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Industriales Escuela de Negocios 
Contributions from the most important leaders, engineers and economists in the history of the global economy.
Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Ur-Pabilsag:
He was the first known leader to create public administration, the management of its employees and bureaucratic systems.
CUNNINGHAM, Graham. The Literature of Ancient Sumer, 1 Ed. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania (1972).
The first Commerce and Economics in History: Mesopotamia (4000 BC–1900 BC): is the earliest known civilization in the historical, living along the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates, Sumerians were the first peoples to adopt trade credit and agricultural consumer credit. Commercial credit was generally granted by temples to finance commercial expeditions and was paid in silver. The interest rate was fixed at 1/60 a month (one shekel per mine) sometime before 2000 BC and remained at that level for about two thousand years. Rural loans usually arose as a result of unpaid obligations owed to an institution, in which case arrears were considered loans to the borrower. 
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Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Ramessés II:
he was the absolute monarch of the country and engaged in trade with his foreign neighbors to obtain gold and other wealth. They also established dominant market with Palestine. Created trade with Anatolia and Afghanistan. Egypt's trading partners in the Mediterranean also included Greece and Crete, which provided oil supplies.
ALFRED. Lucas. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries. 4 Ed. London: Edward Arnold. (1962). 
Gold Trade: Egypt (3000 B.C. - 30 B.C): In the Old Kingdom there were several expeditions for gold exploration in the mines of Sinai and Red Sea as military campaigns against Nubians and Libyans. Trade with the Near East (Lebanon, Palestine, Mesopotamia) intensified and, together with military successes, enabled Egypt to found strategic camps and a maritime fleet, they obtained gold, turquoise, cedar wood and myrrh, which would serve as an engine for impressive advances in the fields of architecture, art and technology. The ancient Egyptians did use a type of money-barter system. At first the coins were used as standardized pieces of precious metal, but in the following centuries international traders came to rely on coinage. 
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Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Hiram I:
Was the Phoenician king of Tyre, used trade to sell wood for wine. The wine trade with Egypt is vividly documented by shipwrecks discovered in 1997. From Egypt, the king too bought Nubian gold, He obtained silver, main from Sardinia and the Iberian Peninsula.
SMITH, Robertson, The Phoenicians in the context of the Ancient Near East PhD Thesis. Strasbourg, France. (2008)
RAWLINSON, George. The History of Phoenicia. 5 Ed. London: Encyclopedia Britannica. (1889). 
Maritime Trade: Phoenicians (2500 BC - 64 BC): Was an ancient civilization originating in the levant region of the eastern Mediterranean, primarily located in modern Lebanon, Their expansive and enduring trade network is credited with laying the foundations of an economically and culturally cohesive Mediterranean, which would be continued by the Greeks and especially the Romans. As early as 1200 BC, the Phoenicians built large merchant ships. During the Bronze Age, they developed the “keel” ship, proved effective enough to serve as a standard until the Roman Empire. The Phoenicians established colonies and trading points across the Mediterranean, the main one being the city state of Carthage.
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Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Financial Institutions: Romans (63 BC - 476 DC): The Roman economy was largely agrarian and centered on the trade in commodities such as grain and wine. Financial markets were established through this trade, and financial institutions, which extended credit for personal use and public infrastructure, were established primarily by interfamily wealth. Ancient Roman banks operated under private law, which did not have clear guidance on how to decide cases concerning financial matters, which forced Roman banks to operate entirely on their word and character. Bankers congregated around the arch of Janus to conduct their business and despite their informal location, were clearly professional in their business.
Caesar Augustus:
The emperor who created a financial system and issued coins stamped with his portrait to spread propaganda, create public goodwill, and symbolize his wealth and power. it was common for loans to be negotiated as verbal contracts between the parties involved with high interest rates and taxes for the state of Rome 
EVERITT, Anthony. The First Emperor: Caesar Augustus and the Triumph of Rome. London: John Murray. (2007). 
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Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Hongwu Emperor:
He was the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty, the main exports were silk and porcelain. The East India Company alone transported 6 million porcelains. Most of China's imports were silver; the Chinese also imported agricultural products from Europe from the Empires of Spain, Portugal and Holland. This was considered the first major transcontinental trade opening. 
DREYER, Edward. Early Ming China: A Political History. 2 Ed. Stanford: Stanford University Press. (1982). 
First Transcontinental Trade Treaty: Chinese (1368 - 1644): The economy of the Ming dynasty was stimulated by maritime trade with the Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch. China then engaged in a new world trade in goods, plants, animals and agricultural products. Trade with the European powers and the Japanese brought in large quantities of silver. This strengthened the empire with tax collection and job creation.
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Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Thomas Gresham
English merchant and financier who acted on behalf of King Edward VI, he became an important thinker in the dominant school of economic in Europe during the late Renaissance and early modern economic period (from the 15th to the 18th centuries). In 1565 the economist Sir Gresham founded the Royal Exchange in the City of London.
EDWARD, Arnold. Mercantilism, 1 Ed. London: Allen & Unwin. (1935).
Mercantilism (15th to the 18th centuries): is an economic policy that is designed to maximize the exports and minimize the imports for an economy. It promotes monarchy, aristocracy, clericalism, militarism, imperialism, colonialism, tariffs and subsidies on traded goods to achieve that goal. The policy aims to reduce a possible current account deficit or reach a current account surplus, and it includes measures aimed at accumulating monetary reserves by a positive balance of trade, especially of finished goods. Historically, such policies frequently led to war and motivated colonial expansion. 
Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Adam Smith
Was a Scottish economist, philosopher, pioneer of political economy, and a key figure during the American Revolution, French Revolution and Industrial revolution . Also known as ''The Father of Economics'' or ''The Father of Capitalism,'' Smith wrote an Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776). Is considered the first modern work of economics. In his work, Adam Smith introduced the basis of capitalismo.
SHARMA, Rakesh. Adam Smith: The Father of Economics. 3 Ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Archived. (1998).
Capitalist Thinking (17th century and 18th century): The economics was not a specific subject, it was part of the “Moral Philosophy”. Adam Smith was the first to recognize that market shares deserved careful, full-time study in a modern discipline of the Social Sciences. Smith's “Invisible Hand” was in opposition to the planned economy of the mercantilists, who thought the economy was like a pie: those who wanted to get rich needed to cut a bigger chunk than others. Wealth, for Smith, was not a finite pie. Men could produce a bigger pie, more wealth. Smith even emphasized the division of labor, the Symbol of free-market economics.
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Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Karl Marx
Wasa philosopher, critic of political economy, economist, historian, sociologist, political theorist, journalist and socialist revolutionary. He was a critic of capitalism, according to the theories developed by Karl Marx, the surplus should return to the worker, in the form of wages, in a percentage of the value equivalent to what was produced, and the other part would remain with the owner of the means of production. . This would then be what Marx called “surplus value”.
STEDMAN, Jones, Karl Marx: Greatness and Illusion. 1 Ed. London: Allen Lane. (2016).
Communist Thinking (18th century): Is a philosophical, social, political, and economic ideology and movement who goal is the establishment of a communist society, namely a socioeconomic order structured upon the ideas of common ownership of the means of production and the absence of social classes, money, and the state. Communism is a specific, yet distinct, form of socialism. Communists agree on the with away of the state but disagree on the means to this end, reflecting a distinction workers' self-management, and a more vanguardist or Communist party-driven approach through the development of a constitutional socialist state.
Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Friedrich Engels 
Was a German philosopher, critic of political economy, historian, political theorist and revolutionary socialist. He was also a businessman, journalist and political activist, whose father was an owner of large textile factories in Salford (Lancashire, England). He was devoted to rejecting utopian socialism, considering that society was determined by economic conditions.
STEDMAN, Jones, Karl Marx: Greatness and Illusion. 1 Ed. London: Allen Lane. (2016).
MARX, Karl; ENGELS, Friedrich. Manifesto of the Communist Party. 1 Ed. English edition. London: Edited by Friedrich Engels (1888). 
Revolutionary Socialist (18th century): Is a political philosophy, doctrine and tradition which stresses the idea that a social revolution is necessary in order to bring about structural changes. Marx and Engels affirmed that socialism would be only an intermediate step, however, necessary, to reach communist society. This would represent the maximum moment in the historical evolution of man, a moment when society would no longer be divided into classes, there would be no private property and the State, since in communism there would be no social classes .
Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Vilfredo Pareto
Was an Italian civil engineer and economist, he made important contributions to economics, your study of income distribution, beyond tables of statistics, integral equations and graphs. He was also responsible for popularising the use of the term "elite" in social analysis. He introduced the concept of Pareto efficiency and helped develop the field of microeconomics. He was also the first to discover that income follows a Pareto distribution, it was built on observations of his such as that 80% of the wealth in Italy belonged to about 20% of the population.
PARETO, Vilfredo. Manual of political economy. 1 Ed. Edited by Aldo Montesano. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (1906).
Neoclassical Economics (18th and early 20th century): The Lausanne School, led by Léon Walras and Vilfredo Pareto, developed the theories of general equilibrium and Pareto efficiency. It was founded with the 1874 publication of Walras' Elements of Pure Economics. The Mathematical economics is the application of mathematical methods to represent theories and analyze problems in economics. By convention, these applied methods are beyond simple geometry, such as differential and integral calculus, and differential equations.
Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Alfred Marshall 
Was an English economist, who was one of the most influential economists of his time. His book, Principles of Economics (1890), was the dominant economic textbook in England for many years. It brought the ideas of supply and demand and costs of production. He is also credited with treating economics on a mathematical basis. He was the first professor of economics at Cambridge University, being responsible for the transition from the theme of "political economy" to its term, "economics". He saw mathematics as a way to simplify economic reasoning.
NARMADESHWAR, Jha, The Age of Marshall: Aspects of British Economic Thought. 1 Ed.. London: F. Cass. (1973).
Supply and Demand Graph (19th and early 20th century): The use of supply and demand functions as pricing tools has been adopted by modern economists as the link between price changes and curve changes. known as the "marginalist revolution"; the idea that consumers try to adjust consumption until marginal utility equals price. The price-elasticity of demand was presented by Marshall as an extension of these ideas.
Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Carl Menger
For him, exchanges occur because individuals have different subjective evaluations of the same commodity: all economic activity is simply in the interests of individuals and must be analyzed from the point of view of final consumption, Definition of value for Menger: A good has value because it satisfies a need, and this value derives from the absence if we didn't have the good. Value is different from price (which is determined by the market, depending on competition).
EBELING, Richard M., "Carl Menger's Theory of Institutions and Market Processes. South Carolina: American Institute for Economic Research. (2021).
Austrian School (19th centuries): The Austrian School is a heterodox school of economic thought that is based on methodological individualism, the concept that social phenomena result exclusively from the motivations and actions of individuals. The Austrian School originated in late-19th and early-20th-century Vienna with the work of Carl Menger, Eugen Böhm von Bawerk, Friedrich von Wieser, and others. 
Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
John Maynard Keynes
Was an English economist whose ideas fundamentally changed the theory and practice of macroeconomics and the economic policies of governments, opposed to liberal conceptions, based on the affirmation of the State as an indispensable agent of control of the economy, with the objective of leading to a system of full employment. He argued that aggregate demand is determined the overall level of economic activity, and that inadequate aggregate demand could lead to prolonged periods of high unemployment, he advocated the use of fiscal and monetary policies to mitigate the adverse effects of economic recessions. 
EBELING, Richard M., Keynes, Milo. Essays on John Maynard Keynes. Cambridge University: Press. (1979). 
Keynesian economics (early 19th century): As part of the neoclassical synthesis, served as the standard macroeconomic model in the developed nations during the later part of the Great Depression, World War II, and the post-war economic expansion (1945–1973). It was developed in part to attempt to explain the Great Depression and the ability of economists to predict future crises. 
Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Joan Robinson: She was a British economist, a central figure in what became known as post-Keynesian economics, contributed to the notion that competition is rarely perfect saw as something of circularity in orthodox economics. She concluded that the price of capital determines the price of final products. Goods cannot be priced until entry costs have been determined. It wouldn't matter if everything in the economy happened instantly, but in the real world, pricing takes time, goods are priced before they are sold. 
HARCOURT, Geoffrey Colin. The Structure of Post-Keynesian Economics. Cambridge University Press. (2006). 
Theory of Capital (19th century): Neoclassicals claim that a competitive market forces producers to minimize production costs, that production costs are just the prices of inputs such as capital. Capital goods derive their value from final products, the price of final products determines the price of capital.
Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Milton Friedman:His ideas are associated with the neoclassical theory of price formation and economic liberalism. Friedman's challenges to what he later called "Keynesian theory“ began with his interpretation of consumption. He introduced a theory which would later become part of the mainstream and among the first to propagate the theory of consumption, Friedman's research introduced the term "permanent income" to the world, expected income over several years, and he also developed the permanent income hypothesis.
FRIEDMAN, Milton. Capitalism and Freedom. University Of Chicago. (1962). 
EBENSTEIN, Lanny. Milton Friedman: A Biography. St. Martin's Group. (2007)
Chicago School of Economics (20th century): The Chicago school of economics is a neoclassical school of economic thought associated with the work of the faculty at the University of Chicago, some of whom have constructed and popularized its principles. Milton Friedman and George Stigler are considered the leading scholars of the Chicago school. Chicago macroeconomic theory rejected Keynesianism in favor of monetarism until the mid-1970s, when it turned to new classical macroeconomics heavily based on the concept of rational expectations.
Industriales Escuela de Negocios 
Contributions from the most important leaders, philosophers, engineers and administrators in the history of public administration and business management.
Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Class: 2021 - 2022
Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Nicolau Maquiavel: Was an Italian historian and political philosopher, his most famous book, The Prince (written in 1513 and published in 1532) deals with the way a ruler should behave. Certain simplified principles that underwent popularization are associated with Machiavelli (the adjective Machiavellian is noted):
“If he must do evil, the prince must do it at once. Good must do it little by little.”
“The prince will have one word. However, he must change it whenever necessary.”
"The prince should rather be feared than loved.“
GODMAN, Peter (1998), From Poliziano to Machiavelli: Florentine Humanism in the High Renaissance, Princeton University Press (p. 240).
The Influence Of Philosophers On Administration (19th century): Philosophers constantly seek solutions to the problems that run in their midst, which may be external or even internal. They sought in their time what organizations constantly seek: planning, organization of tasks, direction and control, but we see that in such a deglobalized period, there were more positive results than many companies that exist today.
Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
René Descartes: Was founder of Modern Philosophy, famous for his work “The Discourse of the Method”, in which he describes the main precepts of his philosophical method, today called the “Cartesian method”, whose principles are: Principle of Systematic Doubt or Evidence, that is, as really true. Principle of Analysis or Decomposition - dividing and decomposing each part of a problem to analyze its parts separately. Principle of Synthesis or Composition, rational process that consists of ordering thoughts, from the easiest and simplest to the most difficult and complex. Principle of Enumeration or Verification (checklist).
BOURKE, Vernon J., "Rationalism," p. 263 in Runes (1962).
Rationalistic Thought (16th to the 19th centuries): It is the epistemological view that "considers reason as the main source and test of knowledge" or "any view that appeals to reason as the source of knowledge or justification". More formally, rationalism is defined as a methodology or theory "in which the criterion of truth is not sensory, but intellectual and deductive“.
Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Jules Henri Fayol: Was a French mining engineer and director of mines who developed a general theory of business administration that is often called Fayolism. Thanks to this theory, business administration came to be seen as a discipline that can be learned and improved, Fayol's studies also guide the organization of processes and teamwork , disseminating the importance of investing in factors such as division of tasks, responsibility and discipline.
WREN, D.A. "Henri Fayol as a strategist: a nineteenth century corporate turnaround". Management Decision. Vol. 39, pp.: 475–487. (2001). 
Fayolism (Early 20th century): It was a theory of management that analyzed and synthesized the role of management in organizations, developed around 1900 by the French manager and management theorist Henri Fayol. it is characterized by the emphasis on the organizational structure of the economic and by the search for maximum organizational efficiency, For Fayolism, the technical to determine the trajectory of any organization. In other words, a company can have the best team of professionals with technical knowledge, but if it doesn't have good managers, it is likely to fail.
Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Frederick W. Taylor: Was an American mechanical engineer. He was known for his methods to improve industrial efficiency. He was one of the first management consultants. In 1911, Taylor summed up his efficiency techniques in his book The Principles of Scientific Management. His pioneering work in applying engineering principles to the work done on the factory floor was instrumental in the creation and development of engineering that is now known as Industrial Engineering
MARY, Ellen Papesh."Frederick Winslow Taylor". University of St. Francis. Archived (2008).
Tayolism (Early 20th century): It was a factory management system developed in the late 19th century to increase efficiency by evaluating each step of a manufacturing process and breaking production down into specialized repetitive tasks. Scientific management is a theory of management that main objective is improving economic efficiency, especially labor productivity. It was one of the earliest attempts to apply science to the engineering of processes to management.
Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Henri Ford: Was an American mechanical engineer, business magnate, founder of the Ford Motor Company, and chief developer of the assembly line technique of mass production. His introduction of the Ford Model T automobile revolutionized transportation and American industry. As the Ford Motor Company owner, he became one of the richest and best-known people in the world.
NEVINS, Allan & HILL, Frank Ernest. Ford: Expansion and Challenge, (1957).
Fordism (Early 20th century): Is a manufacturing technology that serves as the basis of modern economic and social systems in industrialized, standardized mass production and mass consumption. The concept is named for Henry Ford. It is used in social, economic, and management theory about production, working conditions, consumption, and related phenomena. It describes an ideology of advanced capitalism centered around the American socioeconomic systems in place in the post-war economic boom. Fordism is "the eponymous manufacturing system designed to produce standardized, low-cost goods and afford its workers decent enough wages to buy them.
Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Taiichi Ohno: Was a Japanese industrial engineer and businessman. He is considered to be the father of the Toyota Production System, which inspired Lean Manufacturing in the U.S. He devised the seven wastes (or muda in Japanese) as part of this system. He wrote several books about the system, including Toyota Production System. Beyond Large-Scale Production. Ohno's principles influenced areas outside of manufacturing, for example, the field of sales process engineering has shown how the concept of Just In Time. 
NAKAMURO, Jun. The Continuous Evolution of TPS and Kaizen. Retrieved (2019).
Toyotism (20th century): The Toyota Production System (TPS) is an integrated socio-technical system, developed by Toyota, that comprises its management philosophy and practices. The TPS is a management system that organizes manufacturing and logistics for the automobile manufacturer, including interaction with suppliers and customers.The system is a major precursor of the more generic "lean manufacturing“. It is a production method aimed primarily at reducing times within the production system as well as response times from suppliers and to customers.
Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Edwards Deming: Deming graduated in engineering and mathematics from the University of Wyoming in 1922. He made significant contributions to Japan's reputation for manufacturing innovative, high-quality products. Deming is considered the foreigner who had the greatest impact on Japanese industry and economy in the 20th century. 
KILIAN, Cecelia S. The World of W. Edwards Deming, Press, Inc. (1992). 
Quality Control and Improvement of Production Processes (20th century): PDCA (plan–do–check–act or plan–do–check–adjust) is an iterative design and management method used in business for the control and continual improvement of processes and products. It is also known as the Deming circle/cycle/wheel, the control circle/cycle, or plan–do–study–act (PDSA). This emphasis on observation and current condition has currency with the literature on lean manufacturing and the Toyota Production System.The PDCA cycle, with Ishikawa's changes, can be traced back to S. Mizuno of the Tokyo Institute of Technology in 1959.
Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Peter Drucker: Was an economist, consultant, and author, whose writings contributed to the philosophical and practical foundations of the modern business corporation. He was also a leader in the development of management education, he invented the concept known as management by objectives, and he has been described as "the founder of modern management“, His work is especially popular in Japan, He known for its model that companies work better when they are decentralized.
 BEATTY, Jack, World According to Peter Drucker (1998).
Modern Management (20th century): Modern management is the process of applying best practices based on new practices and approaches that allow a better adaptation to the changes that are taking place in the social and economic environment of organizations, leaving the traditional management practices behind. In modern management all planning, organizing, directing and controlling activities must involve an adequate interconnection of human relationships and time to achieve the goals established within an organization.
Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Abraham Maslow: Was an American psychologist who was best known for creating Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a theory of psychological health predicated on fulfilling innate human needs in priority, culminating in self-actualization. Maslow was a psychology professor at Brandeis University, Brooklyn College, New School for Social Research, and Columbia University. He stressed the importance of focusing on the positive qualities in people.
 Abraham H. Maslow. Motivation and personality. New York. (1987). 
Hierarchy of Needs (20th century): The hierarchy of needs is used to study how humans intrinsically in behavioral motivation. Maslow used the terms "physiological", "safety", "love", "social needs“, and "self-actualization" to describe the pattern through which human needs and motivations generally move. This means that, according to the theory, in order for motivation to arise at the next stage, each prior stage must be satisfied by an individual. The hierarchy has been used to explain how effort and motivation are correlated in the context of human behavior. Each of these individual levels contains a certain amount of internal sensation that must be met in order for an individual to complete their hierarchy. The goal in Maslow's hierarchy is to attain the level or stage of self-actualization.
Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Philip Kotler: Was an economist. He is regarded as "The Father of Modern Marketing". Kotler explains that Marketing is an administrative and social process by which people obtain what they want and need through the generation of desire, offering and exchanging products of value. He created the concept of "demarketing" to help with the task of reducing the level of demand. He also developed the concepts of social marketing.
BARTELS, Robert, The History of Marketing Thought, Ohio, Grid, (1976).
Marketing (20th century): Is the process of exploring, creating, and delivering value to meet the needs of a target market in terms of goods and services. Is business strategy to optimize profits by adapting the production and supply of goods or services to the needs and preferences of consumers, using market research, design, advertising campaigns, after-sales service, etc.
Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Michael Porter: He is a mechanical and aerospace engineer. He obtained an MBA and a PhD in Business Economics, both from Harvard, where he became a professor at the age of 26. Professor Porter is the most cited author in business and economics. Porter stated in a 2010 interview: "What I've come to see as probably my greatest gift is the ability to take an extraordinarily complex, multidimensional problem and get arms around it conceptually in a way that helps, that informs and empowers practitioners to actually do things.
PORTER, Michael. How Competitive Forces Shape Strategy. Harvard Business Review, May (1979). 
Porter's Five Forces (20th century): is a method of analysing the operating environment of a competition of a business. It draws from industrial organization economics to derive five forces that determine the competitive intensity and, therefore, the attractiveness of an industry in terms of its profitability. The effect of these five forces reduces overall profitability. The most unattractive industry would be one approaching "pure competition", in which available profits for all firms are driven to normal profit levels. 
Kenny Ralph Martins dos Santos
Henry Mintzberg: He is a mechanical engineer from Mcgill University and a PhD in management from MIT. Mintzberg defined a role as an organized set of behaviors that belong to an identifiable role or position and grouped the ten managerial roles, which are: example, leader, liaison, monitor, disseminator, spokesperson, entrepreneur, conciliator, resource manager. and negotiator. Both are divided into three families: interpersonal roles, information roles, and decision roles.
BERRETT, Koehler, What Managers Do and Can Do Better. (2013).
Strategic Planning and Decision Making (Early 21th century): It is the choice of a set of actions, which aims to achieve goals. Thus, we can say that planning is achieving your goals and that it is the role of your strategy to make you and your goals connect. Decision making is the decision-making process of choosing among possible alternatives, that is, pre-existing options. In the case of decision-making in organizations, the consequences of this choice can directly or indirectly affect all employees, generating risks or opportunities.
Industriales Escuela de Negocios