Field Geologist's Manuel

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FIELD GEOLOGISTS’ MANUAL
MONOGRAPH SERIES ii
COOPERATING ORGANISATIONS vii
CONTENTS xi
FOREWORD TO THE FIRST EDITION v
FOREWORD TO THE FOURTH EDITION v
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION ix
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION x
1. ETHICS AND REPORTING 1
2. MINERAL AND ROCK INFORMATION 21
3. GEOCHEMISTRY 61
4. MINING AND ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 77
5. GEOLOGICAL MAPPING 165
6. GEOMETRIC AND SURVEYING DATA 271
7. ENGINEERING GEOLOGY 289
8. HYDROGEOLOGY 317
9. GEOPHYSICS 337
10. DRILLING 357
11. MISCELLANEOUS 363
12. MATHEMATICAL TABLES AND CONVERSION FACTORS 373
INDEX 391
MONOGRAPH SERIES
1. • Detrital Heavy Minerals in Natural Accumulates George Baker 1962
2. • Research in Chemical and Extraction Metallurgy Ed: J T Woodcock
A E Jenkins
and G M Willis
1967
3. • Broken Hill Mines - 1968 Ed: M Kadmanovich
and J T Woodcock
1968
4. • Economic Geology of New Zealand Ed: G J Williams 1974
5. • Economic Geology of Australia and Papua New Guinea - 1. Metals Ed: C L Knight 1975
6. • Economic Geology of Australia and Papua New Guinea - 2. Coal Ed: D M Traves
and D King
1975
7. • Economic Geology of Australia and Papua New Guinea - 3. Petroleum Ed: R B Leslie
H J Evans
and C L Knight
1976
8. • Economic Geology of Australia and Papua New Guinea - 4.
Industrial Minerals and Rocks
Ed: C L Knight 1976
9. Field Geologists’ Manual
1st Edition
2nd Edition
3rd Edition
4th Edition
Ed: D A Berkman
and W Ryall
Ed: D A Berkman
Ed: D A Berkman
Ed: D A Berkman
1976
1982
1989
2001
10. • Mining and Metallurgical Practices in Australasia
(the Sir Maurice Mawby Memorial Volume)
Ed: J T Woodcock 1980
11. • Victoria’s Brown Coal - A Huge Fortune in Chancery
(the Sir Willis Connolly Memorial Volume)
Ed: J T Woodcock 1984
12. • Australasian Coal Mining Practice
1st Edition
2nd Edition
Ed: C H Martin
Ed: C H Martin
and A J Hargraves
1986
1993
13. • Mineral Deposits of New Zealand Ed: Dr D Kear 1989
14. Geology of the Mineral Deposits of Australia and Papua New Guinea Ed: F E Hughes 1990
15. The Rocks Speak H King 1989
16. • Hidden Gold - The Central Norseman Story J D Campbell 1990
17. • Geological Aspects of the Discovery of Some Important
Mineral Deposits in Australia
K R Glasson
and J H Rattigan
1990
18. • Down Under - Mineral Heritage in Australasia Sir Arvi Parbo 1992
19. Australasian Mining and Metallurgy
(the Sir Maurice Mawby Memorial Volume, 2nd edition)
Ed: J T Woodcock
and K Hamilton
1993
20. Cost Estimation Handbook for the Australian Mining Industry Ed: M Noakes
and T Lanz
1993
21. History of Coal Mining in Australia
(the Con Martin Memorial Volume)
Ed: A J Hargraves,
R J Kininmonth,
C H Martin
and S M C Saywell
1993
22. Geology of Australian and Papua New Guinean Mineral Deposits Ed: D A Berkman
and D H Mackenzie
1998
Copies of all books currently in print can be obtained from
The Institute office - Tel (03) 9662 3166
Key: • = Out of print
FIELD GEOLOGISTS’ MANUAL
Compiled by
D A BERKMAN
FOURTH EDITION — 2001
Monograph No. 9
Published by
THE AUSTRALASIAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY
Level 3, 15-31 Pelham Street, Carlton, Victoria, Australia 3005
2001
�
INCORPORATED BY ROYAL CHARTER 1955
© Copyright
by
THE AUSTRALASIAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY
First Edition 1976
Reprinted 1978
Second Edition 1982
Reprinted 1987
Third Edition 1989
Revised and Reprinted 1995
Fourth Edition 2001
The Institute is not responsible, as a body, for the
facts and opinions advanced in any of its publications
National Library of Australia Card No.
ISBN 1 875776 850
Desktop published by Tatiana Feldman for The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
Printed in Australia by RossCo Print, Preston, Victoria, Australia 3072
Foreword to First Edition
It is often stated that the strength of The Institute lies in its branches and this is so because within the branches
most of the technical discussions and developments take place. During the minerals boom of the 1960s there was
intense field geological activity with significant deposits of bauxite, coal, copper, petroleum, manganese, nickel,
titanium, uranium, etc, being discovered and/or confirmed. Members of the Sydney Branch, one of the largest of
The Institute branches, ranging through Australasia and beyond, were no less active in the exploration field than
other Institute members during this time, and participated in these experiences and developments in techniques.
Now, in the 1970s, as exploration proceeds at a slower pace, the vigorous Sydney Branch has recognised the
need to consolidate these techniques into this comprehensive Field Geologists' Manual. It is of significance that the
subject of the first pages of the manual, the Code of Ethics, was first drafted by the Sydney Branch for The Institute
in the early 1960s.
The Field Geologists' Manual is written and compiled particularly for Australasian use and provides a needed
and valuable guide for the Australian field geologist. But in its wide coverage, in its broad references and in the
widespread experience of Mr D A Berkman and his colleagues who assembled the material, the Manual should find
wide use in field geology throughout the world. The work is a tribute to their expertise and to their desire to share
this with their fellow geologists.
C H MARTIN, President, June 1976
Foreword to the Fourth Edition
Encouraged by his peers to make the wealth of data he had assembled for field work available to his fellow
professionals, Don Berkman edited the Field Geologists’ Manual which was first published by The AusIMM in
1976. Achieving the status of a ‘reservoir of inexhaustible knowledge’, it was affectionately dubbed the ‘Junior
Woodchuck Guidebook’ by a generation familiar with that Walt Disney icon.
As knowledge continues to expand, so this fourth edition has been edited, upgraded and enlarged by a team of
experts under the continuing leadership of Don Berkman. They continue The Institute’s proud tradition of
advancing the interests of its professions by facilitating the exchange of information.
May the Field Geologists’ Manual continue to be both a useful manual to all our members and an inspiration to
new generations of professionals.
R D ELVISH, President, September 2001
v
Cooperating Organisations
Aberfoyle Limited
Alcoa of Australia Limited
Allied Eneabba Limited
Amoco Minerals Australia Company
Anaconda Australia Inc.
Aquitaine Australia Minerals Pty. Ltd.
The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
Head Office
The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
New Zealand Branch
The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
Sydney Branch
Australian Anglo American Limited
Australian Oil & Gas Corporation Limited
The Broken Hill Proprietary Company Limited
Bureau de Recherches Geologiques et Minieres
Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics
Carpentaria Exploration Company Pty. Ltd.
Central Pacific Minerals N L
Cliffs Western Australian Mining Co Pty. Ltd.
Comalco Limited
Consolidated Rutile Limited
CRA Exploration Pty. Limited
CSR Limited
CSIRO Minerals Research Laboratories
Department of Mines, South Australia
Department of Mines, Tasmania
Department of Natural Resources, Queensland
The Electrolytic Refining and Smelting
Company of Australia Limited
Electrolytic Zinc Company of Australasia Limited
Esso Australia Ltd.
Geological Survey of New South Wales
Geological Survey of Papua New Guinea
Geological Survey of Queensland
Geological Survey of Western Australia
Geopeko Limited
Goldsworthy Mining Limited
Gold Producers Association Limited
Greenbushes Tin Ltd.
Hamersley Exploration Pty. Limited
ICI Australia Limited
International Nickel Australia Limited
James Cook University of North Queensland
Jododex Australia Pty. Ltd.
Joint Coal Board
Kathleen Investments (Australia) Limited
Kennecott Explorations (Australia) Ltd.
Macquarie University
Metals Exploration Limited
Mineral Deposits Limited
Minerals Mining and Metallurgy Limited
Mines Administration Pty.Limited
Mines Branch, Department of Northern Australia
Mines Department, Victoria
Mines Exploration Proprietary Limited
Mobil Energy Minerals Australia Inc.
Mount Isa Mines Limited
Mount Newman Mining Co. Pty. Limited
Nabalco Pty. Limited
Newmont Holdings Pty. Ltd.
New Zealand Geological Survey
Noranda Australia Limited
North Broken Hill Limited
Occidental Minerals Corporation of Australia
Pacminex Pty. Ltd.
Peko-Wallsend Ltd.
Placer Exploration Limited
Poseidon Limited
Project Mining Corporation Limited
Renison Goldfields Consolidated Limited
Savage River Mines
Seltrust Holdings Limited
Standards Australia International Limited
Swiss Aluminium Mining Australia Pty. Ltd.
Tennant Trading (Australia) Pty. Limited
Umal Consolidated Limited
Union Corporation (Australia) Pty. Ltd.
Union Miniere Development and Mining
Corporation Ltd.
United States Steel International, Inc.
The University of Adelaide
The University of Melbourne
The University of New England
The University of New South Wales
vii
The University of Queensland
The University of Sydney
The University of Tasmania
The University of Western Australia
Utah Development Company
Water Conservation and Irrigation
Commission of NSW
Waipipi Iron Sands Limited
Watts, Griffis and McOuat (Aust.) Pty. Ltd.
Western Australian Institute of Technology
Western Mining Corporation Limited
Woodsreef Mines Limited
viii
ix
Preface to the First Edition
This manual is intended to provide, in one volume, a broad selection of basic material which may be required by
a geologist during the course of his work. It is an attempt, with some personal bias, to abstract those critical parts of
a reference library (to which all geologists require reasonable access) which may be of use during short term field
projects. Obviously a geologist on a major and long term field investigation should have access to a number of
textbooks to supplement the minimal data supplied here, and be provided with specific detailed material relating to
the particular enquiry. Specialists may find that their individual area of knowledge has been only briefly covered,
but as far as possible classifications which are widely accepted have been used—and these are often the simplest.
This is not intended to be another textbook or recipe book, as in many cases the preliminary steps are not
explained, and a standard of training or scholarship is assumed. The sources of individual sections (shown as
footnotes), and several bibliographies, have been added for further reference. In some instances established or most
suitable procedures are included where these are not readily available or not usually known. For topics in which
employers or individuals have a standardised routine (e.g. the description of outcrops), only categories of
information which should be recorded have been listed.
The first draft of the manual was compiled over a period of five years, with considerable help in areas of
specialised knowledge from the staff of the Bureau of Mineral Resources (for geological mapping, geophysics), the
Geological Survey of New South Wales (for engineering geology, geohydrology) and Tennant Trading (Aust.) Pty.
Ltd. (for commercial factors for common ores). With financial support from the Sydney Branch of The Institute,
65 copies of the first draft were produced, and circulated to the major Australian geological organisations in order
to obtain an indication of the likely demand for the manual, and the type of information which should be included.
The concept was generally favourably received, and a wide variety of alternative and additional information was
contributed. Aid from those organisations which offered further material is acknowledged opposite as a list of
cooperating organisations.
The final draft, incorporating most of these suggestions, was composed with the advice of K R Glasson,
M J Lawrence, and K G Mosher of the Sydney Branch Committee of The Institute. The volume was prepared for
printing by W R Ryall, and edited by him with my assistance, based on advice readily provided by The Institute
Honorary Editor, J T Woodcock. I am obliged to the Council and Sydney Branch Committee of The Institute, and
to the CSIRO Minerals Research Laboratories, for the financial support which made possible the publication of the
manual.
I am particularly grateful to my employer, Australian Oil and Gas Corporation Limited, for encouragement and
aid with this project from its inception.
D A BERKMAN
Compiler
1976
x
Preface to the Fourth Edition
The first edition of the Field Geologists’ Manual was prepared between 1971 and
1976. It was based on a collection of reference material the compiler used while
supervising a group of multinational geologists for an emerging mineral exploration
company. The collection was originally intended to be the nucleus of an in-house
reference manual, but that proposal disappeared, like so many other projects, with the
collapse of the ‘Poseidon’ nickel boom in 1972.
The collection of reference material grew, with the active encouragement of Mr
David McGarry and the Committee of the Sydney Branch of The Institute, into the 1st
(1976) edition of this Manual. This edition was reprinted, as were the 2nd (1982) and
3rd (1990) editions.
This 4th edition marks the 25th birthday of the Manual. It was prepared to maintain
the Manual’s value as a comprehensive reference for field geoscience work.
For this review the utility of each section of the Manual was assessed by Hugh
Rutter and the staff of the Flagstaff GeoConsultants group. Many areas for revision
were identified. However, many of the data, formulae and tables of the original (1976)
Manual were retained after upgrading. This process of retaining basic information
while adding new material is the cause of the growth of the Manual, from 295 pages in
1976 to about 400 pages in 2001.
The revision was supported by Dr Neil Williams, the Director of the Australian
Geological Survey Organisation (AGSO), who encouraged input from AGSO
specialists, with their contributions channelled through Ms Louise Mitchell.
Practically every stage in Section 2 ‘Minerals and Rock Information’ and Section 5
‘Geological Mapping’ was reviewed by an AGSO officer, and revised where
necessary. As part of this process the Geological Time Scale (Section 5.5) was
updated under the direction of Dr G C Chaproniere, and the Abridged Guide to
Stratigraphic Nomenclature in Australia (Section 5.7) was revised by Albert Brakel.
A new section on Regolith Terminology was provided by Dr Graham Taylor of the
CRC LME at the University of Canberra. Part 4.3 ‘Commercial Factors for Common
Ores’ was completely revised, with assistance from Dr Ian Lambert and other AGSO
geoscientists, and from consulting metallurgist Jim Woodcock. Flagstaff and other
specialists added new information in this and earlier sections, on kimberlite and
diamonds.
Section 7 ‘Engineering Geology’ was updated by Robert L Smith, geotechnical
engineer at the Perth office of Gutteridge Haskins and Davey Pty. Ltd., and Section 8
‘Hydrogeology’ was modernised by Rob Ellis of the Queensland Department of
Natural Resources. Flagstaff GeoConsultants revised the material in Section 9
‘Geophysics’.
Many other people have helped with this edition – far too many to thank
individually on this page. Their assistance is much appreciated, and each individual’s
assistance is acknowledged in a footnote to their contribution.
The Institute’s Publications Committee suggested, early in the revision process, that
information could be provided on computer applications and information technology
in geoscience. This was not achieved, but the Manual has been provided in CD format.
D A BERKMAN
Compiler
2001
Contents
FOREWORD TO THE FIRST EDITION v
FOREWORD TO THE FOURTH EDITION v
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION ix
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION x
1. ETHICS AND REPORTING
1.1.1. Code of ethics 1
1.1.2. Code for consultants 4
1.2. Requirements for mining company reportsto Australian stock exchanges 6
1.3. Imperial and international paper sizes 8
1.4.1. List of abbreviations 9
1.4.2. Abbreviations used in petroleum exploration logs and scout reports 13
1.5. Symbols for correcting proofs 17
1.6. Selected bibliography on writing geological reports 19
2. MINERAL AND ROCK INFORMATION
2.1. Mineral index 21
2.2.1. List of common minerals in order of density 37
2.2.2. Description of heavy liquids 40
2.3.1. Classification of plutonic rocks - I.U.G.S. field system 42
2.3.2. Classification of volcanic rocks - I.U.G.S. system 43
2.3.3. Broad classification of igneous rocks by colour and grain size 43
2.3.4. Classification of pyroclastic rocks - I.U.G.S. system 44
2.3.5. Diamond indicator minerals 45
2.4.1. Metamorphic facies diagram 48
2.4.2. Summary of metamorphic rocks 49
2.5.1. Classification of arenites and terrigenous sediments 51
2.5.2. Classification of carbonate sediments 52
2.5.3. Roundness and sphericity, relative resistance to abrasive rounding,
and particle size terminology for sedimentary and pyroclastic particles 53
2.5.4. Bedding thickness terminology 55
2.5.5. A genetic classification of sedimentary structures 55
2.6. Diagrams representing various percentages of grains 56
2.7. Regolith terminology 57
3. GEOCHEMISTRY
3.1.1. Periodic table of the elements 61
3.1.2. Alphabetical list of natural elements and common values 62
3.1.3. Conversion factors, elements to compounds 63
3.2. Average abundance of selected minor elements in the earth's crust 64
3.3. Range of abundance of trace elements in soils 65
3.4. Geochemical signature of mineral deposit types 66
3.5. Approximate lower detection limits, in ppm, for the common
geochemical analytical methods 68
3.6. General notes for geochemical sampling 70
3.7. Glossary of statistical terms and symbols 72
3.8. Probability × 3 cycle log paper 76
xi
xii
4. MINING AND ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
4.1.1. Guidelines for environmental care in mineral exploration 77
4.1.2. Guidelines for the preparation of an environmental impact statement 80
4.2. Field chemical tests for common elements and mineral classes 83
4.3. Commercial factors for common ores 90
4.4.1. General preferred sample mass nomogram 122
4.4.2. Graphs of particle size and preferred sample mass for gold assays 123
4.5. Australasian code for reporting of Mineral Resources
and Ore Reserves (the ‘JORC Code’) 125
4.6. Standard classification system for Australian hard coal 140
4.7.1. Summary of compound interest formulae 142
4.7.2. Table of compound interest factors 144
4.8. Ingredients, methods and stages in mineral exploration 162
4.9. Background data for a mine evaluation 163
4.10 Selected bibliography 164
5. GEOLOGICAL MAPPING
5.1. Index to Australian, New Zealand, and Papua New Guinea 1:250 000 scale maps
showing magnetic declination 165
5.2. Suppliers of geological and topographic maps and air photographs 169
5.3.1. Lengths of degrees of the parallel and meridian, and conversion to the geocentric
datum of Australia 171
5.3.2. Conversion of the area of a one minute square to square kilometres and
square miles 173
5.4.1. Fractional scales and Imperial system equivalents 175
5.4.2. Fractional scales and unit plan areas 176
5.4.3. Nomogram for estimating area 178
5.4.4. Nomogram for estimating true width 179
5.5. Geological time scale 180
5.6.1. Standard mapping symbols – AGSO system 192
5.6.2. Graphic representation of coal seams 253
5.6.3. Australian standard colour scheme and stratigraphic symbols for
geological maps—Facing page 254
5.7. Abridged guide to lithostratigraphic nomenclature in Australia 255
5.8. Check lists for recording outcrop information 265
5.9. Classification of faults 266
5.10. Classification of folds by dip isogons and by hinge surface 267
5.11. Graph showing angle of true dip or slope, vertical exaggeration, and exaggerated dip 269
5.12. Selected bibliography 269
6. GEOMETRIC AND SURVEYING DATA
6.1. Formulae for solution of triangles 271
6.2.1. Formulae for area, perimeter, etc of planar figures 272
6.2.2. Formulae for surface area, volume etc of solids 274
6.3. Apparent dip in a direction not perpendicular to the strike 276
6.4. Table of slope angles, gradients, and per cent grade 277
6.5. Field grid spacing and elevation conversion table 278
6.6.1. Stadia formula and method of checking a theodolite 280
6.6.2. Stadia tables 281
6.7. Airphoto scale nomogram and formula 282
6.8. Determination of the line of intersection of two planes (tangent vector method) 283
6.9. Graphical solution of the three point problem 283
6.10. Orthographic and Wulff (equal angle) stereonets, Schmidt (equal area)
stereonet and contouring device 284
7. ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
7.1.1. Field geotechnical testing methods 289
7.1.2. Laboratory geotechnical testing methods 290
7.2.1. Physical properties for unweathered rocks 291
7.2.2. Static mechanical properties of unweathered rocks 293
7.3.1. Recommended order of description of rock properties 294
7.3.2. Rock weathering classification 294
7.3.3. Rock strength classes 294
7.3.4. Bulking factors for expansion of common rock materials 295
7.3.5. Discontinuity spacing 296
7.3.6 Aperture of discontinuity surfaces 296
7.4.1. Common defects in rock mass 297
7.4.2. Classification of landslides 300
7.5.1. Order of description of soils 305
7.5.2. Description, identification and classification of soils 306
7.5.3. Calcareous sedimentary rock nomenclature 308
7.5.4. Consistency of soils 309
7.5.5. Soil moisture content 309
7.6. Dynamic penetration test 310
7.7.1. Hydraulic conductivity (permeability) 313
7.7.2. Summary of arithmetic mean of hydraulic properties for all rock types 314
8. HYDROGEOLOGY
8.1.1. The International Association of Hydrogeologists 317
8.1.2. Australasian hydrogeology authorities 317
8.2.1. Approximate water supply requirements for homes and farms 319
8.2.2. Windmill pumping capacity 320
8.2.3. Volumes corresponding to standard pipe sizes 321
8.2.4. Graph showing flow from various diameter pipes 322
8.2.5. Factors for calculating volume of partially filled horizontal circular tanks 323
8.2.6. Conversion factors for units of pressure 323
8.2.7. Conversion factors for pumping test units 324
8.2.8. Circular orifice meter discharge table 326
8.2.9. Rectangular and V-notch weir board discharge table 327
8.2.10. Pressure corresponding to head of water 328
8.3.1. Notes on water sampling 328
8.3.2. Guidelines for characteristics of drinking water 331
8.3.3. Recommended stock water quality 332
8.3.4. Recommended irrigation water quality 334
9. GEOPHYSICS
9.1. Physical properties and conversion factors 337
9.2. Gravity surveying methods and tables 338
9.3. Magnetic survey methods and tables 341
9.4. Electromagnetic, resistivity and induced polarisation survey methods and tables 342
xiii
xiv
9.5. Radiometric surveys and tables 349
9.6. Seismic survey methods and data 352
9.7. Down-hole survey methods 353
9.8. Airborne survey methods 353
9.9. Earthquake magnitude and intensity 354
10. DRILLING
10.1. Nominal core and hole diameters, and volumes per foot and per metre length 357
10.2.1. Calculation of drillhole elevations and coordinates from down-hole surveys 359
10.2.2. Estimation of hole dip from acid tube surveys 360
10.3. Determination of true width from oblique drillhole intersection 361
10.4. Check lists for drillhole logging 362
11. MISCELLANEOUS
11.1. Addresses of Australasian Geological Surveys and Universities with geoscience departments 363
11.2. Safety precautions on entering old workings 364
11.3. Radio alphabet 366
11.4.1. Time of beginning and end of daylight for the southern hemisphere 367
11.4.2. Seventy year letter calendar 368
11.5.1. Graph paper, millimetre ruling 370
11.5.2. Triangular graph paper 371
11.6. Occupational health and safety 372
12. MATHEMATICAL TABLES AND CONVERSION FACTORS
12.1. Trigonometric functions 373
12.2. The International System of units (SI) 375
12.3.1. Recommended practice for metric conversion 376
12.3.2. Conversion factors, Imperial and Internationalsystems 384
12.3.3. Conversion factors for foreign, rare and obsolete weights and measures 388
12.4. Comparison table of USA, Tyler, Canadian, British, French and
German standard sieve series 389
INDEX 391
1. ETHICS AND REPORTING
1.1.1. CODE OF ETHICS1
PREAMBLE
The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (The
Institute), founded in 1893 and incorporated by Royal Charter
in 1955, includes under its Charter and Bye-Laws an
assemblage of scientists, engineers and technologists who are
concerned in various ways with the discovery, extraction and
utilisation of minerals, metals and energy sources. The
membership includes geologists and other geoscientists,
mining engineers and metallurgists, other engineers and other
scientists and technologists; also other professional and
paraprofessional groups who are engaged in or associated with
the industries; also students who are preparing for careers in
the industries.
The grades of membership include Fellows, Members and
Company Members, who are Corporate Members, and
Affiliates, Graduates and Students (NB: Affiliate grade
eliminated in 1994).
All members of The Institute are required under Bye-Law 30
to comply with the Code of Ethics and with the Code for
Consultants when practising as such.
CODE OF ETHICS
1. The responsibility of members for the welfare,
health and safety of the community shall at all
times come before their responsibility to the
profession, to sectional or private interests, or to
other members.
2. Members shall act so as to uphold and enhance
the honor, integrity and dignity of the profession.
3. Members shall perform work only in their areas of
competence.
4. Members shall build their professional reputation
on merit and shall not compete unfairly.
5. Members shall apply their skill and knowledge in
the interests of their employer or client for whom
they shall act, in professional matters, as faithful
agents or trustees.
6. Members shall give evidence, express opinions or
make statements in an objective and truthful
manner and on the basis of adequate knowledge.
7. Members shall continue their professional
development throughout their careers and shall
actively assist and encourage those under their
direction to advance their knowledge and
experience.
8. Members shall comply with all laws and
government regulations relating to the mineral
industries, and with the rules, regulations and
practices as established and promulgated by the
Australian or New Zealand stock exchanges with
respect to the official listing requirements for
mining and/or other companies.
INTERPRETATIONS
CLAUSE 1:
The responsibility of members for the welfare,
health and safety of the community shall at all times
come before their responsibility to the profession, to
sectional or private interests, or to other members.
The principle here is that the interests of the
community have priority over the interests of others. It
follows that a member:
a. shall avoid assignments that may create a conflict
between the interests of his client or employer and
the public interest;
b. shall work in conformity with acceptable
technological standards and not in such a manner
as to jeopardise the public welfare, health or
safety;
c. shall endeavour at all times to maintain
technological services essential to public welfare;
d. shall in the course of his professional life
endeavour to promote the well-being of the
community. If his judgement is over-ruled in this
matter he should inform his client or employer of
the possible consequences (and, if appropriate,
notify the proper authority of the situation);
e. shall, if they consider that by so doing they can
constructively advance the well-being of the
community, contribute to public discussion on
scientific and technological matters in their area
of competence.
CLAUSE 2:
Members shall act so as to uphold and enhance the
honor, integrity and dignity of the profession.
The principle here is that the profession should
endeavour by its behaviour to merit the highest esteem
of the community. It follows that a member:
a. shall not involve himself with any business or
professional practice which he knows to be of
fraudulent or dishonest nature;
Field Geologists’Manual 1
1. From The AusIMM, 2001.
http://www.ausimm.com/codes/ethics/ethics.asp
b. shall not use association with other persons,
corporations or partnerships to conceal unethical
acts;
c. shall not continue in partnership with, nor act in
professional matters with any person who has
been removed from membership of The Institute
because of unprofessional conduct.
CLAUSE 3:
Members shall perform work only in their areas of
competence.
To this end The Institute has determined that:
a. a member shall inform his employer or client, and
make appropriate recommendations on obtaining
further advice, if an assignment requires
qualifications and experience outside his field of
competence; and
b. in the practice of consulting a member shall not
describe himself, nor permit himself to be
described, nor act as a consultant unless he is a
Corporate Member, occupies a position of
professional independence, is prepared to design
and supervise works or act as an unbiased and
independent adviser, and conduct his practice in
strict compliance with the conditions approved by
the Council of The Institute.
CLAUSE 4:
Members shall build their professional reputation
on merit and shall not compete unfairly.
The principle here is that members shall not act
improperly in a professional sense to gain a benefit. It
follows that a member:
a. shall only approach prospective clients or
employers with due regard to his professional
independence and to this Code of Ethics;
b. shall neither pay nor offer directly or indirectly
inducements to secure work;
c. shall promote the principle of selection of
consultants by clients upon the basis of merit, and
shall not compete with other consultants on the
basis of fees alone. It shall not be a breach of the
Code of Ethics for a member, upon an inquiry
made in that behalf by a client or prospective
client, to provide information as to the basis upon
which he usually charges fees for particular types
of work. Also it shall not be a breach of the Code
of Ethics for a member to submit a proposal for
the carrying out of work which proposal includes,
in addition to a technical proposal and an
indication of the resources which the member can
provide, information as to the basis upon which
fees will be charged or as to the amount of the
fees for the work which is proposed to be done. In
this respect it is immaterial whether or not the
member is aware that others may have been
requested to submit proposals, including fee
proposals, for the same work;
d. shall promote the principle of engagement upon
the basis of merit. He shall uphold the principle of
adequate and appropriate remuneration for
professional staff and shall give due consideration
to terms of employment which have the approval
of the profession’s appropriate association;
e. shall not attempt to supplant another, employed or
consulting, who has been appointed;
f. in the practice of consulting, shall not undertake
professional work on a basis which involves a
speculative fee or remuneration which is
conditional on implementation of the work. This
does not preclude competitions conducted within
Australia or New Zealand provided that such
competitions are conducted in accordance with
conditions approved by The Institute;
g. shall neither falsify nor misrepresent his or his
associate’s qualifications, experience and prior
responsibility;
h. shall neither maliciously nor carelessly do
anything to injure, directly or indirectly, the
reputation, prospects or business of others;
i. shall not use the advantages of a privileged
position to compete unfairly with others;
j. shall exercise due restraint in explaining his own
work and shall refrain from unfair criticism of the
work of another;
k. shall give proper credit for professional work to
those to whom credit isdue and acknowledge the
contribution of subordinates and others;
l. may properly use circumspect advertising (which
includes direct approaches to prospective clients
by any means) to announce his practice and
availability. The medium or other form of
communication used and the content of the
announcement shall be dignified, becoming to a
professional person and free from any matter that
could bring disrepute on the profession.
Information given must be truthful, factual and
free from ostentatious or laudatory expressions or
implications.
CLAUSE 5:
Members shall apply their skill and knowledge in
the interests of their employer or client for whom
they shall act, in professional matters, as faithful
agents or trustees.
It follows that a member:
a. shall at all times avoid all known or potential
2 Field Geologists’Manual
ETHICS AND REPORTING
conflicts of interest. He should keep his employer
or client fully informed on all matters, including
financial interests, which could lead to such a
conflict. In no circumstances should he participate
in any decision which could involve him in
conflict of interest;
b. shall, when acting as administrator of a contract,
be impartial as between the parties in the
interpretation of the contract. This requirement of
impartiality shall not diminish his duty to apply
his skill and knowledge in the interests of the
employer or client;
c. shall not accept compensation, financial or
otherwise, from more than one party for services
on the same project, unless the circumstances are
fully disclosed to, and agreed to by all interested
parties;
d. shall neither solicit nor accept financial or other
valuable considerations, including free designs,
from material or equipment suppliers for
specifying their products;
e. shall neither solicit nor accept gratuities, directly
or indirectly, from contractors, their agents, or
other parties dealing with his client or employer in
connection with work for which he is responsible;
f. shall advise his client or employer when as a
result of his studies he believes that a project will
not be viable;
g. shall neither disclose nor use confidential
information gained in the course of his
employment without express permission.
CLAUSE 6:
Members shall give evidence, express opinions or make
statements in an objective and truthful manner and on
the basis of adequate knowledge.
It follows that:
a. a member’s professional reports, statements or
testimony before any tribunal shall be objective
and accurate. He shall express an opinion only on
the basis of adequate knowledge and technical
competence in the area, but this shall not preclude
a considered speculation based intuitively on
experience and wide relevant knowledge;
b. a member shall reveal the existence of any
interest, pecuniary or otherwise, that could be
taken to affect his judgement in a technical matter
about which he is making a statement or giving
evidence.
CLAUSE 7:
Members shall continue their professional
development throughout their careers and shall
actively assist and encourage those under their
direction to advance their knowledge and
experience.
The principle here is that members shall strive to
widen their knowledge and improve their skill in order
to achieve a continuing improvement of the profession.
It follows therefore that a member:
a. shall encourage his professional employees and
subordinates to further their education, and
b. shall take a positive interest in, and encourage his
fellows actively to support The Institute and other
professional organisations which further the
general interests of the profession.
CLAUSE 8:
Members shall comply with all laws and
government regulations relating to the mineral
industries, and with the rules, regulations and
practices as established and promulgated by the
Australian or New Zealand stock exchanges with
respect to the official listing requirements for
mining and/or other companies.
It follows that a member:
a. shall inform himself of the laws and regulations
relating to the mineral industries in Australia and
the States and Territories, and in New Zealand
and other countries where he may be engaged as
an employee or consultant;
b. shall observe the requirements of stock exchanges
in respect to reports on mineral exploration and
assessment issued by listed companies. In the
particular case of the Australian Associated Stock
Exchanges he shall meet the requirement of a
‘competent person’ in that he shall be a Corporate
Member of The Institute and shall have a
minimum of five years’ experience in the field of
activity on which he is reporting.
Field Geologists’Manual 3
ETHICS AND REPORTING
1.1.2. CODE FOR CONSULTANTS1
PREAMBLE
The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, founded
in 1893 and incorporated by Royal Charter in 1955, includes
under its Charter and Bye-laws an assemblage of scientists,
geoscientists, engineers, technologists and other professional
non-technical and para-professional groups who are concerned
in various ways with the discovery, extraction and utilisation
of minerals, metals and energy sources; also students who are
preparing for careers in the Minerals Industry.
All members of The Institute are required under Bye-laws of
The Institute to comply with the Code of Ethics and with the
Code for Consultants when practising as such.
CODE FOR CONSULTANTS
ETHICS
1.01 The professional attitude of consultants to their
work and the client is regulated by the Charter,
Bye-laws, and Code of Ethics of The Institute.
DEFINITION OF CONSULTANT
1.02 A consultant is a person who possesses the
necessary qualifications and professional
independence to advise on matters within a
specific professional field.
For the purpose of providing consulting
services, the consultant shall, as necessary,
maintain an office and employ staff. In all
professional matters, consultants shall maintain
a strictly fiduciary relationship to any client
whom they may advise, and while so doing,
shall not, without so informing his client, be
directly or indirectly connected with any
undertaking in any manner which may influence
their professional judgement, or the interest of
the client. Consultants shall not engage in any
conduct, nor act in any capacity, nor hold any
appointment, which prejudices their position as
a consultant as defined above.
RELATION TO CLIENT
1.03 A consultant acts for and is remunerated solely
by the client, with whom the relationship is that
of a professional adviser and not that of an
employee. In the preparation of reports, plans,
specifications, and contract documents, and in
the supervision of construction work,
consultants shall assiduously watch and
conserve the interests of the client, for whom
they shall act as agent and trustee. However, in
the interpretation of contract documents, the
consultant shall maintain an attitude of
scrupulous impartiality as between client and
contractor and shall, as far as possible, ensure
that each party to the contract shall discharge the
duties and enjoy the rights set down in the
contract agreement.
FAVOURS
1.04 The consultant shall not accept any commission,
substantial service, or favour from any person
who has offered or contracted to supply any
material, equipment or services for, or who has
engaged to execute any work in connection
with, any works or undertakings designed or
supervised by the consultant.
ROYALTIES
1.05 Should the consultant be entitled to receive
either directly or indirectly any royalty,
commission, or the like on any patented,
protected or copyright article or process used in
connection with work which is being carried out
for a client, the consultant shall, prior to the use
of such article or process, inform the client in
writing of such entitlement.
BUSINESS INTERESTS
1.06 A consultant, when practising in that capacity,
shall not deal on behalf of a client with any
company, firm or business of which the
consultant is a director or member or in which
the consultant has any significant financial
interest,without first disclosing the details of the
fact in writing to the client.
1.07 Consultants may properly use circumspect
advertising (which includes direct approaches to
prospective clients by any means) to announce
their practice and availability. The medium or
other form of communication used and the
content of the announcement shall be dignified,
becoming to a professional person and free from
any matter that could bring disrepute on the
profession. Information given must be truthful,
factual and free from ostentatious or laudatory
expressions or implications.
CONTINUANCE OF PARTNERSHIP
1.08 No member shall continue in partnership with,
nor act in association or conjunction with, any
member who has been removed from
membership of The Institute under the terms and
conditions expressed in the Bye-laws.
4 Field Geologists’Manual
ETHICS AND REPORTING
1. From The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
Bye-laws, 1995. The AusIMM Bulletin, 6:9-10.
CONSULTANTS GENERALLY
1.09
a. Consultants shall not knowingly accept
professional work in connection with which
another member has been appointed to act, except
in collaboration with such other member, unless
he be formally notified by the client that they are
required to act, and that the other member has
been appropriately notified, and
b. Consultants shall not conduct themselves in a
manner or act in any capacity nor hold any
appointment which, in the opinion of the Council,
prejudices their status as a consultant or the
interests of The Institute.
c. Members who are directors or responsible officers
of companies carrying on a practice as consultants
should endeavour to ensure at all times that the
professional practice of the company conforms to
the spirit of The Institute’s Charter, Bye-laws and
Code of Ethics.
REPORTS FOR PUBLICATION IN CONNECTION
WITH COMMERCIAL UNDERTAKINGS
1.10
a. All consultants shall do their utmost to ensure that
their reports, whenever published, whether in full
or in summarised form, are signed and dated prior
to publication, provided that, in the case of a
partnership, they may use the firm’s signature.
b. No consultant shall submit a report on a mining
property or a metallurgical process for the
purpose of appraisal without stating explicitly the
evidence upon which the report is made and to
what extent the report is founded on their personal
observations or those of their trusted assistants. In
any case of a mining property no consultant shall
attach their signature to such an appraisal report
without having inspected the property unless there
are compelling reasons to the contrary which must
be stated and justified in the report.
c. A consultant having any interest or bias in the
subject matter or of any matter referred to in a
report prepared by the consultant, shall make a
clear and complete disclosure of such interests
and bias in the report.
d. A consultant who is an employee should draw the
employer’s attention to these rulings in relation to
any report for publication that they may be called
upon to compose or sign. In any case of difficulty,
the consultant concerned should notify The
Institute.
e. If a report is translated, consultants should ensure
that the translation accurately expresses the
original meaning of Government and stock
exchange regulations.
GOVERNMENT AND STOCK EXCHANGE
REGULATIONS
1.11 Consultants shall comply with the laws and
regulations relating to the mineral industries in
Australia and in the States and Territories, and
in New Zealand and other countries where they
may be engaged.
1.12 Consultants shall comply with the requirements
of stock exchanges in respect to reports on
mineral exploration and assessment issued by
listed companies. In the particular case of the
Australian Associated Stock Exchanges the
consultant shall meet the requirement of a
‘competent person’ in that they shall be
Corporate Members of The Institute and shall
have a minimum of the five years’ experience in
the field of activity on which they are reporting.
INTERPRETATION
1.13 Where in this Code the singular occurs it shall
be understood to include the plural, and where
the plural occurs, it shall be understood to
include the singular, without in either case
altering the meaning of the context.
Field Geologists’Manual 5
ETHICS AND REPORTING
1.2. REQUIREMENTS FOR MINING COMPANY REPORTS TO
AUSTRALIAN STOCK EXCHANGES1
EXPLANATORY NOTE
This chapter sets out some of the disclosure requirements that
mining entities and others must satisfy. A mining entity
includes a mining producing entity and a mining exploration
entity.
Where indicated, other entities must comply with requirements
in this chapter. Usually the disclosure is required from an
entity which has, or whose child entity has, acquired an
interest in a mining tenement.
Information for release to the market must be given to ASX’s
company announcements office.
WHEN TO REPORT
MINING PRODUCING ENTITIES AND OTHERS
1.2.1 A mining producing entity, and any other entity
that ASX asks, must complete a report
(consolidated if applicable) concerning each
quarter of its financial year and give it to ASX.
It must do so no later than 1 month after the end
of the quarter. The report must include each of
the following.
(i) Details of the mining production and
development activities of the entity or
group relating to mining and related
operations, and a summary of the
expenditure incurred on those activities. If
there has been no production or
development activity, that fact must be
stated.
(ii) A summary of the exploration activities
(including geophysical surveys) of the
entity or group, and a summary of the
expenditure incurred on those activities. If
there has been no exploration activity, that
fact must be stated.
MINING EXPLORATION ENTITIES AND OTHERS
1.2.2 A mining exploration entity, and an entity which
has or whose child entity has acquired an
interest in a mining tenement, must complete a
report (consolidated if applicable) concerning
each quarter of its financial year and give it to
ASX. It must do so no later than 1 month after
the end of the quarter. The report must include
each of the following.
(i) Details of the exploration activities of the
entity or group (including geophysical
surveys), and a summary of the expenditure
incurred on those activities. If there has
been no exploration activity, that fact must
be stated.
(ii) Details of the mining production and
development activities of the entity or
group relating to mining, mining
exploration and related operations, and a
summary of the expenditure incurred on
those activities. If there has been no
production or development activity, that
fact must be stated.
(iii) If ASX asks, the mining exploration entity,
or entity which has or whose subsidiary has
acquired an interest in a mining tenement,
must include each of the following items in
each quarterly report.
(a) The location of mining tenements held.
(b) The location of mining tenements
disposed of during the quarter.
(c) Beneficial percentage interests in
farm-in or farm-out agreements
acquired or disposed of during the
quarter.
MINING EXPLORATION ENTITY TO COMPLETE
APPENDIX 5B (QUARTERLY REPORT)
1.2.3 A mining exploration entity must also complete
Appendix 5B and give it to ASX. It must do so
immediately the information is available, and in
any event within 1 month after the end of each
quarter of its financial year.
REQUIREMENTS FOR REPORTS
REPORTS TO COMPLY WITH APPENDIX 5A (THE
JORC CODE)
1.2.4 A report prepared by a mining entity, or an
entity which has or whose child entity has an
interest in a mining tenement, must be prepared
in accordance with Appendix 5A if the report
includes a statement relating to any of the
following.
(a) Exploration results.
(b) Mineral resources or ore reserves.
(i) However, an entity need not comply
with Appendix 5A to the extent that if
rule 1.2.8 allows a report to be based
on information compiled by a
recognised mining professional, the
6 Field Geologists’ManualETHICS AND REPORTING
1. From Australian Stock Exchange Listing Rules,
September, 1999, Chapter 5 (Additional reporting on
mining and exploration activities).
report need not be prepared by or under
the direction of and signed by a
competent person. The requirements of
Appendix 5A applying to a competent
person apply to the recognised mining
professional1.
CONTENT OF REPORTS
1.2.5 During the exploration stage, a report in the field
of minera1 exploration must include the
following information.
(1) The type and method of sampling.
(2) The distribution, dimensions, assay results
and relative location of all relevant
samples.
(3) Any other relevant basic data.
(i) If true dimensions (particularly width
of mineralisation) are not stated in the
report, an appropriate qualification
must be included.
1.2.6 Assay results must be reported using one of the
following methods. The method used must be
the most suitable according to the entity’s
geologist or mining engineer and must be stated.
Method 1 All assay results, with sample widths
or size in the case of bulk samples.
Method 2 The weighted average grade of the
mineralised zone, indicating clearly how the
grade was calculated. When high values are
recorded, they must be given in context, with
full supporting data.
1.2.7 During the prehydrocarbon reserve stage, a
report, statement or assessment on hydrocarbon
exploration must include the following
information.
(1) The depth of the zone tested.
(2) The age and, if appropriate, the rock type
and formation name of the zone tested.
(3) Any liquids recovered.
(4) The flow rate.
(5) The choke size used during testing.
(6) Any other relevant basic data.
COMPETENT PERSON OR RECOGNISED MINING
PROFESSIONAL TO COMPILE INFORMATION
ABOUT MINERALS
1.2.8 A report relating to an entity’s mineral resources
or ore reserves, must be based on information
compiled by a competent person. However, if
the resource or reserve is not located in
Australia, the report may be based on
information compiled by a recognised mining
professional.
(i) The report must either state that it is based
on the information, or be accompanied by a
statement to that effect signed in the same
manner as the report.
(ii) If the report is based on information
compiled by a recognised mining
professional, it must include each of the
following statements.
(a) A statement by the recognised mining
professional that the report complies with
Appendix 5A (except paragraph 9).
(b) A statement by the entity that the person is a
recognised mining professional and the basis on
which each of the requirements for a recognised
mining professional are met.
PERSON COMPILING INFORMATION ABOUT
HYDROCARBONS
1.2.9 A report relating to an entity’s hydrocarbon
reserves must be based on information compiled
by a person who has a degree (or equivalent) in
geology, geophysics, petroleum engineering or a
related discipline; is practising or teaching
geology, geophysics or petroleum engineering;
and has practised or taught one of them for at
least 5 years.
(i) The report must either state that it is based
on the information, or be accompanied by a
statement to that effect signed in the same
manner as the report.
PERSON COMPILING INFORMATION TO BE
IDENTIFIED
1.2.10 If the person referred to in rules 1.2.8 and 1.2.9
who compiles the information is a full time
employee of the entity, the report or attached
statement must say so and name the person.
1.2.11 The person referred to in rules 1.2.8 and 1.2.9
who compiles the information must consent in
Field Geologists’Manual 7
ETHICS AND REPORTING
1. A recognised mining professional is a person who has
each of the following:
(1) A degree or an overseas equivalent in geology,
mining engineering or a related discipline relevant to
the estimation of the type of mineral resource or ore
reserve referred to in the report.
(2) At least five years experience in the estimation,
assessment and evaluation of the type of mineral
resource or ore reserve referred to in the report.
(3) Membership of a recognised overseas professional
body that has agreed to sanction the person if the
person does not comply with Appendix 5A.
writing to the inclusion in the report of the
matters based on the information in the form and
context in which it appears. The report or
attached statement must state that the person
consents, contain the name of the person and, if
the person is not a full time employee of the
entity, the name of the person’s firm or
company.
PROGRESS REPORT ON GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY
1.2.12 A report on the progress of any geophysical
survey must include the name, nature and status
of the survey, and the permit under which the
survey is being conducted.
HYDROCARBON REPORTS
1.2.13 Probable hydrocarbon reserves must only be
reported in conjunction with proved
hydrocarbon reserves. Possible hydrocarbon
reserves must only be reported in conjunction
with proved hydrocarbon reserves and probable
hydrocarbon reserves.
1.2.14 A report relating to the pre-hydrocarbon reserve
stage must not use the word ‘reserves’ in
isolation.
1.2.15 A report relating to the results of exploratory
investigations which have reached the stage
where a hydrocarbon reserve can be estimated
must use the expressions for categories of
hydrocarbon reserves in the listing rules.
TERMS OF A MINING TENEMENT JOINT
VENTURE
1.2.16 An entity must not enter a joint venture
agreement to investigate or explore a mining
tenement, unless the agreement provides that if
the entity requires it the operator will give the
entity all the information the entity requires to
comply with the Listing Rules; and that the
information may be given to ASX for release to
the market if necessary for the entity to comply
with the listing rules.
1.3. IMPERIAL AND INTERNATIONAL PAPER SIZES
Most Australasian countries now use the standard paper
sizes recommended by the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO), which are described in
Australian Standard 1612. Some Imperial sizes, used in
historic documents, are also shown below.
There are three ISO size series, A, B and C, in which
the ratio of one side to the other is 1: 2, i.e. 1:1.414
after trimming. The A series is based on the A0 size of
1189 by 841 millimetres of area one square metre, the
basis of the B series is B0, of 1414 by 1000
millimetres, and the basic C size is C0, of 1297 by 917
millimetres. Each of the sizes in a series is exactly half
the area of the next highest member, ie A4 is exactly
half the area of A3, and is produced by a single fold.
A0 is the largest sheet that will fit in a flat or
‘Vertiplan’ plan filing cabinet without folding.
8 Field Geologists’Manual
ETHICS AND REPORTING
Size inches mm
Crown octavo 71
8
× 43
4
181 × 121
Demy octavo 83
4
× 53
8
222 × 137
Foolscap quarto 81
8
× 61
2
206 × 165
Royal octavo 91
2
× 6 241 × 152
Crown quarto 91
2
× 71
4
241 × 184
Demy quarto 103
4
× 81
2
273 × 216
Foolscap folio 131
8
× 81
4
333 × 210
Brief 131
8
× 181
2
333 × 470
Demy 23 × 181
2
584 × 470
Imperial paper and plan sizes
Size inches mm
Princess 28 × 211
2
711 × 546
Imperial 30 × 22 762 × 559
Double Demy 35 × 221
2
889 × 572
Double Elephant 40 × 27 1016 × 686
Quad Crown 40 × 30 1016 × 762
Double Princess 44 × 28 1118 × 711
Quad Demy 44 × 321
2
1118 × 826
Antiquarian 53 × 21 1346 × 533
Eight Crown 571
2
× 413
4
1461× 1060
Imperial paper and plan sizes
Field Geologists’Manual 9
ETHICS AND REPORTING
A series mm inches
A0 841 × 1189 46.81 × 33.11
A1 594 × 841 33.11 × 23.39
A2 420 × 594 23.39 × 16.54
A3 297 × 420 16.54 × 11.69
A4 210 × 297 8.27 × 11.69
International paper sizes, B series
B series mm inches
B0 1000 × 1414 39.37 × 55.67
B1 707 × 1000 27.83 × 39.37
B2 500 × 707 19.68 × 27.83
B3 353 × 500 13.90 × 19.68
B4 250 × 353 9.84 × 13.90
B5 176 × 250 6.93 × 9.84
If a plan is needed intermediate between the A series listed
above, one of the B or C sizes may be used.
International paper sizes, A series
C series mm
C0 1297 × 917
C1 917 × 648C2 648 × 458
C3 458 × 324
C4 324 × 229
C5 229 × 162
C6 162 × 114
C7 114 × 81
C8 81 × 57
International paper sizes, C series
about c or ca. andalusite andal. Australian
absolute abs. andesite ad. Standard AS
abundant A. angular ang. Australian
actinolite act. angstrom A Standard
agglomerate aggl. anhydrous anhyd Specification ASS
aggregate aggr. ante meridiem a.m. average av.
alkaline alk. aphyric aph. azurite az.
altered alt. aplite ap. band (s) bd(s)
alternating approximately approx. banded bnd.
current a.c. April Apr. banded iron
amorphous amor. aqueous aq. formation (s) BIF (s)
ampere A arkose (ic) ark. barite ba.
atomic per cent at.% atmospheric (ic) atm. basalt bas.
atomic weight at.wt atomic at. bauxite bx.
August Aug. atomic absorption bedded bdd
amphibole (ite) amphib. spectrometer AAS bentonite bent.
amygdule atomic per cent at.% biotite bio.
(aloidal) amyg. atomic weight at.wt bituminous bit.
and not abbreviated August Aug. black blk
Australian arenaceous aren. blue bl.
Standard AS argillaceous argill. boiling point b.p.
ampere hour Ah borax bo.
1.4.1. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
10 Field Geologists’Manual
ETHICS AND REPORTING
bornite bn. common com. decibel db
bottom bot. compact cpt degree (angle) °
boulder (s) bldr (s) compare cf. degree absolute °K
breccia brec. composition comp. (Kelvin)
brecciated brectd concentrate (s) conct. (s) degree (Celsius) °C
Brinnell hardness concentrated conc. dense d.
number BHN concentration concn. density D
British Standard BS conchoidal conch. diameter dia.
British Standard concretion conc. dilute dil.
Specification BSS conglomerate cgl. dimorphous dimorph.
broken bkn consolidated consol. diopside diop.
brown br. constant const. direct current d.c.
calcareous, contaminant distilled dist.
calcite calc. (ated) contm. distributed dist.
calculated calc. contorted conttd distribution distn
calorie cal corrected corr. dolomite dol.
calorific value cal.val. cosecant cosec east E
candela cd cosine cos east north east ENE
carbonaceous carb. cotangent cot effervesce (s) effer.
Celsius C coulomb C electromotive
cement cmt covellite cv. force e.m.f.
centimetre cm cream cm. electron volt eV
centimetre per crenulation (ed) cren. epidote ep.
second cm/s critical crit. equation eqn
centipoise cp cryptocrystalline cryptocryst. equigrannular eq.
centistokes cst crystal xal equivalent equiv.
centre line C/L crystallized (-ine) cryst. equivalent weight equiv.wt
centre of gravity c.g. cubic centimetre cm3 evaporation evapn
centrifugal force c.f. cubic centimetre experiment (al) expt.
chalcocite ct. per second cm3/s farad F
chalcopyrite cp. cubic metre m3 February Feb.
chemical chem. cubic metre per feldspar fs.
chert cht. minute m3/min ferruginous ferr.
chlorite (ic) chl. cubic metre per fibrous fib.
clay cl. hour m3/h Figure (s) Fig. (s)
clayey cly cubic millimetre mm3 fine f.
clayshale clsh. current density c.d. fissile fss
claystone clst. cycle per second flint flt
cleavage cl (frequency) Hz foliation (ed) fol.
coarse cse dacite (ic) dac. foraminifera foram.
cobble cbl. dark dk formation fm.
coefficient coeff. day not abbreviated fossil (iferous) foss.
colluvial colluv. debris deb. fracture fract.
colour col. December Dec fragment (al) frag.
Field Geologists’Manual 11
ETHICS AND REPORTING
freezing point f.p. hour h limestone lst.
frequency Hz hydrogen ion lineation lin.
friable fri. exponent pH liquid liq.
frosted fstd igneous ign. litre L
gabbro gab. ignimbrite igm. litre per second L/s
galena gl. ilmenite im. longitude long.
galvanized galv. including incl. loss on ignition LOI
garnet gt inclusion incls. low pressure L.P.
gas not abbreviated indurated ind. magnetite mt.
general (ly) gen. inferior inf. malachite mal.
glauconite (ic) glauc. inorganic inorg. March Mar.
gneiss gns insoluble insol. marl mar.
gossan gsn interbedded intb. massive mass.
grain (ed) gr. International material mat.
gram g System Units Sl matrix mtx
gram molecule g mol. intraformational intf. maximum max.
granite grt. Isometric Iso May not abbreviated
granitoid grtd island (s) I. (s.) medium m. or med.
granodiorite gdi. January Jan. megahertz MHz
granofels gfels jointing jtng megohm MQ
granular grnl. joule J melanocratic mel.
graphite (ic) graph. July July melting point m.p.
gravel gr. June June metabasalt metabas.
gray gy junior jr. metamorphic (s) met. (s)
green gn kaolin kaol. metasediment (s) metased. (s)
greywacke gw. kilogram kg metre m
gypsum gyp. kilojoule kJ metre per second m/s
hard hd kilometre km micaceous mic.
hardness (Mohs) H kilometre per migmatite (ic) mig.
heavy hvy second km/s milliampere mA
hectare ha kilometre per millibar mbar
height ht hour km/h milligram mg
hematite hem. kilopascal kPa millilitre mL
henry H kilovolt kV millimetre mm
Hertz Hz kilovolt ampere kVA million
heterogeneous hetg. kilowatt kW electron volt MeV
Hexagonal Hex kilpowatt hour kWh millisecond ms
high pressure H.P. laminated millivolt mV
high tension H.T. laminae lam. milliwatt mW
high voltage H.V. lamination mineral min.
homogeneous homg. large lge minute (time) min
horizontal horiz. latitude lat. minute (angle)
hornblende hbl. leucocratic leuc. molar M
hornfelsed hflsd light l. mole (amount of
substance)
mol
12 Field Geologists’Manual
ETHICS AND REPORTING
molecule weight mol.wt plagioclase plag. September Sep.
molecular, porphyry (itic) porph. sediments (s) sed. (s)
molecular mol. post meridiem p.m. segregated (ions) seg. (s)
molecules per potassium sericite (ic) ser.
litre mol./L feldspar Kfs serpentine (ite) serp.
Monoclinic Mon potential shale sh.
month not abbreviated difference p.d. shaly shy
motor vessel m.v. power factor P.F. sht. velocity
mottled mot. precipitate ppt. siderite sid.
mudstone mudst. pyritic (ic) py., shattered siemens S
muscovite (ic) musc. pyroxene px. siliceous sil.
mylonite (ic) mylon. pyrrhotite po. siltstone slst.
Newton N qualitative qual. sine sin
nominally nom. quantitative quant. slightly sl.
north N quartz qtz. soft s.
north east NE quartzite qtzte soluble sol.
north north west NNW radian rad solution soln
November Nov. radioactive RA south S
number No. radius rad. south east SE
observed obs. rare R. south south west SSW
October Oct. rare earth RE specific gravity sp. gr.
oolith ool. rare earth oxide REO sphalerite sp.
organic org. reconnaissance reconn. spherulite sph.
orthoclase or. regular reg. square sq.
Orthorhombic Orth relative humidity r.h. square millimetre mmZ
outcrop o/c residue res. square kilometre km2
page, pages p., pp. residual res. standard error S.E.
part pt retrograde ret. standard
parts per million ppm revolution rev. deviation S.D.
pascal Pa revolutions per streak strk
patent Pat. minute rev./min subordinate subord.
pebble (s) pbl Rhombohedral Rho sulphide sulph.
pebbly pbly rhyolite rhy. system sys
pegmatite (ic) peg. rontgen r tabular tab.
per cent in tables round (ed) rd. tangent tan
and in the sand sd tesla T
experimental sandstone ss. temperature temp.
section of sandy sdy Tetragonal Tet
chemical papers % saturated sat. thin-bedded tbdd
per cent in text not abbreviated schist (ose) sch. tonne t
phenocryst (s) phen. secant sec tonne per year t/yr
phosphate (ic) ph. secondary sec. tonne per day t/day
phyllite phyll. second (time) s tonne per hour t/h
pink pk second (angle) ” tonne per month t/month
1.4.2. ABBREVIATIONS USED IN PETROLEUM EXPLORATION LOGS
AND SCOUT REPORTS1
Field Geologists’Manual 13
ETHICS AND REPORTING
trace tr. very v week wk
Triclinic Tric variable var. weight wt
tuffaceous tuff. volcanic (s) volc. (s) west W
vacuum vac. volt V west north west WNW
vapour density v.d. volume vol. white wh
vapour pressure v.p. watt W with c
variety var. watt hour Wh xenolith (s) xens (s)
velocity vel. weathered wd year yr
versus v. weathering wing. yellow y.
vertical vert. weber Wb
Fowler, H W and Fowler, F G (Eds), 1964. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English,1558 pp (Clarendon: Oxford)
provides a list of abbreviations in the forepapers (pp xiv-xvi), and describes the method of abbreviating words, with a further list
of abbreviations in Appendix 1 (pp 1525-1540).
1. Further abbreviations are available from Association of
Desk and Derrick Clubs, 1973. D and D Standard Oil
Abbreviator, 2nd ed (Penne Will Books, Tulsa, Ok).
A/ acidified with pressure shut in btm bottom
abd, abnd abandoned bl black B.T.U. British thermal
ac acres bld bailed unit
AS after shot bldg drk building derrick BW barrels water
bbl barrel bldg rds building roads BWPD barrels water per
b/d barrels per day blk black day
BCPD barrels blr bailer BWPH barrels water per
condensate per B/H bailers per hour hour
day BO barrels oil C centre
BCPH barrels BOP blow-out CBL cement bond log
condensate per preventer CCL casing collar log
hour BOPD barrels oil per day C&P cellar and pits
BFPH barrels fluid per BP back pressure CD contract depth
hour BPD barrels per day CFG cubic feet gas
BHC bottom-hole BPH barrels per hour CFGPD cubic feet gas per
choke BPWPD barrels per well day
BHP bottom-hole per day CGS centimetre-grams-
pressure brkn broken second
BHPF bottom-hole BS basic sediment system
pressure flowing BS&W basic sediment chk choke
BHPSI bottom-hole and water
14 Field Geologists’Manual
ETHICS AND REPORTING
circ circulate or FDC formation density KO kicked off
circulation compensated log KB Kelly bushing
CI chloride ion FIH fluid in hole li lime
clng cleaning fl/ flowed or flowing LL laterolog
CO clean out fld field loc located or
comp completed, fluor flur fluorescence location
completion fm formation LS, ls limestone
cond condensate fos fossils, lse lease
congl conglomerate fossiliferous mass massive
contr contractor FP flowing pressure MCF thousand cubic
cor corner fr E/L from east line feet
corr corrected GA gallons acid MCFGPD thousand cubic
CP casing pressure gal(s) gallon, gallons feet gas per day
CPSI casing pressure G&O gas and oil md millidarcies
shut in G&OCM gas and oil cut mi miles
crd cored mud MI moving in
crg coring GC gas cut MICT moving in cable
crse coarse GCM gas cut mud tools
CSL Centre Section GCR gas condensate mil million
Line ratio MIM moving in
CT cable tools ggd gauged materials
ctg cuttmg gge gauge MIR moving in rig
D&A dry and GO gas odour MIRT moving in rotary
abandoned G/O gas and ofl tools
DC drill collar GOR gas-oil ratio MIST moving in
DD drilling (drilled) gr gray, ground standard tools
deeper Gran W granite wash MIT moving in tools
DF derrick floor grav gravity MO moving out
dk dark grd ground nat natural
DO drilled out grn green NL north line
dol, dolo dolomite hd hard NS no show
DP drill pipe HFO hole full oil O&G oil and gas
D/P drill plug HFW hole full water O&GCM oil and gas cut
drk derrick HGOR heavy oil mud
drld drilled hr(s) hour(s) O&SW oil and salt water
drlg drilling h heavy OAW old abandoned
DST drill-stem test IES induction well
EL east line electrical survey OC oil cut
elec log, E log electric log ig igneous OCM oil cut mud
elev elevation incl inclusion, OF open flow
E of W/L east of west line including OH open hole
est estimate or interst interstitial OIH oil in hole
estimated IP initial production OO odour oil
f fine Jts lomts Ool oolitic
Field Geologists’Manual 15
ETHICS AND REPORTING
op opaque R, Rge range SITP shut-in tubing
O sd oil sand rec recovered pressure
OTD old total depth refl reflection Sl slight
OWDD oil well drilled refr refraction SL south line
deeper rmg reaming SLM steel-line
OWPB old well plugged rng runnjng measurement
back RP rock pressure SO, S/O show oil
OWWO oil well worked RT rotary table SO&G show oil and gas
over RUCT rigging up cable SO&W show oil and
ox oxidized tools water
P pump RUM rigging up SP self-potential
P&A plugged and machine (electric log)
abandoned RUP rigging up pump spd spudded
PB plugged back RUR rigging up rotary squ squeezed or
PBTD plugged back RUST rigging up squeeze
total depth standard tools ss sand
PD per day sat saturated or SSO slight show oil
per permeability saturation S/T sample tops
perf perforated SC show condensate stds stands
perf csg perforated casing Sd sand stn stain, stained
perm permeability SD shut down strks streaks
pk pink SDO shut down for sul sulphur
pkr packer orders sul wtr sulphur water
PL pipeline SD rep shut down for sur survey
pld pulled repairs surf surface
PLO pipe-line oil Sd SO sand showing oil SW southwest, salt
POL petroleum-oils- sdy sandy water
lube SF southeast S/W salt water
POOH pulling out of Sec section swbd swabbed
hole sed sediment swbg swabbing
POP putting on pump seis seismograph SWS sidewall samples
por porosity, porous SG, S/G show gas sx sacks
ppm parts per million SG&C show gas and T township
psi pounds per square condensate T/ top
inch sh shale tbg tubing
psia pounds per square SI shut in tbg chk tubing choke
inch, absolute SIBHP shut-in TD total depth
psig pounds per square bottom-hole temp temporary
inch, gauge pressure TP tubing pressure
pt part SICP shut-in casing T/Pay top pay
PVT pressure-volume- pressure TPSI tubing pressure
temperature Sip shut-in pressure shut in
qtz quartz SIS stopped in sand T/sd top sand
qtze quartzite tstg testing
16 Field Geologists’Manual
ETHICS AND REPORTING
Twp township W/L water load WOW waiting on
Twst town site WO waiting on weather
Unconf unconformity WOC, WOCS waiting on Wt weight
UR underreaming cement to set WP working pressure
Vis viscosity WOCT waiting on cable Wpstk whipstock
W water tools wtg waiting
WC wildcat WO/O waiting on orders wtr water
W/C water cushion WOR waiting on rig WW wash water
wh white WORT waiting on rotary Xin, Xln crystalline
WI washing in tools Y yellow
WL water loss WOST waiting on Z zone
(cc/min) standard tools
WL water line WOT waiting on tools
1.5. SYMBOLS FOR CORRECTING PROOFS1
Field Geologists’Manual 17
ETHICS AND REPORTING
18 Field Geologists’Manual
ETHICS AND REPORTING
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Field Geologists’Manual 19
ETHICS AND REPORTING
1.6. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON WRITING GEOLOGICAL REPORTS
Anon, 1995. Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers,
5th ed (Australian Government Publishing Service:
Canberra).
Bates, R L and Jackson, J A (Eds), 1987. Glossary of Geology,
3rd ed (American Geological Institute: Alexandria, VA).
Brown, L (Ed), 1993. The New Shorter Oxford English
Dictionary, 2 vols (Clarendon Press: Oxford).
Cochran, W, Fenner, P and Hill, M (Eds), 1984. Geowriting: A
Guide to Writing, Editing and Printing in Earth Science,
4th ed (American Geological Institute: Alexandria, VA).
Delbridge, A and Bernard, J R L (Eds), 1992. The Macquarie
Concise Dictionary (Macquarie University: Sydney).
Druce, E C and Jensen, A R, 1980. BMR Speaker’s Handbook
(Australian Government Publishing Service: Canberra).
Fowler, H W, 1983. A Dictionary of Modern English Usage,
2nd ed, rev. Sir Ernest Gowers (Oxford University Press:
Oxford).
Glover, J E, 1992. Style: An Introduction to Writing for
Geologists, AIG Handbook 1 (Australian Institute of
Geoscientists: Sydney).
Gowers, E, 1986. The Complete Plain Words, 3rd ed, rev. S
Greenbaum and J Whitcut (Her Majesty’s Stationery
Office: London).
Hansen, W R, 1991. Suggestions to Authors of the Reports of
the United States Geological Survey, 7th ed (US
Government Printing Office: Washington, DC).
Kirkpatrick, B (Ed), 1987. Roget’s Thesaurus of English
Words and Phrases (Longman: London).
Mathison, C I, 1995. Preparation of Geological Reports,
Theses and Publications,AIG Handbook 3 (Australian
Institute of Geoscientists: Sydney).
McKinstry, H E, 1948. Mining Geology (Prentice Hall: New
York).
O’Connor, T, 1993. Hold the Front Page (Queensland
Newspapers: Brisbane).
Readers Digest, 1991. Word Finder - A Dictionary of
Synonyms and Antonyms (Readers Digest: Sydney).
Strunk, W and White, E B, 1979. The Elements of Style, 3rd ed
(McMillan: New York).
US Bureau of Mines and US Geological Survey, 1997.
Dictionary of Mining, Mineral and Related Terms
(Engineering and Mining Journal: Chicago, IL).
2. MINERAL AND ROCK INFORMATION
Field Geologists’Manual 21
Name Composition Xal.Sys. D H Remarks
Acanthite Ag2S Mon 7.2-7.3 2-2½ Low temp. Ag2S, 87% Ag
Achroite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Colourless tourmaline
Acmite NaFe(SiO3)2 Mon 3.40-3.55 6-6½ A pyroxene
Actinolite Ca2(Mg,Fe)5(Si8O22) (OH)2 Mon 3.0-3.2 5-6 Tremolite with >2% Fe
Adularia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clear orthoclase
Aegirine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Impure acmite
Agate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Banded chalcedony
Alabandite MnS Iso 4.0 3½-4 Black
Alabaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Massive f.gr. gypsum
Albite Na(AlSi3O8) Tric 2.62 6 Na rich plagioclase, Ab100 to
Ab90 An10
Alexandrite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gem chrysoberyl
Allanite (Ce,Ca,Y) (Al,Fe)3(SiO4)3(OH) Mon 3.5-4.2 5½-6 About 28% REO
Allemontite AsSb Hex 5.8-6.2 3-4 One cleavage
Allophane Al2O3.SiO2.nH2O Amor 1.85-1.89 3 Claylike mineral
Almandite Fe3Al2(SiO4)3 Iso 4.25 7 A red garnet
Altaite PbTe Iso 8.16 3 Tin-white, rare
Alumstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alunite
Alunite K Al3(SO4)2(OH)6 Rho 2.6-2.8 4 11.4% K2O, 37% Al2O3
Amazonstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Green microcline
Amblygonite (Li,Na)AlPO4(F,OH) Tric 3.0-3.1 6 About 10% Li2O, 48% P2O5
Amethyst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Purple quartz
Amosite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anthophyllite asbestos
Amphibole Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . See Actinolite, Anthophyllite,
Arfvedsonite, Cummingtonite,
Glaucophane, Hornblende,
Riebeckite, Tremolite
Analcime Na (AlSi2O6).H2O Iso 2.27 5-5½ A zeolite
Anatase TiO2 Tet 3.9 5½-6 Low temp. TiO2
Anauxite Mon 2.6 2 Si-rich kaolinite
Andalusite Al2SiO5 Orth 3.16-3.20 7½ Often as square prisms. 63%
Al2O3
Andesine Ab70An30-Ab50An50 Tric 2.69 6 A plagioclase feldspar
Andradite Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3 Iso 3.75 7 Calcium-iron garnet
Anglesite PbSO4 Orth 6.2-6.4 3 Secondary, often banded. 68%
Pb
Anhydrite CaSO4 Orth 2.89-2.98 3-3½ 41% CaO
Ankerite Ca (Fe, Mg, Mn) (CO3)2 Rho 2.95-3 3½ Dolomite with Fe>Mg
Annabergite (Ni, CO)3(AsO4)2.8H2O Mon 3.0 2½-3 Nickel bloom. 29% Ni, 25%
As
Anorthite CaAl2Si2O8 Tric 2.76 6 Ca-rich plagioclase, An100 to
An90 Ab10
Anorthoclase (Na,K) AlSi3O8 Tric 2.58 6 Like orthoclase, with Na>K
Anthophyllite (Mg,Fe)7(Si8O22) (OH)2 Orth 2.85-3.2 5½-6 Clove brown amphibole var.
of asbestos
Antigorite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Platy serpentine
Antimony Sb Rho 6.7 3 Cl (0001)
Antlerite Cu3SO4(OH)4 Orth 3.9 3½-4 Secondary Cu mineral of arid
regions
2.1. MINERAL INDEX
22 Field Geologists’Manual
MINERAL AND ROCK INFORMATION
Name Composition Xal.Sys. D H Remarks
Apatite Ca5(PO4,CO3)3(F, OH, Cl) Hex 3.15-3.20 5 38-42% P2O5
Apophyllite KCa4Si8O20(F,OH).8H2O Tet 2.3-2.4 4½-5 Secondary, in basic lavas
Aquamarine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pale greenish-blue transparent beryl
Aragonite CaCO3 Orth 2.95 3½-4 Cl (010), (110). 56% CaO
Arfvedsonite Na2–3(Fe,Mg,Al)5Si8O22 (OH)2 Mon 3.45 6 Na amphibole
Argentite Ag2S Iso 7.3 2-2½ Sectile, 87% Ag
Arsenic As Rho 5.7 3½ Cl (0001)
Arsenopyrite FeAsS Mon 5.9-6.2 5½-6 Pseudo-orth. 46% As
Asbestos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . See Amosite,
Anthophyllite,
Chrysotile, Crocidolite,
Tremolite
Asbolite Cobaltian wad Amor 2.9-4.3 To 15% Co
Atacamite Cu2Cl(OH)3 Orth 3.75-3.77 3-3½ Cl (010). 59% Cu
Augite (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe2+,Fe3+, Mon 3.2-3.4 5-6 Common pyroxene
Al)(Si,Al)2O6
Aurichalcite (Zn,Cu)5(CO3)2(OH)2 Mon 3.2-3.7 2 14-23% Cu, 36-47% Zn
Autunite Ca(UO2)2(PO4)2.10-12H2O Tet 3.1-3.2 2-2½ Yellow-green, fluorescent, 67%
U3O8
Awaruite FeNi2 Iso 8 4-5 Magnetic
Axinite (Ca,Mn,Fe)3Al2BSi4O15(OH) Tric 3.27-3.35 6½-7 Crystal angles acute
Azurite Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2 Mon 3.77 3½-4 Always blue. 55% Cu
B
Baddeleyite (Zr,Hf)O2 Mon 5.5-6 6.5 Minor Zr source
Balas ruby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Red gem spinel
Barite BaSO4 Orth 4.5 3-3½ Cl (00l), (110). 65.7% BaO
Barytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Barite
Bastnaesite (Ce,La)(CO3)(F,OH) Hex 4.9-5.2 4-4½ 75% REO
Bauxite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A mixture of aluminium
hydroxides
Beidellite Al8(Si4O10)3(OH)12.12H2O Orth? 2.6 1½ Al-rich montmorillonite
Bentonite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Largely montmorillonitc
Beryl Be3Al2(Si6O18) Hex 2.75-2.8 7½-8 14% BeO
Biotite K(Mg,Fe2+)3(Al, Fe
3+) Mon 2.8-3.2 2½-3 Common black mica
Si3O10(OH)2
Bismite Bi2O3 Mon 8 4½ 72% Bi
Bismuth Bi Rho 9.8 2-2½ Cl (0001)
Bismuthinite Bi2S3 Orth 6.75-6.81 2 Cl (010). 81% Bi
Bismutite (BiO2)CO3 Tet 6.1-7.7 2½-3
½
75% Bi
Black Jack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sphalerite
Blende . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sphalerite
Bloodstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heliotrope
Blue vitriol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chalcanthite
Boehmite AlO(OH) Orth 3.01-3.06 In bauxite. 85% Al2O3
Boracite Mg3B7O13Cl Orth 2.9-3.0 7 62% B2O3
Borax Na2B4O7.10H2O Mon 1.7 2-2½ Cl (100). 36.5% B2O3
Bornite Cu5FeS4 Iso 5.06-5.08 3 Purple-blue tarnish.
63.3% Cu
Boulangerite Pb5Sb4S11 Orth 6-6.3 2½-3 55% Pb, 25% Sb
Bournonite PbCuSbS3 Orth 5.8-5.9 2½-3 Easily fusible. 13% Cu, 42% Pb,
25% Sb
Field Geologists’Manual 23
MINERAL AND ROCK INFORMATION
Name Composition Xal.Sys. D H Remarks
Brannerite (U,Ca,Ce)(Ti,Fe)2O6 ? 4.5-5.4 4½ 30-50% U3O8
Braunite 3Mn2O3.MnSiO3 Tet 4.8 6-6½ 64% Mn
Bravoite (Ni,Fe)S2 Iso 4.66 5½-6 Steel gray. 24% Ni
Brazilian emerald . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Green tourmaline
Brittle mica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . See Chloritoid, Margarite,
Ottrelite
Brochantite Cu4(OH)6SO4 Mon 3.9 3½-4 Green. 56% Cu
Bromyrite Ag(Br,Cl) with Br>Cl Iso 6-6.5 2½ Sectile. 57-65% Ag
Bronzite (Mg,Fe)SiO3 Orth 3.1-3.3 5½ Enstatite with 5-13% FeO
Brookite TiO2 Orth 3.9-4.1 5½-6 Adamantine lustre
Brucite Mg(OH)2 Rho 2.39 2½ Cl (0001). 69% MgO
Bytownite Ab30An70-Ab10An90 Tric 2.74 6 A plagioclase feldspar
C
Cairngorm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smoky to black quartz
Calamine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hemimorphite
Calaverite AuTe2 Mon