Atitudes e Orientações Motivacionais de Estudantes Paquistaneses em Relação ao Aprendizado de Inglês como Segunda Língua

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Article
Introduction
Over the years, linguists have been wondering why some 
students learn a second language more efficiently than oth-
ers. They have been wondering why certain individuals 
quickly achieve native-like competency whereas others find 
progressing beyond beginner proficiency levels highly chal-
lenging. The most commonly asked question in this context 
is, “What is it that makes a second language learner strive 
towards goal achievement?” To answer this question, current 
theories of second language acquisition and learning need to 
be examined. These theories are based on research in a wide 
variety of fields, such as linguistics, psychology, sociology, 
anthropology, and neuro-linguistics (Freeman & Freeman, 
2001) and borrow from each other to address questions that 
researchers have been trying to answer to provide guidance 
to language teachers and policy makers.
Research has indicated that second language learning is a 
social–psychological phenomenon, and it is important to 
carefully consider the conditions under which it takes place. 
Ellis (1997) argues that both internal and external factors 
play an integral role in learning a second language. External 
factors such as the social milieu in which learning takes place 
include opportunities learners may have to hear and speak 
the target language. Internal factors, however, include the 
attitudes learners develop toward the target language and 
seem to have a much stronger effect on language learning.
Saville-Troike (2006) claims that the question why some 
learners are more successful than others leads to the exami-
nation of differences in the learners themselves. In this con-
text, numerous factors may be examined; however, this 
particular research focuses on the individual differences that 
language learners display in terms of language attitudes and 
665887 SGOXXX10.1177/2158244016665887SAGE OpenKhalid
research-article2016
1Lahore University of Management Sciences, Pakistan
Corresponding Author:
Aamna Khalid, Department of Humanities & Social Sciences, Mushtaq 
Ahmad Gurmani School of Humanities & Social Sciences, Lahore 
University of Management Sciences, DHA, Lahore 54792, Pakistan. 
Email: aamna@lums.edu.pk
A Study of the Attitudes and Motivational 
Orientations of Pakistani Learners 
Toward the Learning of English as a 
Second Language
Aamna Khalid1
Abstract
In Pakistan where different languages co-exist, and where English has a high status as a second language (L2), the learners’ 
attitudes toward English plays an important role in formulating effective language policies. It is essential that these policies 
reflect these attitudes and are in sync with the learners’ orientations toward learning English. This article aimed to examine 
the attitudes of Pakistani students toward the learning of English as an L2 and to understand the motivational orientations 
that result from their attitudes. A secondary objective of this research was to find evidence to support the claim that 
Pakistani students are additive bilinguals who are not averse to the idea of a language policy that promotes English as 
the medium of instruction. Sixteen-year-old Pakistani students from public-sector schools were interviewed and asked to 
respond to questionnaires that measured their attitudes and orientations. The results indicated positive attitudes toward 
learning English as a second language with a clear instrumental orientation. Hence, the study highlighted that there exist no 
conflicting loyalties regarding the status of English and Urdu (the L1) and that both languages are held in high esteem. Despite 
a strong desire to learn English to gain access to international markets, the status of Urdu remains secure as it is viewed as a 
symbol of national integration. Hence, Pakistani students are additive bilinguals who for instrumental purposes would prefer 
their medium of instruction to be English and not because they do not value their L1.
Keywords
motivational orientations, language attitudes, instrumental motivation, language policy, additive bilingualism, second language 
learning, Pakistan, language planning, measurement of attitudes, bilingualism
mailto:aamna@lums.edu.pk
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2 SAGE Open
motivational orientations. These differences are most impor-
tant as they directly and indirectly influence the rate, process, 
and efficiency of language learning.
Background of the Study
Pakistan with a population exceeding 199 million is as much 
an English-speaking country as it is an Urdu-speaking coun-
try (Rahman, 1998). Urdu, an urban language of wider com-
munication, is the national language of the country whereas 
English is the official language. English is the language of 
the elite of Pakistan both formally—official interaction, 
employment, education and so on—and informally (private 
conversations, entertainment, reading, travel, etc.). It is 
firmly entrenched into the Pakistani society and considered 
to be a highly desired language by a vast majority of the pop-
ulation. Hence, English, today, enjoys a high status as the 
language of education, law, government, science, and tech-
nology. It is interesting to note that although English enjoys 
a high status and is a powerful language, Pakistan is a pre-
dominantly ESL (English as a second language) country.
Advocates of English argue for its retention as a language 
for international communication and as a lingua franca 
among the country’s provinces. Some conservative groups, 
however, see English as a symbol of Western culture and as 
creating inequality among the English-speaking elite and the 
common masses (Mansoor, 1993).
Over the last few decades, language policy makers in 
Pakistan have tried time and again to oust English and to 
replace it with Urdu as the language of government, law, and 
education (Rahman, 1998). They have supported their claims 
by labeling English as the language of the colonial masters of 
the past when Pakistan was a part of India under British rule. 
In their view, the younger generations do not hold English in 
high esteem and have highly negative attitudes toward it 
(Rahman, 1999).
Nevertheless, English is taught in all the schools, and is in 
fact the medium of instruction in many institutions and has 
been observed to be a language that the young students are 
using in not just their school lives but also their private lives 
(Rahman, 1998). Such contrasting scenarios have been pos-
ing numerous difficulties in language policy development 
and in determining the status and role of English in the 
Pakistani educational context (Rahman, 1999). Hence, it is 
of relative importance that the dynamics behind the teaching 
and learning of English are analyzed before any language 
teaching or learning policies are formulated (Rahman, 1998).
Research Aims and Objectives
As has been discussed earlier, one of the most important 
issues in the English learning and teaching scenario is that of 
the learners’ attitudes toward and their motivations for learn-
ing this language. To formulate effective language and edu-
cation policies, the study of these attitudes and motivations is 
crucial so that policies and learner needs and motivations are 
in sync for better language education in the country.
Consequently, it has been emphasized time and again that 
“instrumental reasons for learning a language display a posi-
tive attitudetowards one’s own language as well as towards 
the target language group” (Siguan & Mackey, 1987, p. 89) 
as opposed to integrative reasons.
This research study attempts to prove this hypothesis to 
better understand one of the most important variables that 
affect the second language learning process in Pakistan. The 
main reason why this variable is so important is that policy 
makers have quoted integrative orientation as the key moti-
vating factor in the learning of English, hence showing that 
Pakistani learners are subtractive bilinguals (Rahman, 1999). 
These views are in direct contrast to the existing research in 
this area (Abbas, 1998; Mansoor, 1993; Rahman, 1998, 
1999). What has happened as a result is that the language 
policies have been rendered rather unproductive and ineffec-
tive and so have adversely affected the second language 
learning scenario (Rahman, 1998).
Thus, the main aim of this research study is to highlight 
the learners’ attitudes toward and their motivations for learn-
ing English to ensure that language and education policies 
and learner needs and motivations are in sync for better edu-
cation in the country.
For this purpose, the article attempts to examine what 
16-year-old Pakistani students feel about the learning of 
English language. This understanding will benefit policy 
makers as they try to develop sound educational policies.
Moreover, this article also aims to analyze the effects of 
these attitudes on the motivational preferences of these learn-
ers; that is, this study also aims to identify and determine the 
learners’ motivational orientations.
Hence, the research objectives are as follows:
•• To examine the attitudes of Pakistani students toward 
the learning of ESL
•• To understand the motivational orientations/prefer-
ences of Pakistani students by analyzing the effects of 
the language attitudes that Pakistani students display 
toward the learning of ESL
A secondary, yet important, objective of this research is to 
find evidence to support the claim that Pakistani students are 
additive bilinguals who are not averse to the idea of a lan-
guage policy that promotes English as the medium of instruc-
tion. Hence, this article is simply a starting point in the 
much-needed research into the role and status of English in 
the Pakistani educational scenario.
Language Attitudes and Second 
Language Learning
Social psychologists claim that attitudes exert a directive 
influence on behavior because someone’s attitude toward a 
Khalid 3
target influences the overall pattern of the person’s responses 
to that target. Triandis (1971) suggests that attitudes are 
made up of three components: cognitive, affective, and cona-
tive; that is, what a person thinks and feels, and how he or 
she tends to behave toward an object. These components are 
often interdependent to a certain extent and interact dynami-
cally with the environment. Ryan and Giles (1982) present a 
more language-focused view of attitudes as, “any affective, 
cognitive or behavioural index of evaluative reactions 
towards different language varieties or their speakers” (p. 7). 
Similarly, Fasold (1984) maintains that attitudes toward a 
language are often the reflection of attitudes toward mem-
bers of various ethnic groups. In addition, Edwards (1982) 
contributes that an individual’s reactions to a language vari-
ety reveals a great deal about his or her perceptions of the 
speakers of that variety.
In a similar vein, Gardner (1982) suggests that if we know 
a person’s attitude toward the target language community, 
that is what he or she thinks and feels about them, then we 
have a better chance of being able to predict the way he or 
she will behave toward them. This hypothesis has been the 
basis underlying most of the research conducted into the 
relationship among attitudes and Second Language 
Acquisition (SLA), for example, Gardner and Lambert 
(1959, 1972); Lukmani (1972); Oller, Baca, and Vigil (1977); 
and Mansoor (1993). The crucial point in Gardner’s (1985) 
theory is, therefore, that a student’s attitude toward the target 
language group will influence how successful he or she will 
be in incorporating aspects of that language. It is commonly 
accepted among scholars that language belongs to a person’s 
whole social being: It is part of one’s identity and is used to 
convey this identity to other people. Thus, the learning of a 
second language involves more than learning skills, or a sys-
tem of rules, or a grammar; it involves an alteration in self-
image, the adoption of new social and cultural behaviors and 
ways of being, and therefore has a significant impact on the 
social nature of the learner. Hence, Gardner (1985) hypoth-
esized that L2 learners with positive attitudes toward the tar-
get culture will learn the target language more effectively 
than those who do not have such positive attitudes. In their 
earlier studies, Gardner and Lambert (1959) found that apti-
tude and motivation were the two factors most strongly asso-
ciated with learners’ L2 achievement.
According to Latchanna and Dagnew (2009) motivation, 
attitudes and beliefs about learning a language are among the 
determining factors that influence a student’s efficiency and 
must be taken into account when understanding second lan-
guage learning processes. Lennartsson (2008) postulates that 
students’ beliefs can be an obstacle if they believe that they 
cannot learn the new language successfully. Hence, a negative 
attitude and lack of motivation can lead to obstacles in learn-
ing a language (Lennartsson, 2008). In another vein, research-
ers have indicated that students’ attitudes toward the specific 
language group and attitudes toward learning it are bound to 
influence how successful they will be in incorporating aspects 
of that language—whether that influence takes the form of a 
cognitive filter as suggested by Dulay and Burt (1977), and 
Krashen (1981), or whether they simply support a student’s 
motivations (Gardner, 1985).
Hence, research has indicated that in second language 
learning contexts, the role of attitudes and motivation is of 
immense importance (Fishman, 1978). For example, in post-
colonial Africa, students may be educated in English or 
French whereas another language is spoken in the home, and 
yet another may be used in public encounters (Fishman, 
1978). In officially bilingual countries such as Switzerland, 
students use one language at home and for most schooling, 
but are expected to acquire competence in at least one other 
official language; thus, in Switzerland, French and German 
are of equivalent social status and importance to success.
In the Pakistani community where different languages co-
exist, it is imperative to realize that language attitudes play 
an important role in the lives of the users of these languages. 
According to Grosjean (1982) “wherever languages are in 
contact, one is likely to find certain prevalent attitudes of 
favour or disfavour towards the languages involved. These 
can have profound effects on the psychology of the individu-
als and on their use of these languages” (pp. 95-96) and 
hence on the learning processes of these languages. 
Therefore, how an individual views another language group 
affects not only his or her reasons for learning that language, 
but also his or her motivational intensity.
Motivation, Orientation, and Language Learning
When studying language attitudes, the concept of motives is 
important. In the context of the study and in the domain of 
social psychology, motivation is taken to be a construct with 
three interacting components. These were identified by 
Gardner (1985) as a combination of a desire to learn an L2, 
the expenditure of effort to achieve L2 proficiency, and a 
favorable attitude toward learning the target language. This 
concept suggests that attitudes and motivation are important 
because they determine the extent to which individuals will 
actively involve themselves inlearning the language.
Gardner (1979) further hypothesized that it is not possible 
for an individual with an unfavorable attitude toward acquir-
ing a language to find the high drive, to invest the effort, and 
to seek out opportunities required to learn. He further adds 
that “attitude variables are important in that, they serve to 
maintain levels of motivation . . .” (Gardner, 1985, p. 158).
Another concept of considerable importance in the field 
of SLA deals with individual orientation, that is, the indi-
viduals’ reasons for learning the target language (Siguan & 
Mackey, 1987). It is easy to understand that motivation is 
goal-directed behavior, and in this context, the goal is to 
learn a language. The question that arises here is, why does 
an individual have this goal—what is his or her orientation? 
Early research into attitudes, motivation, orientation, and 
their influence on SLA contrasted two types of orientation: 
4 SAGE Open
integrative and instrumental. Mansoor (1993) has postulated 
that integrative orientation is based on the desire to learn an 
L2 to be able to meet, converse with, better understand, and 
eventually be a part of the target language community. 
Whereas instrumental orientation is based on a desire to 
learn the L2 for essentially utilitarian reasons, such as getting 
a good job or being better educated.
Gardner and Lambert (1972) proposed that an integrative 
orientation leads to higher motivational levels and more suc-
cessful learning than instrumental orientation. This theory 
has been modified by Lukmani (1972) and Mansoor (1993) 
who have both proven that instrumental orientation leads to 
more effective learning.
The Conceptual Framework of This Research
This research study rests on theories posited by Mansoor 
(1993) in her extensive research on language attitudes and 
motivations in L2 learning in Pakistan. As stated earlier, her 
framework rests on the hypothesis that instrumental orienta-
tion leads to more effective language learning than integra-
tive orientation does. Mansoor’s work stems from her careful 
study of the social–psychological model proposed by 
Lambert (1974 in Gardner, 1985). According to this model, a 
learner’s motivation to acquire a language is determined by 
his or her attitude toward the target language group and by 
his or her orientation toward learning the L2. Thus, Mansoor 
(1993) analyzed learner attitudes toward a target language 
group while trying to study the learners’ attitudes and orien-
tations toward the learning of the said language.
This article also rests on Gardner’s theory of second lan-
guage acquisition, where the crucial point to consider is that a 
student’s attitude toward the target language group will influ-
ence how successful he or she will be in incorporating aspects 
of that language into his or her repertoire (Gardner, 1985). 
Hence, the conceptual framework of this research study rests 
on works by Lambert (1974, in Gardner, 1985), Gardner 
(1985), and Mansoor (1993), with each work highlighting 
that L2 learners with positive attitudes toward the target cul-
ture will learn the target language more effectively than those 
who do not have such positive attitudes and that a strong 
instrumental orientation is highly beneficial in this scenario.
The social–psychological model. In his seminal social–psycho-
logical model, Lambert (1974, in Gardner, 1985) proposed 
that the learner’s motivation to acquire a language is said to 
be determined by his or her attitude toward the target lan-
guage group and by his or her orientation toward learning the 
L2. The model is based on a theory of bilingual development 
and self-identity modification. The theory suggests that lin-
guistic distinctiveness is a basic component of personal iden-
tity. This means that the development of L2 proficiency has 
implications for the learner’s self-identity and vice versa.
Lambert (1974, in Gardner, 1985) suggests that linguistic 
distinctiveness originates very early in the socialization 
process, occurring when parents make contrasts between their 
own and other cultural communities to help their children 
understand their social identity. Schools reinforce these early 
perceptions. Consequently, language is seen to play a major 
role in the development of an individual’s self-identity.
Lambert (1967) argued that students learning a second 
language must be able and willing to adopt aspects of behav-
ior that characterize members of the target linguistic–cultural 
group. This involves both cognitive (language aptitude and 
intelligence) and affective (attitudes and motivation) factors. 
However, the stress is more on affective factors not just in 
Lambert’s theoretical model but also in this research; hence, 
the discussion in this article will not focus on the role of apti-
tude and intelligence in second language learning.
Figure 1 displays the major components of this model.
The social–psychological model proposes that SLA is 
mediated by a number of variables that include language apti-
tude and certain attitude and orientation variables, such as 
ethnocentric tendencies, attitude toward the other language 
community, and instrumental and integrative orientation 
(Ellis, 1991). Moreover, as an individual becomes more profi-
cient in the L2, his or her self-identity may undergo a change, 
which may lead to either additive or subtractive bilingualism.
It is important to note at this point that high motivation can 
make up for considerable deficiencies both in one’s language 
aptitude and in learning conditions. In their seminal work, 
Gardner and Lambert (1972) emphasize that, although lan-
guage aptitude accounts for a considerable proportion of 
individual variability in language learning achievement, moti-
vational factors can override the aptitude effect. In certain lan-
guage environments, as Gardner and Lambert point out, where 
the social setting demands it (e.g., when the L1 is a local ver-
nacular and the L2 is the national language), many people 
seem to master an L2, regardless of their aptitude differences.
Attitudes Toward Language Groups
Spolsky (1969) argues that in a second language learning 
scenario, one of the most important attitudinal factors is the 
attitude of the learner toward the target language and toward 
its speakers. A learner who has a positive attitude toward the 
Attitudes &
orientation
Aptitude
Motivation
Proficiency
Self-identity
Additive
bilingualism
Subtractive
bilingualism
Figure 1. Lambert’s social–psychological model.
Source. Adapted from Mansoor (1993, p. 23).
Khalid 5
target language group will exhibit a stronger desire to learn 
that language as compared with a learner with a negative atti-
tude toward that language.
According to Gardner (1985), the study of attitudes 
toward languages and language groups includes issues such 
as group-specific attitudes (attitudes toward language-speak-
ing communities; own ethnic community and other language 
groups), attitudes toward languages (i.e., the mother tongue 
and second languages), the extent of the use of all the lan-
guages in the repertoire of the individual, and how the func-
tions of the languages are being extended or restricted.
Ethnolinguistic identity. Ethnolinguistic identity is based on a 
belief that one’s own group is distinctive in socially impor-
tant ways (Lennartsson, 2008) and that the most important 
component is cultural distinctiveness. The social identity 
may be positive or negative according to how in-groups fare 
in social comparisons with relative out-groups. In this way, 
language functions as a very sensitive filter through which 
one’s own perception of self and group and others must pass.
Language maintenance, spread, and shift. Language shift and 
maintenance are the long-term collective results of language 
choice. In language shift, a community simply gives up one 
language completely in favor of another—an effect of subtrac-
tive bilingualism (Cooper, 1983). Blommaert(2010) explains 
that this could be the result of negative attitudes toward one’s 
language and a low ethno-linguistic identity. However, lan-
guage shift does not mean that knowledge of the forsaken lan-
guage has disappeared, but that the relative competence in the 
two languages has become opposite to what it was earlier.
Cooper (1983) suggests that language spread occurs when 
one language takes over others as a lingua franca and is used 
for wider communication. On the whole, such spread is neu-
tral in attitudes when the spread is part of a natural process of 
adding another language to the existing repertoire. However, 
when the new language takes over as the mother tongue, the 
language spread becomes a case of language shift. Hence, 
positive attitudes engender language loyalty (Blommaert, 
2010) and therefore favor maintenance of one’s native lan-
guage. Cummins and Swain (1986) further maintain that 
additive bilingualism is directly related to language mainte-
nance, whereas shift displays a subtractive attitude toward 
the native language. Over time, intense subtractive bilingual-
ism could even lead to language loss or death.
The Research Scenario
This article outlines a small-scale research study conducted 
to examine the above-mentioned theoretical concepts in the 
context of the Pakistani school systems. A limited number of 
participants were randomly selected—fifty-seven 16-year-
old Pakistani male students from English-medium govern-
ment (public) schools and the selected data collection tools 
were administered over the course of a few days.
To minimize the effects of variables in the research situa-
tion, the participants were very carefully selected with 
respect to their age ranges, socio-economic background, and 
genders. The aim was to ensure minimum variations in terms 
of ages, gender, and socio-economic class, hence enhancing 
the study’s reliability index.
Research Objectives and Questions
As has been discussed earlier, to formulate effective lan-
guage and education policies, it is crucial to study second 
language learners’ attitudes and motivations toward the tar-
get language. This will ensure that policies reflect learner 
needs, attitudes, and motivations, and are hence, effective.
Thus, the main aim of this research study was to highlight 
the learners’ attitudes and their motivational orientations 
toward learning English to ensure that language and educa-
tion policies and learner needs and motivations are in sync for 
better language education in the country (refer to Table 1).
As stated earlier, a secondary objective of this study was 
to find evidence to support the claim that Pakistani students 
are additive bilinguals who display instrumental orientations 
toward the learning of ESL. Thus, these learners are not 
averse to the idea of a language policy that promotes English 
as the medium of instruction (in direct contrast to what pol-
icy makers believe at the moment).
Limitations of the study. This research study was conducted as 
a pioneering effort in the study of attitudes and orientations 
of 16-year-old Pakistani students from public schools. It 
aimed at opening the door to further research in this field, 
hence, was small-scale and restricted to one city in the 
country.
Another limitation of the study was related to data collec-
tion. Through the course of this study, it became evident that 
policy makers were not accessible and unwilling to share the 
reasons behind their views about the role and status of 
English. It is rather important to be able to analyze their 
views if an in-depth study of the role of language attitudes 
Table 1. Research Objectives and Questions.
Research objective Research question
•• To examine the attitudes of 
Pakistani students toward 
the learning of English as a 
second language
1. What are Pakistani 
students’ attitudes 
toward the learning 
of English as a second 
language?
•• To determine the 
motivational orientations 
of Pakistani students by 
analyzing the effects of the 
language attitudes that they 
display toward the learning of 
English as a second language
2. Do Pakistani students 
display integrative 
or instrumental 
orientations?
6 SAGE Open
and orientations in language policy development is to be 
conducted in the future.
Finally, this study was restricted to one socio-economic 
group. A comparative analysis of the attitudes of different 
socio-economic classes would have led to results that could 
be generalized to a greater extent. However, as the objectives 
of this research were to simply identify the basic attitudes 
and orientations of students and to simply begin the process 
of investigation in this domain, the participant group was 
considered adequate.
Measurement of Attitudes and Motivation
While selecting the methods to collect data, it is imperative 
to first address several issues in the search for dimensions 
underlying language attitudes. First, the issue of prime 
importance is to understand that the type of empirical proce-
dures used in deriving dimensions from rating scales contrib-
utes significantly to the ultimate result. Second, because the 
attitudes toward different languages may vary quite dramati-
cally within a group, it is important to ascertain the critical 
within-group characteristics and to investigate their interac-
tion with postulated attitudinal dimensions (Mansoor, 1993). 
Therefore, an important method to use in this scenario is the 
direct measurement technique, which observes language atti-
tudes through the use of questionnaires, either in written 
form or via individual interviews (Ryan, Giles, & Sebastian, 
1982).
Moreover, it is also important to remember that in a totally 
indirect method of data collection, the participants are not 
aware that it is their language attitudes that are being studied, 
and hence, there are fewer chances of their responses being 
colored by any biases. Thus, following Blommaert’s (2010) 
suggestions promoting the use of direct and indirect mea-
sures as a cross-validation technique, both direct and indirect 
measures were used in this study to collect data.
Research Method
The most appropriate methods were selected after a critical 
review of their advantages and disadvantages as enumerated 
in Table 2.
Throughout the research study, the emphasis was on the 
use of multiple data collection tools, thereby combining both 
qualitative and quantitative methods. The research conducted 
clearly depicted the many advantages of triangulation where 
each source of data is seen to contribute an additional piece 
to the puzzle and in that way complement each other (J. 
McDonough & McDonough, 1997).
Patton (1990) claims that when investigating human 
behavior and attitudes, it is most fruitful to use a variety of 
data collection methods, as the researcher can build on the 
strength of each type of tool and minimize the weaknesses of 
any single approach. Thus, in the present research, the use of 
both qualitative and quantitative methods in the form of survey 
interviews and direct and indirect questionnaires provides 
results that could be both statistically valid and theoretically 
sound.
In relation to the advantages of using questionnaires, 
Wilson and McLean (1994) postulate that questionnaires 
provide structured data, are easy to administer without the 
presence of the researchers, and are often straightforward to 
analyze. In addition, the research interview provides impor-
tant qualitative data, and Patton (1990) suggests that when 
interviews are structured and well organized, they are effec-
tive data collection tools.
Direct measures/self-reports. Bilingualism is measured either 
by reported linguistic behavior by the bilingual speaker him-
self or herself either in questionnaire or interview form or 
through observation (Hardford, Valdman, & Foster, 1982). 
Reported linguistic behavior consists of background data of 
self-assessment and of the results of measurements of atti-
tudes.Self-reports have often been criticized as being sus-
ceptible to extraneous variance (Ryan et al., 1982); however, 
no empirical evidence has been identified to support this 
claim. In fact, according to Hardford et al. (1982) self-assess-
ment of an informant’s use of an L2 is a rather reliable 
method of measuring bilingualism. Nevertheless, the success 
of self-report techniques for eliciting information depends on 
the openness and flexibility built into the questions (Aghey-
isi & Fishman, 1971).
Direct questionnaire (domain analysis). The collection of 
background data is the easiest way of acquiring informa-
tion about the use of languages. In many investigations, the 
background data show a fairly strong correlation with other 
measurements of bilingualism (Mansoor, 1993). Macnamara 
(1966) divides the background questionnaire into five cat-
egories, namely, “informant him/herself, father, mother, sib-
ling, and the environment” (pp. 85-87).
In this study, the survey used included statements related 
to domains such as family, friendship, neighborhood, trans-
actions, education, government, and employment (refer to 
Appendix B). The informants’ task was to fill in the language 
Table 2. Summary of the Research Methodology Used.
Research design Survey methods with triangulation of data 
collection tools.
Data collection 
methods
Indirect questionnaire (identity scales)
Direct questionnaire (domain analysis)
Direct questionnaire (Likert-type scale)
Direct questionnaire (orientation index)
Semi-structured and open interviews of 10 
students
Sampling Random sample of 57 students (all male and 
16 years old)
Roughly the same income group (lower-
middle class)
Khalid 7
he or she most often used for each occasion (grading the fre-
quency of use from one to four—with four indicating the 
highest frequency). The aim was to analyze their use of 
English in different domains—both formal and informal. 
Education, employment, and government were categorized 
as formal whereas family, friendship, neighborhood, and 
transactions as more informal domains.
This questionnaire was adapted from Mansoor (1993); 
however, changes were made that were considered necessary 
for the context of this research. The questionnaire (refer to 
Appendix B) included open-ended questions to provide soft” 
data about issues involved in the research.
Direct questionnaire (Likert-type scale). A well-known 
direct measure is the Likert-type scale (Appendix C)—a 
method of summated ratings. According to Dawes and Smith 
(1985), a Likert-type scale consists of declarative statements 
and a number of categories on which the respondents rate 
their agreement or disagreement. The most common number 
of categories is seven with a neutral category if required.
Appendix C presents a sample of the questionnaire based 
on the Likert measurement scale. A total of 35 items were 
selected, which aimed to provide a well-rounded view of the 
participant’s attitudes toward the target language. This ques-
tionnaire was adapted from Mansoor (1993).
Direct questionnaire (orientation index). The orientation 
index in Appendix D was designed to elicit information 
about the learners’ reasons for studying English and to 
determine whether their orientation would be classified as 
integrative or instrumental. This measure was based on a 
questionnaire developed by Gardner and Lambert (1972). 
Six integrative and six instrumental reasons were randomly 
ordered. The participants had to indicate the importance of 
each reason by marking off one of five possible judgments 
for each reason, ranging from “most important” to “not at 
all important.”
Semi-structured and open interviews. This measure con-
sisted of a number of prepared questions on the issue of 
language proficiency and usage (refer to Appendix E). In 
addition, the overall desirability of languages for education 
was also considered. The questions were open-ended to give 
a soft and qualitative dimension to the study. Although there 
was a questionnaire format for the interview that was used 
as the central core, some flexibility was allowed and the 
research probed deeper into areas of interest especially the 
role of language in education.
Indirect Identity Scales. Indirect Identity Scales were developed 
by Spolsky (1969) to measure attitudes. Spolsky (1969) and 
Oller et al. (1977) suggest that integrative–instrumental orien-
tation may be better measured by this technique that expresses 
the concept of a continuum between the two orientations. 
These Indirect Identity Scales were thought to provide an 
indirect indication of a student’s attitudinal orientation. Oller 
et al. (1977) suggested that if a student rates a certain trait 
more highly on the ideal self-scale, it indicates a positive valu-
ation of that trait.
Indirect questionnaire (identity scales). The Indirect Iden-
tity Scale used in this study consisted of four identity 
scales, namely, ratings for self-concept, ideal self-concept, 
the Urdu-speaking community, and the English-speaking 
community. Each part had the same set of 17 traits on a 
Semantic Differential Scale (Osgood, Suci, & Tannenbaum, 
1957). Participants were required to mark the bi-polar traits 
on a 5-point scale. To protect against order effects, the traits 
were randomly ordered on the page, with a different order 
for each of the parts, so that participants would be forced 
to respond to each part separately. Negative and positive 
traits were also counterbalanced in the two columns (refer 
to Appendix A). This questionnaire was adapted from Man-
soor (1993).
Validity and Reliability of the Surveys
A meaningful data collection instrument is one that is both 
reliable and valid. One of the simplest tests of reliability is 
whether the same questionnaire, administered to the same 
person twice in a short period of time, yields similar responses 
(Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2000). Belson (1986) asserts 
that consistent responses suggest reliability, and consistent 
responses to different items that seek to measure the same 
behavior provide greater confidence that the questionnaire is 
reliable. According to Cohen et al. (2000), the issue of the 
degree of unreliability can also be reduced by using a variety 
of measuring devices and assessors.
Tests of validity ask whether the interpretation, uses, and 
actions based on assessment results are appropriate to the 
purpose and context of the research (J. McDonough & 
McDonough, 1997). A data collection item is valid to the 
degree that it actually measures what it claims to measure.
To ensure reliability and validity in this study, not only 
numerous data collection tools were used (triangulation), but 
these tools were also tested in a piloting stage. Before the 
surveys were administered to the participants, the surveys 
went through a rigorous process of reliability and validity 
checks with a control group of participants.
Procedure of the Research Study
The participants were randomly selected and were given a 
preliminary explanation of the purposes of the study before 
the data were collected in two sessions. The Identity Scales 
and domain analysis questionnaires were completed in the 
first session. An interval of half an hour was given between 
the two sessions, to set off the “fatigue effect.”
In the second session, the participants completed the ori-
entation index and the Likert-type scale questionnaires. After 
8 SAGE Open
another 15-min break, 10 students were randomly selected 
for the interviews.
Findings and Discussion
The results of the research study addressed both research 
questions and clearly highlighted the language attitudes and 
orientations of Pakistani second language learners.
With respect to the use of language, the results indicated 
that all the learners belonged to lower-middle income groups 
and shared a common first language, that is, Urdu. It was 
found that the participants used a blend of Urdu and English 
in informal settings, whereasEnglish dominated all of the 
formal communication (refer to Table 3).
One of the most important findings was that the study 
revealed highly favorable attitudes toward English and the 
English-speaking community. These were observed on both 
the direct and indirect measures as discussed below and indi-
cated positive attitudes toward the learning of English.
A comparative analysis of attitudes toward the Urdu-
speaking and the English-speaking communities indicated 
that the English-speaking community was rated lower than 
the Urdu community by 90% of the learners. This directly 
contradicts the assumptions of Pakistani policy makers who 
claim that because of the use of English, Pakistani students 
have developed a subtractive attitude toward their native lan-
guage (Rahman, 1998). This research revealed that although 
Pakistani learners hold highly favorable attitudes toward 
English, the positive attitudes are not at the expense of Urdu. 
Recent research conducted by Islam, Martin, and Chambers 
(2012) has also disproved the older views that Pakistani stu-
dents feel Urdu to be at risk if English is to be promoted not 
only as a medium of instruction but also as a compulsory 
subject from Grade 1 onward.
Regarding specific traits, the Urdu-speaking community 
was rated considerably higher on integrative traits such as 
“interesting, confident, reliable, capable, socially graceful, 
open and most similar to self.” The traits on which the 
English-speaking community was rated higher were mainly, 
instrumental ones such as “modern, successful, independent, 
happy, high standard of living, bright future, and impres-
sive.” Thus, this research corroborated findings from Norton 
and Kamal’s (2003) study that young Pakistani learners con-
sider competence in English to be closely related to 
technological advances and developments in literacy in the 
future and consider English education to be desirable and 
highly beneficial from an instrumental perspective.
From this discussion when we try to determine whether 
Pakistani students are additive bilinguals or subtractive, it is 
rather obvious from the results that the majority display addi-
tive tendencies. Our students value English for its utility and 
assign it a high status but not at the expense of their first 
language.
The questionnaire that measured the students’ attitudes 
toward learning ESL (Appendix C) further reinforced the 
finding that Pakistani students are additive bilinguals with 
very positive attitudes toward both English and Urdu (the 
national language).
Refer to Table 4 for the results of the questionnaire.
The results indicated that the participants agreed 100% 
that proficiency in both Urdu and English is an advantage. 
Although they all believed that proficiency in English is 
advantageous and important, a vast majority felt more com-
fortable using their first language in everyday situations.
Hundred percent of the participants claimed that they 
strongly identified with their mother tongue, first language, 
and culture. This, among other things, proved the hypothesis 
that although Pakistani students value English, they are 
nonetheless additive bilinguals.
As for their views about the importance of Urdu, the 
results clearly indicated that all of the students believed in 
promoting Urdu to preserve their culture and felt that the use 
of Urdu should be promoted throughout the country as it had 
a strong role to play in the development of Pakistan.
With respect to attitudes toward the English community 
and the learning of English, the research indicated that the 
students had highly positive attitudes. Eighty to ninety per-
cent of the students strongly agreed that proficiency in 
English had direct positive influences on getting a good job 
and succeeding in their professional lives. Yet, the majority 
disagreed when asked whether English should always be 
used in everyday life, on public signs, notices, and advertise-
ments. The students were of the opinion that in all these 
spheres of life, their national and regional languages should 
be used.
It was interesting to note that although English was 
assigned such a high status and given so much importance by 
the students, 90% of the students strongly disagreed when 
asked whether they identified with the values and culture of 
the target language community. They agreed that English has 
been and continues to be advantageous for Pakistan, yet it 
does not make up a significant part of their history and iden-
tity. Thus, learning English is undertaken purely for utilitar-
ian purposes.
Hence, one of the most important findings was related to 
the high status that most students assigned to English and its 
utility in their lives. English was seen as useful in all spheres 
of life, especially in professional life (refer to Table 5). The 
students revealed that English is regarded as a status symbol 
Table 3. Language Use in Different Domains of Life.
With family L1 and L2
With friends L1 and L2
With neighbors L1 and L2
In transactions L1
In education L1 and L2
In government L2
In employment L2
Note. L1 = local vernacular; L2 = national language.
Khalid 9
in Pakistan and acquisition of English is seen as necessary 
for social prestige. In the Pakistani culture, social prestige is 
synonymous with speaking English and being educated in 
English. This takes the discussion to another area—that of 
the preferred medium of education. However, this will be 
discussed later. Overall, most students regarded English as 
“a passport to progress and success.”
Results on the orientation index and the other direct ques-
tionnaires revealed that all learners were more instrumen-
tally motivated than integratively motivated to learn English. 
The students scored an overall mean score of 4.222 on instru-
mental reasons and 3.132 mean score on integrative reasons; 
thus, the instrumental scores were higher. When a t test was 
run on the orientation scores, instrumental orientation was 
Table 4. Attitudes Toward Urdu and English Using the Likert-Type Scale.
Item 
measured
1 = strongly 
disagree
2 = moderately 
disagree
3 = slightly 
disagree 4 = neutral
5 = slightly 
agree
6 = moderately 
agree
7 = strongly 
agree
Percentage of students
1 100
2 25 75 
3 20 80
4 10 90
5 60 10 20 10 
6 100
7 10 90
8 100
9 98 2 
10 10 10 70 10
11 10 80 10
12 10 80 10
13 40 35 25
14 45 10 45 
15 10 80 10
16 5 5 80 10
17 10 90
18 85 5 10 
19 100
20 2 98
21 15 45 40
22 20 25 45 10
23 90 5 5 
24 90 10 
25 5 95 
26 25 30 20 5 20 
27 90 8 2 
28 5 5 90
29 4 90 1 5 
30 75 20 5 
31 2 8 90
32 100 
33 80 10 10 
34 5 15 25 30 10 10 5
35 90 5 5 
Note. Refer to Appendix C to view item details.
Table 5. Utilitarian Value of English.
Usefulness of English % of students
• Use it in future careers 95
• Pursue higher education 90
• Is synonymous with progress 98
• A status symbol 67
• International language 89
10 SAGE Open
again found to rank significantly higher than integrative ori-
entation, that is, t = 5.44 at the .05 level of significance.
The most important instrumental reasons were as follows: 
“it is the working language of my future career,” “reading 
advanced technical literature,” and “travelling abroad” (refer 
to Table 6).
The two integrative reasons with the lowest scores for 
learning English were “thinking and behaving like the 
English-speaking community” and “being friendly with the 
English-speaking community.” This displays little or no 
desire on the part of the learners to identify themselves with 
the English community or to integrate with them at the 
expense of their own community and identity. When the rea-
sons for the low scores were analyzed, it was revealed that in 
the students’ views, these reasons imply a clear rejection of 
the norms of Pakistani society and question their loyalty to 
their own community, which the students find quite 
unacceptable.
One of the secondary purposes of this study was to ana-
lyze the issue of the medium ofinstruction in Pakistan. 
Research has shown that in the past, English as a medium of 
instruction was considered to be a luxury reserved for the 
higher income sectors of society (Rahman, 1998). The 
medium of instruction for public and government-run 
schools was Urdu, and the students viewed English-medium 
instruction as a betrayal of their native culture and values 
(Mansoor, 1993).
More recent works (Memon, 2007; Rahman, 2002, 2004), 
however, have indicated a shift in this attitude. Because 
English has gained popularity as a language for develop-
ment, attitudes have changed with respect to its purposes. It 
is no longer seen as a language that will lead toward a shift in 
the status of Urdu but as a language that is necessary to prog-
ress in the world (Islam et al., 2012).
Hence, its role as a lingua franca has led to a shift in the 
attitudes of policy makers who earlier regarded English-
medium education as a threat to national integration and 
development (Shamim, 2011). Policy makers, following in 
the footsteps of Pakistani students, are just now beginning to 
see the value of introducing English as a medium of instruc-
tion in public and government schools.
This research study also indicated this trend toward 
English-medium instruction. The students displayed highly 
positive attitudes toward English as a medium of instruction. 
They were of the view that a change from Urdu-medium to 
English-medium education does not indicate any negative 
attitudes toward Urdu or a lowering of its prestige. This 
change, according to the students, is simply a necessary 
requirement if Pakistani students are to compete on an equal 
footing with the students from the rest of the world. This will 
automatically be advantageous to Pakistan as English may 
be a powerful vehicle for promoting dialogue, unity, and 
reduction of the divide between developed and underdevel-
oped countries (Islam et al., 2012).
Figure 2 depicts the opinions of the participants with 
respect to the case of the medium of instruction. As is evi-
dent, a larger percentage of students preferred English as a 
medium of instruction over Urdu. The vast majority, how-
ever, indicated that schools should provide students with a 
choice between selecting Urdu or English as a medium of 
study. This would empower students, and they would feel 
that their opinions matter to policy makers.
Table 6. Motivational Orientations in Rank Order.
Instrumental orientation
No of students 
who rated “most 
important” Integrative orientation
No of students who 
rated “not at all 
important”
•• It is the working language of 
my future career
40 •• Thinking and behaving like the 
English-speaking community
35
•• Reading advanced technical 
literature
7 •• Being friendly with English-speaking 
community
10
•• Traveling abroad 3 •• Becoming more modern 6
•• Getting access to international 
books and journals
2 •• Acquaintance with people in touch 
with the latest trends in the West
3
•• Coping with university classes 2 •• To improve my social status 2
•• Getting a good job 2 •• Acquiring new ideas and broadening 
one’s outlook
1
Figure 2. Medium of instruction.
Khalid 11
It is essential to note at this point that when students pre-
ferred being given the opportunity to choose their medium of 
study, 80% of them indicated that they would choose English 
over Urdu. This simply reinforces the finding that English is 
now the preferred medium of instruction.
Table 7 highlights the reasons that the students presented 
for preferring English over Urdu as a medium of instruction. 
Other than the obvious reason regarding the status of English 
as a lingua franca and its role in opening doors for future 
opportunities for the students, the interviews revealed that 
students have other reasons for their preference. The students 
listed numerous difficulties in Urdu-medium studies, mainly, 
lack of materials and untrained teachers, and less access to 
valuable literature and developments in various walks of life 
(refer to Table 7).
Finally, the results implied a language spread in the case 
of both Urdu and English.
In most cases, it was observed that English was used dom-
inantly along with Urdu in both informal and formal spheres 
of life. Therefore, the L1 is being maintained even with rapid 
spread of the L2, namely, English.
An important factor in the case of the spread of English is 
the high status it enjoys. It has been the second official lan-
guage till 1972 and is used along with Urdu for all official 
purposes (Rahman, 1998). It is seen as necessary for upward 
economic and social mobility and as a symbol of progress 
and modernization.
The study revealed another very interesting finding 
related to the status and role of English in Pakistan and the 
subsequent attitudes of students toward the learning of 
English. Research has indicated that in countries where 
English is a foreign language, the nature and strength of the 
citizens’ affiliations for their own country may have 
consequences for their motivation to learn English (Islam 
et al., 2012). In Japan, for example, Rivers (2011) found 
significant correlations between nationalism and positive 
attitudes toward learning English. These results can be 
explained in terms of the belief of many Japanese that 
English is an important tool for internationalizing their 
country while also asserting Japanese distinctiveness in the 
world outside. Similar research in China also suggests that 
a possible motivation to learn English is the perception that 
it may play a vital role in promoting Chinese identity and 
culture to the world (Orton, 2009). In addition, Al-Haq and 
Smadi (1996) found that Saudi Arabian students do not 
consider English to be a threat to their national identity or 
religious commitment; rather, they see learning English as 
a religious and national duty because the language could be 
used to promote and spread their cultural and religious 
beliefs.
In Pakistan, most of the research leans in the opposite 
direction where English is seen as a threat to national inte-
gration and as the main reason behind the decline in the pop-
ularity of the national language leading to a negative shift in 
the status of Urdu (Haque, 1993). This is in direct opposition 
to the findings of this research and the perspective put forth 
by Shamim (2011) in her research studies where she describes 
a widespread perception of English as the language for 
development at both the individual and national levels, which 
has “overtaken issues of class, identity, and fear of cultural 
invasion from an erstwhile colonial language” (p. 293). 
Recent progressive political leadership has called knowledge 
of English “an urgent public requirement” (Jalal, 2004, p. 24) 
on democratic grounds, and a new English language policy 
has recently instigated the teaching of English from Grade 1 
in most public schools in the hope of promoting the language 
among the less privileged groups studying in public-sector 
institutions (Shamim, 2011). What is required now is a pol-
icy where English gets the status of a medium of instruction 
in all public schools.
Overall, the study revealed that Pakistani students display 
a positive psycholinguistic distinctiveness. The learners 
seem to strive to achieve a positive identity by not only seek-
ing dimensions that afford favorable comparisons with out-
groups, but regard their own language as something worth 
having, and as necessary for their national identity.
Implications and Recommendations
According to Mueen (1992), countries have two dimensions 
of language policy: first, to spread their languages to as many 
people and groups as possible, and second, to learn foreign 
languages to secure their national interests through diplo-
macy, intelligence gathering, trade, and so on. Hence, lan-
guage policies should be formulated after in-depth research 
into the language needs and attitudes of the populace to 
ensure that both attitudes andpolicies are in sync for effec-
tive results (Mueen, 1992).
Table 7. Reasons for English as the Preferred Medium of 
Instruction as Indicated in the Questionnaires and Interviews.
•• “Urdu hinders fluency in English—most of the syllabus is in 
English. Urdu is already spoken quite well by the local people. 
It is English that needs to be learnt—we need to spend more 
time and effort learning it.”
•• “Study in Urdu will create confusing circumstances in certain 
cases, for instance, in science subjects where there are no 
scientific terms synonymous with existing English terms.”
•• “More access to books and other learning materials. Urdu 
is Pakistan specific hence there is a dearth of learning 
materials—most of the best books in the world are in 
English.”
•• “I have already studied enough Urdu-no use in foreign 
countries”
•• “If we want to go for higher studies Urdu will not help us.”
•• “Teachers mostly speak better English and are training 
programs for teachers focus on using English as a medium of 
instruction.”
•• “Urdu is not an international language.”
•• “Because we will not progress without it.”
12 SAGE Open
Research into the language situation in Pakistan has 
shown a mismatch among the attitudes of Pakistani students 
toward the languages in their repertoire and the language 
policies that exist in the country (Haque, 1993).
The role of English in Pakistan has been studied by 
Anjum Riaz ul Haque (1993), Shemeem Abbas (1998), 
Sabiha Mansoor (1993), and Tariq Rahman (1998, 2002). 
The first two writers merely touch on the role of English in 
the country in their survey articles. Sabiha Mansoor, how-
ever, has conducted two major studies on the attitudes of 
students toward languages. Her surveys suggest that stu-
dents have a linguistic hierarchy in mind with English at the 
top, followed by Urdu and their mother tongues. She found 
that English is associated with modernity, efficiency, and as 
a means for future advancement (Mansoor, 1993). Her 
studies have revealed positive attitudes toward English, not 
just as an important second language to excel at but also as 
a medium of instruction. Hence, English is seen as a means 
for empowerment both at the personal and professional 
levels.
Mansoor’s (1993) research and Rahman’s (2002) studies 
along with this research have clarified that young Pakistani 
students not just view English as the sole means of empower-
ment but also value Urdu and agree on its role in numerous 
areas of importance in personal and professional lives—they 
are hence, additive bilinguals.
This is another interesting revelation that this study high-
lights. Pakistani students are clearly additive bilinguals, as 
their first language Urdu, a highly valorized language, is 
given a great boost in the country for the purposes of national 
integration, and learning a second language (English), 
another highly valorized language, poses no threat to their 
L1 or language community.
The misinformed policy makers have been trying to oust 
English as the official language and to replace it with Urdu 
(Abbas, 1998). They have based this action on the claim that 
Pakistani students feel that English is a threat to their national 
identity and integration. According to these policy makers, 
students view the spread of English as a sign of language 
shift with respect to Urdu (Abbas, 1998). They have deliber-
ately, or through ignorance, not realized that the Pakistani 
students understand and respect the role of English in their 
lives. Students now do not view English as the weapon of the 
elite used to create divisions in society but as a tool that will 
in fact bridge the gap between the well-educated, Westernized 
urban elite, and the common masses of students who are 
equally brilliant but suffer nonetheless in the job market 
because of their lack of proficiency in English (Memon, 
2007). These students believe that through the study of 
English and in the medium of English, such disadvantages 
could be eliminated. The students from public-sector schools 
and universities could come up to par with the private school 
students with respect to language skills (Memon, 2007). 
There exists no doubt in the minds of students that English, 
being an international lingua franca, is the key to accessing 
better professional opportunities.
Another myth undermined by the results of the study is 
that Urdu should be the sole medium of instruction as English 
is harmful to Urdu. In fact, the study revealed highly positive 
attitudes toward English as a medium of instruction. Students 
are in favor of English-medium education because they feel 
that many more doors will open for them if they were to study 
in a language that is now the language of international mar-
kets. Research has indicated that there exists great discrimina-
tion between Urdu-medium and English-medium students 
regarding job opportunities (Abbas, 1998), and the attitude of 
the employer displays a clear bias in favor of English-medium 
students (Memon, 2007). Hence, English-medium study will 
ensure that students from the public sector are on an equal 
footing with students from private English-medium schools 
and will have access to the same opportunities and will not be 
left behind. Hence, it is a tool for social mobility.
This in no way means that these students do not wish to 
study Urdu or that they value it less. This research has clari-
fied that students believe Urdu to be a part of their national 
identity and agree to its high status and important role in life 
and that English is in no way a threat to Urdu.
Thus, the study shows that there are no conflicting loyalties 
regarding the study of English and Urdu. Despite the strong 
desire to learn English for instrumental reasons, the status of 
Urdu remains secure. Urdu is seen as a symbol of national 
integration, and all the learners display integrative attitudes.
Hence, the study points out that students want bilingual 
education; that is, they want to study both English and Urdu 
to fulfill different needs. Urdu is hailed as a symbol of 
national identity, and English is desired because of its great 
instrumental value in higher education, international com-
munication, and economic gains and progress.
Conclusion
It has been evident that the attitudes of Pakistani students have 
changed radically from ambivalence and hostility to English as 
a symbol of colonial rule during the first few decades after inde-
pendence, to an enthusiastic acceptance of English today. As far 
as English is concerned, the “colonial hangover” (Rahman, 
1999, p. 155) is over. Not a single learner in the study rejected 
English on the basis that English is the language of the colonial 
masters—the English people. The findings lend support to 
Kachru’s (1986) observations that the “colonial association of 
English and its Western cultural values are now underempha-
sised. Instead what seems to be stressed is the power of English 
as an instrument of individual and societal transformation” 
(p. 110). This research showed that English is now considered 
the language of globalization and considered essential for an 
individual eager to enter the international market.
As stated earlier, language policies despite trying their 
utmost to oust English and replace it with Urdu have failed 
because of the positive attitudes of the students toward 
English (Rahman, 1999). The students want English educa-
tion and feel cheated if they are deprived of it. Hence, English 
should not be the monopoly of the elite private school 
Khalid 13
students but should spread out to the masses as a tool for 
empowerment. Thus, policy makers should not feel threat-
ened by its existence and in fact use it to further the cause of 
Urdu as the language of national integration.
In addition, policy makers should promote the concept of 
additive bilingualism and in fact try and eliminate any atti-
tudes that may hinder the spread of English. Only then will 
the attitudesand needs of the students be in sync with the 
policies. Thus, policies will finally prove beneficial to the 
students, making the education process more effective.
In light of the research, it may be suggested that language 
planning in Pakistan should aim at “cultural pluralism,” rather 
than “assimilation,” which recognizes the cultural and social 
diversity of different language groups, but which nevertheless 
seeks to create a political and economic unity for them (Haque, 
1993). Based on the study, a two-language formula catering to 
the different needs of the learners appears to be suitable: (a) 
Urdu for national identity and as a link language, and (b) English 
as a world language and as a language for development.
Very positive attitudes toward Urdu indicate that it is suit-
able as a national official language for integrative reasons. 
However, the great instrumental need for English makes it 
suitable for a second official language. As a result, bilingual 
educational programs should be introduced and followed, 
where an option is provided to the learners regarding the 
choice of the medium of instruction.
To promote additive bilingualism, it is recommended that 
education be initiated in the national language as well as in 
the L2 simultaneously. The bi-literate bilingual program 
defined by Fishman is recommended as most appropriate 
and useful in this Pakistani context. This group maintenance 
program would encourage a stable bilingual community 
(Fishman, 1972).
Finally, a detailed larger scale study into the attitudes, ori-
entations, and the motivational intensity and achievement 
levels of Pakistani students is recommended to shed more 
light on this important issue. This will result in gathering 
data that will assist in drafting workable language and educa-
tional policies.
It is common knowledge that the education system in 
Pakistan is in a crisis—for numerous reasons—but many 
aspects of this crisis are directly related to the language poli-
cies (Mueen, 1992). A clear language policy that aims to pro-
mote the learning of English for instrumental purposes will 
be the right step in the direction of resolving this crisis.
It is important to remember that the aim here is not to 
replace one language with another but to adopt a better 
approach of a parallel language system, with the caveat, 
however, that the roles of these languages be demarcated 
and defined to avoid any instances of dominance of one 
language over another leading to a language shift. Hence, 
we need a policy that removes the communication impasse 
and creates an egalitarian society to have equal rights of 
education, employment, and good living just as illustrated 
by the views and attitudes that the students in this study 
displayed.
Appendix A
Indirect Identity Scale Questionnaire
Part 1: Self-concept. Below is a list of words that can be used to describe people. Think of each word as it might describe YOU. 
Indicate by placing an X in the appropriate blank, how well each word describes you.
Key: abcd ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ xyz
 strongly slightly not related slightly strongly 
 related related at all related related
capable ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ incapable
interesting ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ boring
sad ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ happy
old fashioned ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ modern
social grace ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ crude
educated ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ uneducated
unsuccessful ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ successful
confident ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ not confident
reserved ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ open
unintelligent ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ intelligent
dependent ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ independent
uncouth ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ cultured
reliable ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ unreliable
high standard ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ low standard
of living of living
attractive ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ unattractive
14 SAGE Open
unimpressive ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ impressive
bright future ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ dark future
Part 2: Ideal self-concept. Below is a list of words that can be used to describe people. Think of each word as it might describe 
the WAY YOU WOULD LIKE TO BE (your IDEAL SELF). Indicate by placing an X in the appropriate blank, how well each 
word describes your ideal self.
Key: abcd ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ xyz
 strongly slightly not related slightly strongly 
 related related at all related related
capable ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ incapable
interesting ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ boring
sad ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ happy
old fashioned ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ modern
social grace ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ crude
educated ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ uneducated
unsuccessful ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ successful
confident ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ not confident
reserved ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ open
unintelligent ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ intelligent
dependent ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ independent
uncouth ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ cultured
reliable ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ unreliable
high standard ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ low standard
of living of living
attractive ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ unattractive
unimpressive ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ impressive
bright future ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ dark future
similarity to ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ no similarity
self to self
Part 3: Urdu-speaking community. Below is a list of words that can be used to describe people. Think of each word as it might 
describe THE URDU SPEAKING COMMUNITY. Indicate by placing an X in the appropriate blank, how well each word 
describes the community.
Key: abcd ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ xyz
 strongly slightly not related slightly strongly 
 related related at all related related
capable ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ incapable
interesting ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ boring
sad ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ happy
old fashioned ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ modern
social grace ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ crude
educated ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ uneducated
unsuccessful ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ successful
confident ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ not confident
reserved ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ open
unintelligent ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ intelligent
dependent ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ independent
uncouth ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ cultured
reliable ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ unreliable
high standard ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ low standard
of living of living
attractive ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ unattractive
Khalid 15
unimpressive ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ impressive
bright future ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ dark future
similarity to ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ no similarity
self to self
Part 4: English-speaking community. Below is a list of words that can be used to describe people. Think of each word as it might 
describe THE ENGLISH SPEAKING COMMUNITY. Indicate by placing an X in the appropriate blank, how well each word 
describes the community.
Key: abcd ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ xyz
 strongly slightly not related slightly strongly 
 related related at all related related
capable ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ incapable
interesting ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ boring
sad ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ happy
old fashioned ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ modern
social grace ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ crude
educated ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ uneducated
unsuccessful ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ successful
confident ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ not confident
reserved ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ open
unintelligent ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ intelligent
dependent ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ independent
uncouth ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ cultured
reliable ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ unreliable
high standard ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ low standard
of living of living
attractive ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ unattractive
unimpressive ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ impressive
bright future ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ dark future
similarity to ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ no similarity
self to self
Appendix B
Direct Questionnaire (Domain Analysis)
Please complete this questionnaire honestly and sincerely.
Personal background
1. Age:________
2. Sex:____________
3. Whichincome bracket would your family fall in? 
(monthly salary)
4. When did you start to learn English (age), and how did 
you learn it (at school/home or some other way)?
________________________________________________
5. What is your mother tongue?___________________
6. List (in the order of confidence) all the other languages 
you can communicate (speak, read, write) in:
_____________________________________________
Language use in different areas of life
1. Which of the following languages do you use in the fol-
lowing situations?
English (EN), Mother tongue or first language (L1) any other 
language (please specify)
With family:
Rs. 15,000 
and above
Rs. 25,000 
and above
Rs. 35,000 
and above
Rs. 45,000 
and above
Rs. 50,000 
and above
a. discussing with your family members at dinner
b. commenting on a TV program which is in English
c. commenting on a TV program which is in your mother 
tongue
d. the language I mostly use at home is
e. discussing a personal matter/problem
16 SAGE Open
With friends
With neighbors
In transactions
In education
In government
In employment
2. Which language would you prefer as a medium of 
instruction in your school, and why?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
Appendix C
Direct Questionnaire (Likert-Type Scale)
Please indicate your opinion by ticking the appropriate num-
ber from 1 to 7, depending on how much you agree/disagree 
with the statement.
1= strongly disagree 2= moderately disagree
3= slightly disagree 4= neutral
5= slightly agree 6= moderately agree
7= strongly agree
Please give your immediate reactions to each of the follow-
ing items.
 1. Speaking both Urdu and English is an advantage.
 2. Speaking English is an advantage.
 3. I like speaking English.
 4. I prefer using my mother tongue in most situations, 
whenever possible.
 5. I prefer using Urdu in all situations, whenever 
possible.
 6. I think it’s important to maintain Urdu to enable 
Pakistan to develop.
 7. We owe it to our forefathers to preserve Urdu.
 8. I strongly identify myself with my mother tongue, and 
the group that speaks it.
 9. I identify myself with British and the Anglo-American 
culture.
10. English offers advantages in seeking good job 
opportunities.
11. Without the knowledge of English I could not get a 
job.
12. Without knowledge of Urdu I could not get a job.
13. English provides a range of aesthetic experiences in 
literature.
14. I think it is better for a Pakistani person to write cre-
atively (e.g., books, poems) in his/her mother tongue, 
rather than in English. In English, it seems so artificial.
15. English is important to Pakistan as a whole.
16. To be admitted to a public post, one should be able to 
speak English.
17. There should be more TV and radio programs avail-
able in English.
18. English should be used on public signs, notices, and 
advertisements, always.
19. All children should be required to learn English at 
school.
20. If I had to choose whether my child would be edu-
cated in the medium of English or Urdu, I would defi-
nitely choose English.
21. I think that the use of Urdu should really be encour-
aged throughout Pakistan as a whole.
22. People who know English well have a significantly 
better chance of getting a good job.
a. conversing and discussing general topics with friends/
acquaintances
b. discussing personal matters with friends/acquaintances
c. conversing with people I haven’t met before in my home 
town at clubs/social gatherings
d. introducing friends to others
e. writing a personal letter
a. with neighbours whose mother tongue is different from 
mine.
b. with neighbours whose mother tongue is same as mine.
c. Imagine a situation that in your neighbourhood, the mother 
tongue of the people in most cases differs. Which language 
do you use in e.g. meetings or gatherings as a common 
language?
a. in shops, at the railway station, etc.
b. at the market place
a. My medium of education was mostly
b. At high school I talked with my friends who spoke the same 
language as I do
c. At high school I talked with my friends who spoke a different 
language than I did
a. I would always write official letters in
b. If I was working for the government, I would probably 
mostly use
c. If I went to see a government official, he would automatically 
talk to me in
a. At a job interview, the language used would normally be
b. With my colleagues who come from different parts of 
Pakistan, I would normally talk in
c. If my boss and I had different languages as MT’s, we would 
speak with each other in
d. I’d write a business letter in
Khalid 17
23. Urdu is less useful to know than English.
24. Most children resent having to learn English.
25. The status of Urdu is higher than that of English in 
Pakistan.
26. I would feel embarrassed if I couldn’t speak any 
English.
27. I identify myself with modern, Western values, and 
thus, I also find the knowledge of English important.
28. On the whole, I can say that English has been and 
continues to be an advantage to Pakistan.
29. English makes up a significant part of our history and 
identity.
30. When I use English, it is most often with native speak-
ers or foreigners, not with Pakistani people.
31. English is a really important part of the school 
program.
32. Learning English is a waste of time
33. I would rather spend my time on subjects other than 
English
34. The English are a very sociable, warm-hearted, and 
creative people.
35. I really enjoy learning English, as it brings me closer 
to the English-speaking community.
Appendix D
Direct Questionnaire (Orientation Index)
Listed below are some of the reasons people have for learn-
ing English. Please indicate the importance of each reason 
for you personally by selecting the appropriate category.
1. Thinking and behaving like English-speaking people
2. Getting a good job
3. Becoming more modern
4. Coping with university classes
5. Acquiring new ideas and broadening one’s outlook
6. Becoming friendly with English-speaking 
Pakistanis
7. Traveling abroad
8. Reading advanced technical and academic 
literature
9. Acquaintance with people in touch with the latest 
trends in the West
10. Getting access to international books and journals
11. To improve my social status
12. It is the working language of my future career
Appendix E
Semi-Structured Interview Questions
 1. Do you think it is useful to study English? Why?
 2. Would you like to pursue higher education in English?
 3. Will you be using English in your future career?
 4. What should be the medium of instruction in schools? 
Why?
 5. Which language do you prefer, Urdu, or English? Why?
 6. Why do you wish to study English? Explain in detail?
 7. What do think of people who speak only English?
 8. Why do you think some people reply in English, even 
when they are spoken to in Urdu?
 9. What is your opinion of the English-speaking commu-
nity? Explain in detail.
10. Do you think we are losing touch with our national 
language?
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