LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 Usually divide before a single middle consonant. When there is only one syllable, you usually divide in front of it, as in: "o/pen", "i/tem", "e/vil", and "re/port", “cu/pid”. NOTE: The only exceptions are those times when the first syllable has an obvious short sound, as in "cab/in". * That’s when you are going to use the vowel tenseness rules (long or short) Words ending in “le” divide one letter before “le”. For example: "a/ble", "fum/ble", "rub/ble" "mum/ble" and "this/tle". The only exception to this are "ckle" words like "tick/le". Divide off any compound words. Split off the parts of compound words like "sports/car" and "house/boat". After dividing the compound words you will see if the root word can be divided itself: Tele/vision Tele/vi/sion SYLLABIFICATION LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 B is not pronounced when following M at the end of a word. bomB dumB G before N Gnome K before N Know GH – before T fiGHt niGHt SILENT LETTERS - LET’S ANALYZE THE FOLLOWING CASES LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 LET’S ANALYZE THE FOLLOWING CASES L – before F, M,K, D. haLf caLm foLk wouLd P - at the beginning of many words using the suffix "psych" and "pneu". Psychology Pneumonia U –before after G and before a vowel. gUess gUitar H – after W wHere wHen wHy LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 WHY DOES IT HAPPEN? The magic -E helps to show long vowels kitE dudE banE hopE The final <fe> in giraffe gives a clue to the second-syllable stress, where 'giraf' might suggest initial-stress. Historical reasons: Knee, parlIament, iSland LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 RHOTIC AND NON-RHOTIC ACCENTS Generally, accents can be grouped into what is called RHOTIC or NON-RHOTIC. A RHOTIC accent will say every /r/ that is written. Rebecca ran quickly through the flowers and around the river to catch Rover, her overactive dog. NON-RHOTIC speakers say the /r/ sound ONLY if it is followed by a vowel sound. Rebecca Ran quickly thRough the flowers and aRound the River to catch Rover, heR oveRactive dog. The River Runs thRough the gReen valley under the dark blue skies. CoveR your supper Rosy, your father worked hard to make it. LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 STRESS Stress is the relative force with which a sound or syllable is spoken. The emphasis placed on the sound or syllable spoken most forcefully in a word or phrase. There are a couple of rules to know what the stressed syllable is. Let’s have a look at them. LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 STRESS – GENERAL CASES LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 STRESS – GENERAL CASES LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 When there are two like consonant letters within a word, the syllable before the double consonants is usually accented. Examples: beGINner, LETter. 2. VERBS IN -ATE Verbs with 2 syllables = stress the syllable before the last STAte - INflate Verbs with more than 2 syllables = stress two syllables before the last OPerate DESignate LIberate If the word is a homograph (there is the same form for the adjective, noun and verb) the stress does not change, but the pronunciation does. Adjective or noun (ate=It) verb ( ate= ei) ádvocate(kIt) ADVOCATE ádvocate (keit) ággregate(gIt) AGGREGATE ággregate (geit) STRESS – GENERAL CASES LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 3. HOMOGRAPHS - Nouns are stressed on the FIRST syllable and verbs on the SECOND one. Verbs Nouns cónflict (controversy) conflíct (to clash) cóntent(subject, matter) contént (to satisfy) cóntes (competition) contést (to dispute or challenge) 4. In general, when a SUFFIX is added to a word, the new form is stressed on the same syllable as was the basic word: aBANdon aBANdonment - HAPpy HAPpiness Exceptions: the words ending in -TION, -SION, -IC, -ICAL, -ITY, and -GRAPHY - they receive the accent in the syllable preceding the suffix. (following the rules of the suffix) conTRIbute contriBUtion - biOlogy bioLOgical STRESS – GENERAL CASES LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 STRESS – COMPOUND WORDS LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 STRESS – COMPOUND WORDS NOTE:* If the "unstressed" part of the noun+noun compound is more than one syllable, it will have some word stress. However, the first part of the compound will get even more stress. Example: AIR conDITioner (conditioner has a stressed syllable, but not so strong as AIR) ** If the phrasal verbs have a noun counterpart, however, it gets the stress on the first part. E.g.: to TURN off X a turnoff (a deflection, a deviation) LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 In any clause there is only one tonic syllable - tonic syllable, notice, not stressed syllable. A tonic syllable is not just stressed. It also involves a change of intonation to emphasize the intention of the speaker: "I'm not going": meaning [1] = Not "ME", but perhaps "YOU", "SHE" or "HE". "I'm not going": meaning [2] = I reFUSE to go. "I'm not going": meaning [3] = I'm not GOing... I'm COMing BACK! NOTE: If no stressed syllable in a tone group is more important than any other, then the tonic syllable is found in the last stressed word. I’m going to town to buy some fruit and vegetables. STRESS SYLLABLE x TONIC SYLLABLE LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 Intonation is the tune of what you say. More specifically, it is the combination of musical tones on which we pronounce the syllables that make up our speech. PHRASES ENDING WITH A FALLING PITCH 1. Declarative statements. Examples: Linda is my sister . He is not going . 2. Questions that require more than YES/NO response (such question words include who, what, why, where, which, how)begin with an interrogative word (question words). Examples: What’s this? (It’s a book.) Where is my book? (It’s here.) INTONATION OR PITCH LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 PHRASES ENDING WITH A RISING PITCH 1. Questions that ask for a Yes /No response (such questions include can, do, will, would, may, is, etc.) Examples: Will you stay (No, I can’t.) Can you help me? Has he written you? 2. Statements that express doubt or uncertainty Examples: I’m not positive. I think he’s coming. 3. Commands Show me your finger. Pay attention to your teacher. INTONATION OR PITCH LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 INTONATION IN SENTENCES WITH TWO OR MORE PHRASES 1. Declarative sentences with two or more phrases 2. Questions presenting two or more choices Keep your voice level – before the connecting word and lower it at the end. Examples: I must buy coffee, tea, and milk. Would you like cake, or pie? 3. YES/NO questions with two or more phrases Keep your voice level before the connecting word, and use a rising pitch at the end of your question. Example: Will you come if I drive you? 4. Embedded wh- questions – rising pitch He wants to know how far it is to Boston. / I’m not sure what the professor’s name is. INTONATION OR PITCH LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 TAG QUESTIONS INTONATION LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 RESTRICTED PHONEMES A restricted phoneme is a phoneme that can only occur in a certain environment: There are restrictions as to where it can occur. English has several restricted phonemes: /ŋ/, as in sing, occurs only at the end of a syllable, never at the beginning; /h/ occurs only before vowels and at the beginning of a syllable, never at the end; In non-rhotic dialects, /r/ can only occur before a vowel, never at the end of a word or before a consonant. LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 HOMONYM TRUE HOMONYM - the same spelling and the same pronunciation but have different meanings. An example of a homonym is fluke. Fluke can mean: A fish, and a flatworm. (O.E. floc "flatfish," related to O.N. floke "flatfish," flak "disk, floe") The end parts of an anchor. (Low Ger. flügel "wing.") A stroke of luck. (uncertain origin) All three are separate lexemes with separate etymologies, but share the one form, fluke. Other examples: rose (flower) and rose (past tense of rise). stalk (part of a plant) and stalk (follow/harass a person) LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 HOMOPHONES AND HOMOGRAPHS HOMOPHONES = same sound, different spelling to, too, two there, their, they’re To read (to peruse) and reed (waterside plant) HOMOGRAPHS = different sound, same spelling (Also called in English HETERONYM) row (to argue or an argument) row (as in to row a boat or a row of seats - a pair of homophones). LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 POLYSEME = same sound, same spelling, different meaning So, what’s the difference between homonym and polyseme? HOMONYM = unrelated in origin (they have different origins, they come from different languages, or different words from the same language) Skate (glide on ice) [From Dutch schaats, stilt, skate (taken as pl.), from Middle Dutch schaetse, from Old North French escache, stilt, perhaps of Germanic origin.] Skate(a kind of fish) [From Middle English scate, from Old Norse skata.] POLYSEME = related origin (they have the same origins, they come from the same language or the same word from the same language) mouth (of a river) and mouth (of an animal). [From Old English mūth.] POLYSEME LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 "England and America are two countries separated by a common language." (George Bernard Shaw, Irish writer - 1856-1950) Differences in Pronunciation In British English, many vowels have different sounds. Stressed vowels are usually longer in American English. In packet, for example, the "a" is longer. In British English, the "a" in words like can't, class and fast is pronounced at the back of the mouth whereas in America English it's pronounced at the front of the mouth. BRITISH X AMERICAN ENGLISH LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 "England and America are two countries separated by a common language." (George Bernard Shaw, Irish writer - 1856-1950) Differences in Pronunciation In British English the consonant /r/ is pronounced only before a vowel (for example in red and bedroom). In all other cases the /r/ is silent, sounding more similar to the sound "ah" (for example in car, learn, over). X In American English the /r/ is always pronounced wherever it appears in word. In American English the "t" between vowels is pronounced as a soft "d" (/d/), so that writer and rider sound similar. British English speakers usually pronounce the "t" as /t/. The pot is hot - In British English, the "o" in words like pot and hot is pronounced by rounding lips. BRITISH X AMERICAN ENGLISH LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 LONG OR SHORT VOWEL SOUND One syllable two letters together - In general, the first vowel has a long sound and the second one is silent: Leave – Caught - Seen One letter In the middle of the word: Without magic –E - short: fat, bed, fish, spot, luck. With magic –E – long: place, cake, mice, vote, mute. Exception: verbs – live, love, come At the end of a syllable: long E.g.: he – we – why - my LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 LONG OR SHORT VOWEL SOUND Two or more syllables: The syllable ends in vowel – long: "pa/per, o/pen, u/nit. The syllable ends in consonant– short Sam/my- ap/ple NOTE: The vowels i and o have the long vowel sound when followed by two or more consonants. E.g.: child –mind – light (see diphthongs) – old – colt LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 DOES A WORD LIKE “CAR” HAVE A LONG VOWEL SOUND OR IS IT R-CONTROLLED? It depends on the grammarians. Some will say they are long. Others that they are neither long nor short. They are R-controlled. HOW MANY PHONEMES ARE THERE IN “BARK”? British accent – three phonemes. /b/ /a/ /k/ American accent – four phonemes /b/ /a/ /r/ /k/ LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 DO DIPHTHONGS HAVE A LONG VOWEL SOUND? According to some grammarians, diphthongs are neither long nor short. They are classified as diphthongs. According to some grammarians, when the diphthong doesn’t come at the end of the syllable and is represented by one vowel, this vowel is long and when it is represented by two vowels, it is neither long nor short. mAke – long nIght – long nOIse – neither long nor short bOUgh - neither long nor short LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 DO DIPHTHONGS HAVE A LONG VOWEL SOUND? According to some grammarians, when the diphthong doesn’t come at the end of the syllable and is represented by one vowel, this vowel is long and when it is represented by two vowels, it is neither long nor short. At the end of the syllable – neither long nor short no – neither long nor short Day – neither long nor short low – neither long nor short boy - neither long nor short The following diphthongs are always NEITHER LONG NOR SHORT. here, near – neither long nor short there, wear – neither long nor short cure – neither long nor short LÍNGUA INGLESA FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA REV2 – Lessons 6 to 10 It is a sound that appears only in unstressed syllables. It happens to the vowel that comes immediately after or before the stressed vowel. The word photographer might be pronounced /fô'tógrafêr/ instead of the correct /fə'tagrəfər/. like the 'a' in about [ə’baʊt] like the 'e' in taken [‘teɪkən] like the 'i' in pencil [‘pɛnsəl] like the 'o' in eloquent [‘ɛləkwənt] like the 'u' in supply [sə’plaɪ] like the 'y' in sibyl [‘sɪbəl] SCHWA /ə/
