English Grammar

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
Moving towards Excellence 
 
 
 
Pensa Pedro Furede 
 
 
 
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PENSA PEDRO FUREDE 
 
 
 
 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
Moving towards Excellence 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
This book has been adapted by PENSA for use in greater depth of understanding and 
proficiency that the grammar provides. 
 
 
 
 
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Contents 
Especial note ............................................................................................................................................. 4 
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 5 
UNIT I ...................................................................................................................................................... 6 
WORD FORMATION .............................................................................................................................. 6 
The Morpheme ...................................................................................................................................... 7 
Word-formation processes in english .................................................................................................. 13 
UNIT 1 .................................................................................................................................................... 26 
NOUNS ............................................................................................................................................... 27 
Noun gender ..................................................................................................................................... 27 
Types of nouns ................................................................................................................................. 28 
use of capital letters with nouns ....................................................................................................... 33 
nationalities ...................................................................................................................................... 34 
all ...................................................................................................................................................... 36 
UNIT 3 .................................................................................................................................................... 37 
PRONOUNS ....................................................................................................................................... 38 
Types of pronouns ............................................................................................................................ 39 
RELATIVE CLAUSES ....................................................................................................................... 46 
UNIT 4 .................................................................................................................................................... 54 
ADJECTIVES ..................................................................................................................................... 55 
UNIT 5 .................................................................................................................................................... 70 
Verb Forms and Tenses ................................................................................................................... 71 
Verb-Vocabularies ........................................................................................................................... 77 
UNIT 6 .................................................................................................................................................. 101 
Adverbs .............................................................................................................................................. 102 
Types of adverbs ............................................................................................................................ 104 
UNIT 7 .................................................................................................................................................. 119 
Prepositions ........................................................................................................................................... 119 
UNIT 8 .................................................................................................................................................. 129 
Conjunctions .......................................................................................................................................... 129 
Form and Functions ....................................................................................................................... 130 
Types of Conjunctions ................................................................................................................... 130 
UNIT 9 .................................................................................................................................................. 134 
Determiners ........................................................................................................................................... 134 
Articles ........................................................................................................................................... 136 
UNIT 10 ................................................................................................................................................ 138 
Present Tenses ................................................................................................................................... 139 
Past Tenses ........................................................................................................................................ 149 
Future Tenses ..................................................................................................................................... 160 
UNIT 11 ................................................................................................................................................ 171 
Interjections ........................................................................................................................................... 171 
Position of interjections ................................................................................................................. 172 
Interjections in english ................................................................................................................... 173 
UNIT 12 ................................................................................................................................................ 175 
Quantifiers ............................................................................................................................................. 175 
Types of Quantifiers ...................................................................................................................... 176 
UNIT 13 ................................................................................................................................................ 190 
question tags .......................................................................................................................................... 190 
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UNIT 14 ................................................................................................................................................ 194 
conditionals (if) ..................................................................................................................................... 194 
UNIT 15 ................................................................................................................................................ 208 
Passive voice ......................................................................................................................................... 208 
UNIT 16 ................................................................................................................................................ 213 
direct and indirect speech ...................................................................................................................... 213 
UNIT 17 ................................................................................................................................................ 221 
gerund and present participle ................................................................................................................ 221 
Gerund Or Infinitive? ..................................................................................................................... 227 
UNIT 18 ................................................................................................................................................ 231 
The Infinitive ..................................................................................................................................... 232 
UNIT 19 ................................................................................................................................................ 241 
The Distributives ............................................................................................................................... 242 
UNIT 20 ................................................................................................................................................ 252 
English Punctuation ........................................................................................................................... 253 
UNIT 21 ................................................................................................................................................ 263 
Plurals ................................................................................................................................................ 264 
UNIT 20 ................................................................................................................................................ 268 
Phrase................................................................................................................................................. 269 
UNIT 22 ................................................................................................................................................ 274 
idioms and phrasal verbs ....................................................................................................................... 274 
References ......................................................................................................................................... 288 
Sources............................................................................................................................................... 288 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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ESPECIAL NOTE 
Note: For this Text Book we have chosen to follow Oxford Grammar of the English Language since it is 
the most comprehensive and up-to-date source available. Some of the vocabulary and terms may be 
different than those you were taught previously. More so, other sources referred on the “references and 
sources” page were essential on the elaboration of this book. 
 
 
 
 
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INTRODUCTION 
 
Communication is the heart and soul of the human experience. The process communication mainly 
includes speaking, listening, reading and writing. Nobody actually learns grammar to learn his/her own 
mother tongue. It is a natural phenomenon that we start speaking what everybody speaks around us. We 
gradually develop a better sense of understanding with the passage of time. 
We don't study grammar of our own mother tongue to use it for daily speaking, but when we need to 
polish our own mother tongue, we have to study its grammar and we usually do that. When we come 
learning a new language like English Language, we need to study its grammar. The importance of its 
grammar can't be neglected and before we do that we need to understand what grammar is. 
Grammar is the study of words and the ways words work together. An invisible force that guides us as 
we put words together in a sentence. Any person who communicates using a particular language is 
consciously or unconsciously aware of the grammar of that language. 
To speak in a clearer and more effective manner we study grammar. A person who has an unconscious 
knowledge of grammar may be sufficient of simple language use, but the ones who wish to communicate 
in an artful manner and well, will seek greater depth of understanding and proficiency that the study of 
grammar provides. 
 
 
 
 
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On this unit: 
 The morpheme 
 Types of affixes 
 Roots and stems 
 General morphological processes involved in the formation of new words. 
 Word-formation processes in English 
 
 
UNIT I 
 
WORD FORMATION 
 
 
 
 
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The Morpheme 
The smallest units of language that have a meaning or a grammatical function and form words or parts of 
words are called morphemes. In writing, individual morphemes are usually represented by their graphic 
form, or spelling; e.g., -es, -er, un-, re-; or by their graphic form between bracers, { }; e.g., {-es}, {-er}, {un-
}, {re-}. The branch of linguistics in charge of studying the smallest meaningful units of language (i.e., 
morphemes), their differentforms, the internal structure of words, and the processes and rules by which words 
are formed is called morphology. 
Types of Morphemes 
Depending on the way morphemes occur in an utterance, they are grouped into two large groups: free 
morphemes and bound morphemes. 
1. Free or independent morphemes are those morphemes which can occur alone as words and 
have a meaning or fulfil a grammatical function; e.g., man, run, and. There are two types of free 
morphemes. 
a. Lexical (content or referential) morphemes are free morphemes that have semantic content (or 
meaning) and usually refer to a thing, quality, state or action. For instance, in a language, these 
morphemes generally take the forms of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs; e.g., dog, Peter, 
house, build, stay, happy, intelligent, quickly, always. Actually, lexical morphemes constitute the 
larger class of morphemes. They form the open class of words (or content words) in a language, 
i.e., a class of words likely to grow due to the incorporation of new members into it. 
b. Function(al) or grammatical morphemes are free morphemes which have little 
or no meaning on their own, but which show grammatical relationships in and between sentences. For 
instance, in a language, these morphemes are represented by prepositions, conjunctions, articles, 
demonstratives, auxiliary verbs, pronouns; e.g., with, but, the, this, can, who, me. It should be said that 
function words are almost always used in their unstressed form. 
2. Bound (or dependent) morphemes are those morphemes which never occur alone as words but 
as parts of words; they must be attached to another morpheme (usually a free morpheme) in order to have 
a distinct meaning; e.g., -er in worker, -er in taller, -s in walks, -ed in passed, re- as in reappear, un- in 
unhappy, undo, -ness in readiness, -able in adjustable; -ceive in conceive, receive, -tain in contain, 
obtain, etc. There are two types of bound morphemes: bound roots and affixes. 
a. Bound roots are those bound morphemes which have lexical meaning when they are attached to 
other bound morphemes to form content words; e.g., -ceive in receive, conceive; -tain in retain, 
contain; plac- in implacable, placate; cran- in cranberry, etc. Notice that bound roots can be 
prefixed or suffixed to other affixes. (See Appendix). 
b. Affixes1 are bound morphemes which are usually marginally attached to words and which change 
the meaning or function of those words; e.g., -ment in development, en- in enlarge; ’s in John’s; -
s in claps, -ing in studying, etc. 
 
 
1 Affixes may also consist of suprasegmental elements such as pitch or stress; in this case they are referred to as superfixes 
(Lehmann, 1983). 
WORD FORMATION UNIT 
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Types of Affixes 
Affixes can be classified into two different ways: according to their position in the word and according 
to their function in a phrase or sentence. 
 
1. According to their position in the word (or side of the word they are attached to), affixes are 
classified into prefixes, infixes and suffixes. 
a. Prefixes are bound morphemes that are added to the beginning of the word; e.g., un- in 
unnoticed, a- in amoral, sub- in subway, etc. Notice that prefixes are represented by the 
morphemes followed by a hyphen (-). 
b. Infixes are bound morphemes that are inserted within the words. There are no infixes in the 
English language, but in the languages such as Tagalog and Bontoc (in the Philippines), Infixes 
are represented by the morphemes preceded and followed by a hyphen; e.g., -um-. 
c. Suffixes are bound morphemes which are attached to the end of the word; e.g., able in 
noticeable, -less in careless, -s in seeks, -en in shorten, etc. Notice that suffixes are represented 
by the morphemes preceded by a hyphen. 
 
2. According to the function affixes fulfil in the language, affixes are classified into derivational affixes 
(derivational morphemes or derivations) and inflectional affixes (inflectional morphemes or 
inflections). 
 
d. Derivational affixes are morphemes that create (or derive) new words, usually by either 
changing the meaning and/or the part of speech (i.e., the syntactic category), or both, of the 
words they are attached to (Godby et al., 1982). In English, derivational morphemes can be 
either prefixes or suffixes. For example, un-+ happy (adj.) = unhappy (adj.); re-+ classify (v) 
= reclassify (v.); by-+ product (n.) = by-product. (See Appendix for a list of derivational 
prefixes and suffixes in English). 
 
Inflectional affixes, for their part, are morphemes which serve a purely grammatical function, such as 
referring to and giving extra linguistic information about the already existing meaning of a word (e.g., 
number, person, gender, case, etc.), expressing syntactic relations2 between words (e.g. possession, 
comparison), among others. For instance, the different forms of the verb speak are all considered to be 
verbs too, namely, speak, spoken, speaking. In a like manner, the comparative and superlative forms of 
the adjective strong are also adjectives, namely, stronger, strongest. In English, there are only eight 
inflections. They are -(e)s3 (third person singular marker of verbs in present tense), as in speaks, teaches; 
-(e)s5 (regular plural marker) as in books, oranges; ’s (possessive marker) as in John’s house; -(e)d5 
 
2 In fact, some grammatical relations can be expressed either inflectionally (i.e., morphologically) or syntactically. E.g., The boy’s 
book = The book of the boy; He loves books = He is a lover of books; She is hungrier than you = She is more hungry than you (cf. 
Fromkin & Rodman, 1983). In general, when there are few inflectional affixes in a language, word order and function words are 
used to express certain grammatical meanings and relationships (cf. Byrne, 1978). 
3 Some linguists prefer to use -(e)s1 for the third person singular and -(e)s2 for the plural. Similarly, -(e)d1 is often used for the past 
and, instead of -en, -(e)d2 is used for the past participle. -en is reserved for the past participle form of irregular verbs. 
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(regular past tense marker) as in helped, repeated; -en5 (past participle marker) as in spoken, eaten; -ing 
(present participle marker) as in eating, studying; -er (comparative marker) as in faster, happier; and -
est (superlative marker) as in fastest, happiest. 
 
 
Roots and Stems 
Roots (or bases) are the morphemes (free or bound) that carry the principal or basic concept, idea or 
meaning in a word. They generally constitute the nuclei or cores of words. When roots are free 
morphemes, they constitute content (and function) words by themselves, such as book, dog, house, carry, 
quick, early, etc. When roots are bound morphemes,4 they form parts of words, such as -ceive in perceive, 
-tain in attain, -sume in presume, etc. 
For their part, stems are free roots to which derivational affixes have been added or are likely to be added. 
In this sense, a stem = a root, as in fish, place; a stem = a root + one or more derivations, as in comfortable, 
uncomfortable, uncountableness. Notice that stems are words without inflectional morphemes. For 
example, in the word disestablishment, disestablish, establishment, and establish (which is a root at the 
same time) are stems. 
 
 
General Morphological Processes Involved in the Formation of New Words. 
 
In this course, we will study five major morphological processes that affect roots and stems and which 
lead to the production of new words. Those processes are affixation, compounding, symbolism, 
reduplication and suppletion. 
 
A. Affixation 
Affixation consists in adding derivational affixes (i.e., prefixes, infixes and suffixes) to roots and stems 
to form new words. For example, if the suffix -able is added to the word pass,the word passable is 
created. Likewise, if to the word passable the prefix in- (or rather its allomorph im-) is attached, another 
word is formed, namely impassable. Affixation is a very common and productive morphological process 
in synthetic languages. In English, derivation is the form of affixation that yields new words. 
 
 
 
 
 
B. Compounding 
Compounding consists in the combination of two or more (usually free) roots to form a new word. For 
example, the word blackboard, heartfelt, brother-in-law are compound words; they are made up of the 
 
4 In this course we will be considering mostly free roots; then our morphological analysis of words will almost always end with a 
free morpheme. 
WORD FORMATION UNIT 
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roots (at the same time words themselves) black and board, heart and felt, brother, in and law, 
respectively. 
Compounding is a very common process in most languages of the world (especially among synthetic 
languages). In English, for instance, compound words have the following characteristics: 
1. Compounds words behave grammatically and semantically as single words. 
2. Since compound words behave as units, between their component elements no affixes (whether 
inflections or derivations) can usually occur; inflectional suffixes can appear only after 
 
compound words. For example, bathrooms, school, buses, water resistant. Exceptions: passersby, 
brothers-in-law, courts-martial. 
1. Compound words can be written in three different ways: 
a.. Open, i.e., with a space between the parts of the compound; e.g., toy store, diving board, flower pot. 
b. Hyphenated, i.e., with a hyphen (-) separating the elements of the compound; 
e.g., flower-pot, air-brake, she-pony. 
c. Solid, e.g., without a space or hyphen between the component elements of the compound; e.g., 
flowerpot, washrooms, pickpocket. 
Preference for a particular form of writing the compound word depends largely on lexicographical 
conventions and the variety of English use. For instance, hyphenation (i.e., separating the elements of a 
compound with a hyphen) is more common in British English than in American English. In American 
English, the tendency is to write the compounds open or solid (Quirk et al., 1985). However, hyphenation 
is quite common practice in both varieties of the language when ad hoc premodifying compounds are 
used; e.g., a much-needed rest; a state-of-the-art report. 
2. The global meaning of the compound word can often be guessed from the individual meaning of each 
element of the compound. For example, a boathouse is ‘a shed in which boats are stored’; a bookstore 
is ‘a store which sells books’; and so on. But there are a few compound words whose global meanings 
have to be learned as if they were single words because such meanings cannot be guessed from the 
individual meanings of the component elements of the compounds. For instance, a Redcoat is ‘a 
British soldier’, not ‘a coat that is red’. Similarly, a flatfoot is ‘a detective or policeman’, a turncoat 
is ‘a traitor’, a hot dog is ‘a kind of fast food’, etc. 
3. Compound words usually have the primary stress on the first element of the compound; e.g., 'air-
crafts, 'chewing-gum. This fact differentiates compounds from phrases that have the same elements 
and order as compounds. Phrases usually have their primary accent on the second (or nominal) 
element; e.g., a ‘red ↘ coat vs. a 'Red ˎcoat; a 'flat ↘ foot vs. a 'flatfoot; the ˊwhite ↘house vs. the 
'White ˎHouse. Of course, there are a few compounds which have their primary stress on the second 
element as phrases; e.g., working 'man, flying 'saucer, woman 'writer, fancy 'dress. 
4. The second element (or head word) of the compound usually determines the grammatical category 
to which the whole compound belongs. Following are a few possible combinations: 
n + n = n; e.g., sunrise, dancing girl, hand-shake, air-conditioning, cigar smoker, windmill. 
v + n = n; e.g., rattlesnake, call-girl, dance-hall. 
adj. + n = n, e.g., darkroom, highbrow. 
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n + adj. = adj.; e.g., airsick, bottle-green. 
 
pron. + n = n; e.g., she-pony, he-goat. 
prep. + v = v; e.g., overtake, undergo. 
prep. + n = n; e.g., onlooker, off-day. 
adj. + adj. = adj.; e.g., gray-green, Swedish-American. 
 
However, there are some cases in which the headword does not determine the grammatical class of the 
compound; for example: 
n + v = adj.; e.g., man-eating, ocean-going, heartfelt. 
adj./adv. + v = adj.; e.g., hard-working, good-looking, dry-cleaned. 
n + prep. = n; e.g., passer-by, hanger-on. 
v + (adv.) prep. = n; e.g., show-off, holdup. 
v + adv. = n; e.g., have-not, get-together. 
It is important to point out that some compound words are made up of a bound root (or ‘special’ 
combining form, as Quirk et al. (1985) call it), e.g., socio-, psycho-, and a free root; e.g., socioeconomic, 
psychoanalysis, biotechnology. The compound may also consist of two bound roots; e.g., Laundromat, 
nephrolithotomy, pornography. 
7. Compounding is a recursive process; i.e., one compound itself may become a constituent of a larger 
compound; e.g., lighthouse keeper, living-room furniture. 
 
C. Symbolism 
Symbolism (or morpheme internal change) consists in altering the internal phonemic structure of a 
morpheme to indicate grammatical functions (cf. Pei, 1966). For example, in order to form the plurals of 
goose \guːs\ and tooth \tuːθ\ in English, the phoneme \uː\ is replaced by the phoneme\ìː\, thus yielding 
the plural forms geese \gìːs\ and teeth \tìːθ\, respectively. 
 Similarly, a few verbs indicate their past tense and past participle forms just by undergoing internal 
changes, as in the following cases: 
 sing sang sung 
 swim swam swum 
Notice that some of these verbs, in addition, take the inflectional morpheme -en \-ən\ to indicate the past 
participle, as in: 
 break broke broken 
 eat ate eaten 
It is important to point out that the new words created by the process of symbolism are usually considered 
irregular forms and have come to be as a result of historical changes in the development of the language. 
 
D. Reduplication 
Reduplication consists in the repetition of all or of part of a root or stem to form new words. If the entire 
root or stem is repeated, the process is called complete (or total) reduplication, and the new word is 
 
WORD FORMATION 
 
UNIT 
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considered as a repetitive compound. Total reduplication is fairly frequent in Indonesian, Tojolabal 
(Mexico), Hausa (Sudan), and Hawaiian. Similarly, in Indonesian, total reduplication is used to form the 
plural of nouns, as in [rumah] ‘house’, [rumahrumah] 
‘houses’; [ibu] ‘mother’ [ibuibu] ‘mothers’; [lalat] ‘fly’, [lalatlalat] ‘flies’. In Hawaiian, holo means 'run', 
holoholo 'go for a walk or ride'; lau means 'leaf', laulau 'leaf food package'. 
If only a part of the root or stem is repeated, the process is called partial reduplication, and the repeated 
portion is called a reduplicative. Such reduplicatives may occur pre-posed, interposed, and postposed to 
the root or stem (cf. Nida, 1949); however, reduplicatives are more common word-initially and word-
medially. Partial reduplication is fairly common in Snohomish and Tagalog. 
 
In English, partial reduplication is a little bit more common than total reduplication. Quirk et al. (1985) 
refer to the words formed by either type of reduplication as reduplicatives (also called ‘jingles’). As an 
example of total reduplication, they give bye-bye, goody-goody (‘a self-consciously virtuous person’). 
As to partial reduplication, they say that the constituentsof the reduplicatives may differ in the initial 
consonants, as in walkie-talkie, or in the medial vowels, e.g., criss-cross. The same authors add that most 
reduplicatives are highly informal or familiar, and many belong to the sphere of child-parent talk, e.g., 
din-din (dinner’). 
Quirk et al. (1985) in addition state that the most common uses of reduplicatives are the following: 
a. To imitate sounds, e.g., rat-a-tat (knocking on door), tick-tack (of a clock), ha-ha (of laughter), 
bow-wow (of dog). 
b. To suggest alternating movements, e.g., see saw, flip-flop, ping-pong. 
c. To disparage by suggesting instability, nonsense, insincerity, vacillation, etc., e.g., higgledy-
piggledy, hocus-pocus, wishy-washy, dilly-dally, shilly-shally, willy-nilly. 
d. To intensify, e.g., teeny-weeny, tip-top. 
 
E. Suppletion 
Suppletion consists in a complete change in the form of a root (i.e., a word) or in the replacement of root 
by another morphologically unrelated root with the same component of meaning in different grammatical 
contents (cf. Richards et al., 1985; Byrne, 1978; Pei, 1966). For example, good and well change to better 
and best in the comparative and superlative. Similarly, bad and badly change to worse and worst. 
Likewise, be changes to am, are, and is in the present; am/is change to was and are to were in the past. 
Another example is go which changes to went in the past. As can be seen, this process yields completely 
irregular forms. Suppletive forms help to fill gaps in grammatical paradigms of the language (cf. Pei, 
1966). 
 
 
 
 
WORD FORMATION 
 
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WORD-FORMATION PROCESSES IN ENGLISH 
In English, the following processes have been used in the formation of new words. Notice that such 
processes are not necessarily of a morphological nature. 
 
A. Acronymy 
Acronymy is the process whereby a new word is formed from the initial letters of the constituent words 
of a phrase or sentence. For example, from the initial letters of the words of the phrase North Atlantic 
Treaty Organization, the word NATO is formed. Similarly, from the 
initial letters of the constituent words of the phrase unidentified flying object, the word UFO is formed. 
In a like manner, from the constituent words of the sentence I owe you, the word IOU (notice the 
adaptation in spelling) is formed. And from the Situation normal, all fouled up, snafu (army slang) is 
formed. The words created by this process are called acronyms; all of them function as nouns. 
 
Types of Acronyms 
According to Quirk et al. (1985), there are two main types of acronyms, namely: 
1. Acronyms which are pronounced as a word; e.g., NASA (= National Aeronautics and Space 
Administration), radar (= radio detecting and ranging), laser (= light amplification by stimulated 
emission of radiation), UNESCO (= United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), 
BASIC (= Beginners' All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code), COBOL (Common Business Oriented 
Language), etc 
As can be seen, acronyms of this type often derive from phrasal names. Many of them belong to the 
jargon (i.e., specialized language) of particular occupations, organizations or fields of study (esp. 
scientific, administrative, political) and might be completely meaningless to the persons who are not 
familiarized with them. Notice also that some of these acronyms are of so frequent an occurrence that 
people often use them without the slightest idea of what the words stand for; e.g., laser, radar. 
 
2. Acronyms which are pronounced as sequences of letters (also called 'alphabetisms'); e.g., 
C.O.D. (= cash on delivery), MIT (= Massachusetts Institute of Technology), VIP (= very important 
person). In writing, the more institutionalized formations have no periods between their component 
letters. This tendency is especially more common in British English than in American English; e.g., DIY 
(= do-it-yourself), FBI (= Federal Bureau of Investigations). 
Note that each constituent letter of these acronyms usually represents a full word or constituent in the 
compound, or just a part of a word, as in the following examples: TB (= tuberculosis), TV (= television), 
c/o (= (in) care of).5 Likewise, notice that some of these acronyms are given a quasi-phonetic written 
form; e.g., Emcee for M.C. (= Master of Ceremonies), Deejay for DJ (= disc jockey), etc. 
 
B. Clipping 
Clipping is the processes whereby new words are formed by shortening other words; i.e., by eliminating 
the initial part, the last part, or both parts, of those words. E.g., phone from (tele)phone, plane from 
 
5 In fact, some acronyms are not often read as a sequence of letters but preferably as the words they stand for; for example, e.g. is 
read for example; i.e. is read that is, namely; c/o is read (in) care of, and so on. 
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(air)plane, ad (advert (BrE)) from ad(vertisement), exam from exam(ination), flu from (in)flu(enza), 
fridge (esp. BrE) from refrigerator. 
 Notice that the short form or clipping represents the word in its entirety; however, that fragment 
does not have to be the salient part of the original word, neither prosodically nor semantically. Also, the 
clipping may not be used in the same contexts as the longer word. For example, the word exam is mostly 
used to refer to academic examinations or tests, not to medical examinations or check-ups. 
 Clipped forms generally show a certain tone of informality, which is often reflected in their 
spellings; e.g., showbiz for showbusiness, 'cause ('cuz or cos) for because, praps for perhaps. Note that 
in some cases the spelling is adapted to suit the pronunciation of the original word, as in mike for 
microphone, Mike for Michael, nark for narcotics, bike for bicycle. In other cases, the pronunciation 
changes, as in soc (BrE) for societ . Still in other cases, neither spelling nor pronunciation changes as in 
veg for vegetable (or veggies for vegetables). Also, some clipped forms retain a final – s present in the 
original longer forms, as in maths (esp. BrE) for mathematics, specs for spectacles. The tone of 
informality of some clippings is usually lost when they become well established in the language; e.g., 
plane, stereo (from stereophonic), taxi (from taxicab), cab (from cabriolet), pram (BrE for 
perambulator) and so on. 
 
C. Blending 
Blending is the process whereby new words are formed by combining parts of two words, usually the 
beginning of one word and the end of another (cf. Godby et al, 1982). For example, smog (smoke + fog), 
brunch (breakfast + lunch), heliport (helicopter + airport), motel (motor + hotel), FORTRAN (formula 
translation), etc. Notice that enough of each word is normally retained so that the complex whole remains 
fairly readily analysable. 
 
D. Borrowing 
Borrowing is the process whereby new words are formed by adopting words from other languages 
together with the concepts or ideas they stand for (cf. Brun, 1983; Pei 1966). E.g., tango, mango, taco, 
burrito from Spanish; fiancé, very (adapted from Old French verai), garage from French; pizza, mafia 
from Italian; and so on. Usually, the pronunciation and morphology of the borrowings (borrowed 
terms or loanwords) are adapted to the phonology and morphology of the host language. 
 
E. Back-formation 
Back-formation is the process by which new words are formed by the deletion of a supposed affix from 
an already existing word (cf. Quirk et al., 1985; Fromkin & Rodman, 1983; Richards et al. 1985). For 
example, the verbs peddle, edit, hawk, enthuse, stoke, swindle, televise, donate, sculpt, buttle have been 
created form the pre-existing nouns peddler, editor, hawker, enthusiasm, stoker, swindler, television, 
donation, sculptor and butler, respectively. The nouns have been thought to be derivatives of verbs on 
theanalogy of cases such as revision, creation, formation, transmission, to name a few, which are true 
 
derivatives form the verbs revise, create, form, transmit, respectively. Notice that this process normally 
involves the transformation of one part of speech into another. 
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F. Word Coinage 
Word coinage (or invention) is the process whereby new words are created outright, either deliberately 
or accidentally, to fit some purpose. Usually, words are coined to express new ideas, processes, products, 
etc. in the language. For example, brand names such as Xerox, Kodak, Exxon, Kleenex, Nylon, Dacron, 
etc.; pooch, snob, nerd, blurb, googol, etc. 
It is worth pointing out that the invention of new words is sometimes based on existing words, such as 
Jell-o on gel, Kleenex on clean. Many acronyms such as Cobol, laser, etc. are based on 
phrases for which they stand. However, words are more often created out of thin air, i.e., without basing 
on any other pre-existing word. 
 
G. Functional shift 
Functional shift (conversion or zero derivation) is the process by which new words are created by 
using a word in new functions (i.e., by shifting, changing or converting its original grammatical class to 
another class), without any change in its form (cf. Godby et al., 1982; Byrne, 1978; Pei, 1966). For 
example, when the word water is used in the following sentence Give me some water, please it is used 
as a noun, which is probably its original (and more common) use. But when water is used in the sentence 
The children water the plants every morning, it is used in a new syntactic function, namely, as a verb, 
and no change in spelling or pronunciation has been made. In other words, the grammatical category of 
the word water has shifted from noun to verb. 
Another example of this process is the use of the word walk in the following sentences: a. If the shop 
isn't too far away, we can walk over there. 
 b. I take a walk around the block every evening. 
In (a), walk is used as a verb (probably its most common use); in (b), it is used as noun. As we can see, 
the very same word walk, without undergoing any change in its spelling or pronunciation, passed from 
verb to noun. 
Among the changes in pronunciation are the following: 
1. Voicing of final consonant sounds. The final consonant sounds in some nouns, usually the unvoiced 
fricatives, are voiced to, respectively, in the corresponding verb forms. For example 
Noun → Verb Noun → Verb 
abuse /-s/ abuse /-z/ relief /-f/ relieve /-v/ 
advice /-s/ advise /-z/ shelf /-f/ shelve /-v/ 
house /-s/ house /-z/ thief /-f/ thieve /-v/ 
use /-s/ use /-z/ mouth \-T\ mouth \-D\ 
belief /-f/ believe /-v/ sheath \-T\ sheathe \-D\ 
grief /-f/ grieve /-v/ wreath \-T\ wreathe \-D\ 
 
 
 
 
 
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In the examples that follow, besides voicing of the final consonant, there is a substantial change of 
pronunciation (esp. of the internal vowel sound): 
 
Noun → Verb 
breath breathe 
bath bathe 
glass glaze 
 
2. Shift of stress and vowel reduction. When two- (or three-) syllable verbs are converted into nouns, 
the primary stress is sometimes shifted from the second to the first syllable. The first syllable, typically 
a Latin prefix, often has the reduced vowel \´\ (or \I\) in the verb form but a full vowel in the noun form. 
 
Other Cases of Conversion 
 Following are some other common cases of conversion (cf. Quirk et al., 1985): 
1. Conversion to noun 
a. From verbs: answer, attempt, bet, blow-out, bore, catch, cheat, coach, cover, desire, dismay, 
divide, doubt, drive-in, fall, find, hand-out, hit, laugh, lay-by, lift, love, raise, release, retreat, 
rise, search, show-off, shut-down, smell, stand-in, swim, taste, throw, turn, walk, want, wrap, 
walk-out, wrench, etc. 
b. From adjectives (1): bitter (type of beer), comic, daily (newspaper), final (race), marrieds 
(married people), natural (a naturally skilled player), roast, red, regular (customer), wet, etc. 
c. From adjectives (2):6 (the) ignorant, (the) poor, (the) poorest, (the) rich, (the) wealthy, (the) 
wealthier, (the) wicked, etc. 
d. From closed-class words: buts, downs, how, ifs, a must, ups, why, etc. 
e. From affixes: isms. 
f. From phrases: also-rans, been-to, do's and don'ts, down-and-out, free-for-all, has-been, high-
ups, know-it-all, low-down, etc. 
2. Conversion to verb 
a. From nouns: baby, bicycle, boat, bottle, brake, butter, canoe, carpet, catalogue, cash, 
chaperon, coat, commission, core, corner, cripple, elbow, father, fiddle, finger, floor, garage, 
glue, grease, group, gut, hand, knife, mail, mask, mother, motor, muzzle, nurse, oil, parrot, 
peel, pit, pilot, plaster, porch, position, rack, shelve, skin, etc. 
b. From adjectives: calm, calm down, dirty, dry, empty, humble, lower, narrow, sober up, 
smooth out, soundproof, weary, yellow, etc. 
3. Conversion to adjectives from nouns: (in both predicative and attributive position) brick, cotton, 
nylon, reproduction (furniture), wool, Worcester (porcelain), etc. 
 
 
6 This kind of conversion is called partial conversion because a word of one grammatical class appears in a function that is 
characteristic of another word class (Quirk et al., 985). When these ‘nouns’ are subjects, the main verb must be in the plural form; 
e.g. The rich live in large houses, and they travel a lot. Likewise, they have plural referents. 
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H. Morphological Misanalysis 
Morphological misanalysis (or false etymology) is the process whereby new morphemes or words are 
introduced into the language due to an erroneous analysis of the structure of some words, in which the 
language speaker seems to see or hear familiar elements (cf. Godby et al., 1982). For example, the suffix 
–burger results from misanalysing the word hamburger as if it were composed of the word ham plus –
burger. In fact, the word hamburger is a one-morpheme word and is short for Hamburger steak. The 
"suffix" –burger has since been used to form new words which refer to other types of food; namely, 
cheeseburger, pizzaburger, salmonburger, steakburger. 
Similarly, the word alcoholic has been misanalysed as if it contained the suffix -(a)holic, and this 
has been used in the formation of words such as workaholic (= addict to work), sugarholic. In a like 
manner, the word bikini has been misanalysed as if it had the prefix bi-, as in bipolar or binational, plus 
the "suffix" –kini. This misanalysis has given rise to the word monokini, which contains the prefix mono- 
as in monophonic or monogamy. The word bikini comes from the name of the Bikini Atolls in the Marshal 
Islands, near New Zealand 
 
I. Eponymy 
Eponymy is the process by which a number of words for places, inventions, activities, etc. have been 
derived from (or based on) the proper names of persons somehow connected with such places, inventions, 
activities, etc. For example, Washington, D. C. has been named for George Washington and District of 
Columbia for Christopher Columbus. Other name words are kaiser and tsar for Julius Caesar; ohm for 
George Simon Ohm; watt after James Watt; sandwich after the 4th Earl of Sandwich; jumbo (jet) after 
the name of a huge elephant taken to the US by P. T. Barnum; denim for de Nimes (France), picasso for 
the famous painter Picasso, and so on. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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APPENDIX 
Table 1. Suffixes that change the grammatical class of the words they are attached to. 
Noun-forming suffixes Adjective-forming suffixesv + ~ = N 
 
v + ~ = Adj. 
assist + -ance = Assistance eat + -able eatable 
assist + -ant = Assistant reduce + -ible reducible 
confide + -ence = Confidence differ + -ent different 
confide + -ent = Confident signify + -ant significant 
permute + -ation = Permutation act + -ive active 
compete + -ition = Competition compulse + -ory compulsory 
attend + -tion = Attention 
confess + -ion = confession n + ~ Adj. 
adhere + -sion = adhesion fashion + -able fashionable 
employ + -ee = employee response + -ible responsible 
work + -er = worker magic + -al magical 
act + -or = actor planet + -ary planetary 
beg + -ar = beggar affection + -ate affectionate 
develop + -ment = development disease + -ed diseased 
observe + (at)ory = observatory gold + -en golden 
close + -ure = closure Burma + -ese Burmese 
break + -age = breakage picture + -esque picturesque 
type + -ist = typist peace + -ful peaceful 
survive + -al = survival dictator + -ial dictatorial 
 poet + -ic poetic 
Adj. + ~ = n child + -ish childish 
young + -ster = youngster tree + -less treeless 
industrial + -ist = industrialist god + -like godlike 
crude + -ity = crudity coward + -ly cowardly 
dry + -ness = dryness poison + -ous poisonous 
free + -dom = freedom quarrel + -some quarrelsome 
 praise + worthy praisworthy 
 
 Verb-forming suffixes: 
v + ~ = v n + ~ = v 
black + -en = blacken beauty + -ify = beautify 
solid + -ify = solidify computer + -ize = computerize 
 length + -en = lengthen 
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 Table 2: Prefixes that change the grammatical class of the words they are attached to. 
 
 
~ + n = adv. 
a- + bed = abed 
 
~ + v = adv. 
a- + sleep = asleep 
a- + singing = asinging 
 
 
~ + n = v 
be- friend befriend 
en- + danger = endanger 
em- + power = empower 
 
~ + adj. = v 
be- little + belittle 
en- + large = enlarge 
 
 
Table 3: Suffixes that do not change the grammatical class of the words they are attached to. 
WORD FORMATION 
n + ~ = n Meaning of Morpheme 
lemon + -ade = lemonade 
Mexico + -an = Mexican 
Africa + -ana = Africana ‘collection of facts, objects, etc. related to’ 
discipline + -arian = disciplinarian ‘practice of’ 
function + -ary = functionary 
director + -ate = directorate 
boot + -ee = bootee ‘diminutive’ 
mountain + -eer = mountaineer ‘person concerned with the n’ 
philosophy + -er = philosopher ‘practicer of’ 
fish + -ery = fishery ‘place where an action is carried out’ 
cook + -ery = cookery ‘art of, practice of’ 
snob + -ery = snobbery 
rival + -ry = rivalry ‘state, quality, character of’ 
journal + -ese = journalese ‘in the (literary) style of’ 
lion + -ess = lioness ‘female of n’ 
cigar + -ette = cigarette ‘diminutive’ 
usher + -ette = usherette ‘female’ 
flannel + -ette = flannelette ‘imitation’ 
hand + -ful = handful ‘amount that fills’ 
boy + -hood = boyhood ‘status, rank, condition of life’ 
mathematics + -ian = mathematician ‘specialist in’ 
music + -ian = musician 
dog + -ie = doggie ‘pet name or familiar name’ 
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adj. + ~ = adj. 
outer + -most = outermost ‘superlative of adj., very’ 
two + -fold = twofold ‘of (so many) parts’ 
red + -ish = reddish ‘somewhat, near to’ 
 
Table 4: Derivational prefixes that do not change the grammatical class of the words they are 
attached to. 
a- ‘not, without’: amoral; aseptic; atheist (n.). 
ante- ‘in front of’: anteroom; ‘before, previous to’: antenatal. 
anti- 1. ‘opposed to, against’: antisocial; antiseptic; 2. ‘instead of’: anti-hero. 
arch- ‘first, chief, head’: archetype; archbishop. 
audio- ‘of hearing, of sound’: audiovisual; audio-frequency. 
be- 
1. (~ + v = v) ‘all over, all around, in all directions’: bedeck; bespatter. 2. (~ + n or adj. 
= v) ‘make, become’: befriend; belittle. 3: bemoan; bewail. 
bi- 
1. ‘occurring twice in a period’: bi-monthly; bi-annual. 2. ‘occurring once in a period of 
two’: bicentenary; biennial. 3. ‘having two’: biped; bilingual. 
by-, bye- ‘of secondary importance; incidental’: by-election; bye-law; by-product. 
pig + -y = piggy 
hero + -ism = heroism ‘showing qualities typical of’ 
Buddha + -ism = Buddhism ‘specific doctrine, principle or movement’ 
drama + -ist = damatist ‘agent of an –ize verb’ (e.g. dramatize) 
king + -dom = kingdom ‘domain’ 
pound + -worth = poundsworth ‘using the amount of’ 
tobacco + -ist = tabacconist ‘person concerned with a specific activity’ 
Labor + -ite = Laborite ‘follower, devotee of a person or organization’ 
pig + -let = piglet ‘diminutive’ 
duck + -ling = duckling ‘diminutive’ 
hire + -ling = hireling ‘person connected with’ (used dispairingly) 
country + -man = countryman ‘dweller in’ 
milk + -man = milkman ‘somebody connected by a specific activity to’ 
fish + monger = fishmonger ‘somebody who deals in’ 
song + -ster = songster ‘somebody connected with the n’ 
land + -scape = landscape ‘a stretch of scenery’ 
friend + -ship = friendship ‘a state of being, status, office’ 
musician + -ship = musicianship ‘skill, proficiency as’ 
photograph + -y = photography ‘system of’ 
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co- ‘together, jointly, equally’: cohabit; co-author; co-operate; co-education. 
de- (used with a v.) ‘the negative, reverse, opposite of’: depopulate; defrost; defuse. 
dis- (used with a v.) ‘the negative, reverse, opposite of’: disbelieve; disorder; disagree. 
equi- ‘equal, the same’: equidistant; equivalent. 
ex- 
 
1. ‘out, out of, from’: exclaim; extract. 2. ‘former, at one time’: ex-wife, ex-president. 
extra- 1. ‘outside, beyond’: extra-marital, extrasensory. 2. ‘very’: extra-thin. 
fore- ‘before, in front of’: foretell; foreground. 
hyper- ‘to a large or extreme degree’: hypercritical; hypersensitive. 
in-, il-, 
im-, ir- 
1. (~ + v = v or n) ‘in, on’: intake; imprint. 2. (~ + adj. = adj.) ‘not’: infinit; illicit; 
immoral; irrelevant. 
inter- ‘between, from one to another’: international; interplanetary. 
intra- 
intro- 
‘inside’: intravenous; intra-uterine; introspection. 
mal- ‘bad, wrong, not’: maladjustment; malnutrition. 
mis- ‘bad, wrong, not’: misconduct; misdirect; mistrust. 
multi- ‘many’: multistage; multicolored. 
neo- ‘new, revived, later’: neologism; neo-classical. 
non- ‘bit’: nonsense; non-stop. 
out- 
1. ‘located outside’: outhouse; outpost. 2. ‘surpassing to a greater extent’: outnumber; 
outmaneuver. 3. ‘with the various senses of out’: outcry; outspoken. 
over- 
1. ‘across, above’: overland; overhead. 2. ‘to excess, too 
much’: overcharge; overwork. 3. ‘with the various senses of over’: overthrow; 
overpower. 
pan- ‘all, throughout’: panchromatic; Pan-African. 
photo- 1. ‘of light’: photoelectric. 2. ‘of photography’: photocopy; photogenic. 
physi(o)- ‘of the body, of living things’: physiotherapy; physiology. 
poly- ‘many’: polygamy; polysyllabic. 
post- ‘after’: postcript; posthumous; post-graduate. 
pre- ‘before’: prefabricate; premature; pre-recorded. 
pro- 
1. ‘supporting, in favor of’: pro-Chinese; pro-revolutionary. 
2. ‘acting as’: pro-Vice-Chancellor. 
proto- ‘first, original, basic’: prototype; protoplasm. 
pseudo- ‘false, fake’: pseudonym; pseudo-intellectual. 
psycho- ‘of the mind’: psychiatry; psycho-analysis. 
quasi- ‘almost, seemingly’: quasi-serious; quasi-explanation. 
re- ‘again’: re-echo; reinstate. 
retro- ‘backwards, behind’: retrospective; retro-rocket. 
self- ‘of one’s self, alone’: self-taught; self-service. 
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semi- ‘half, partially, midway’: semi-circular;semi-detached; semi-final. 
sub- 
1. ‘under’: subway; subsoil. 2. ‘secondary, lower in rank’: sub-committee; sub-species. 
3. ‘not quite’: sub-tropical; subnormal. 4. (~ + v) ‘secondary repetition’: sublet; 
subdivide. 
super- 
1. ‘above, over’: super-structure; superimpose. 2. ‘superior to, more than’: superhuman; 
supernatural. 
trans- 
1. ‘across’: transatlantic; trans-continental. 2. ‘to a changed state’: transplant; transform. 
tri- ‘three’: triangle; tricolor. 
un- 
1. (used with an adj. or n.) ‘not’: unable; untruth. 2. (used with v.) ‘negative, reverse, 
opposite of’: uncover; unpack. 
under- 
1. ‘located beneath’: undercurrent; undergrowth. 2. ‘not enough’: underestimate; 
undersized. 3. ‘lower in rank, importance’: undersecretary; understudy. 
uni- ‘one, the same’: uniform; unisex. 
up- ‘to a higher or better state’: uphill; upgrade. 
vice- 
‘somebody who is next in rank to and may act for another’: 
vice-consul; vice-president. 
ultra- ‘beyond; to excess’: ultraviolet; ultra-liberal. 
well- 
(~ + pp. of v. = adj.) 1. ‘fortunately’: well-born. 2. ‘properly, thoroughly’: well-informed; 
wellworn. 
 
 
Table 5: Derivational prefixes that change the grammatical class of the words they are attached to. 
a- 1. (~ + n. = adv.) ‘in’: abed; ‘on, at’: afield; ashore. 2. (~ + v. = adv.) ‘in the state of, 
in the process of’: asleep, ablaze. 3. (old use) (~ + gerund = adv.) ‘in the act of’: a-
running; a-singing. 
be- (~ + n. or adj. = v) ‘make, become’: befriend; belittle. 
en-, em- 1. (~ + n. = v) ‘put in, on’: encase; endanger; enplane. 2. (~ + 
n. or adj. = v.) ‘make into, cause to be’: enlarge; enrich; empower. 
 
 
Table 6: Derivational prefixes that are attached to bound roots to form content words. 
ab- ‘from, away from’: absent; abduct. 
ad- ‘to, towards’: advance; adjoin. 
aero- ‘of aircraft’: aerodynamics; aeronaut. 
ambi- ‘both, double, two’: ambiguous; ambidextrous. 
an- ‘not, without’: anaesthetic; anonymous. 
anthropo- ‘of man; of mankind’: anthroopoid; anthropology. 
astro- ‘of the stars, of outer space’: astronomy; astronaut. 
biblio- ‘of books’: bibliography; bibliophile. 
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bio- ‘of life, of living organisms’: biography; biology; biotic. 
centi- ‘a hundred, a hundredth’: centigrade; centimeter. 
chrono- ‘of time’: chronology; chronometer. 
con-, col-, 
com-, cor- 
‘with, together’: conduct; collaborate; combine; correlate. 
contra- ‘against; opposite to’: contraception; contradict. 
demi- ‘half, partly’: demimonde; demigod. 
di- ‘twice, double’: dilemma; dioxide. 
dia- ‘through, across’: diameter; diagonal; diaphragm. 
electro- ‘concerned with, caused by electricity’: electrocute; electromagnet. 
geo- ‘of the earth’: geography; geology. 
hemo-, 
haemo- 
‘of the blood’: hemoglobin; hemorrhage. 
hetero- ‘the other, the opposite, different’: heterogeneous; heterosexual. 
homo- ‘the same’: homogenous; homosexual. 
hydro- ‘of water’: hydrant; hydro-electric. 
macro- ‘relatively large; extending’: macrocosm; macrobiotic. 
matri- ‘mother’: matriarch; mat-ricide. 
mega- 1. ‘large’: megalith. 2. ‘one million’: megaton. 
micro- 1. ‘relatively small’: micro-film; microwave. 2. ‘of examining or reproducing small 
quantities’: micro-scope; microphone. 
milli- ‘a thousandth part of’: milligram; millimeter. 
mono- ‘one, a single’: monosyllable; monotone. 
neuro- ‘of the nervous system’: neuralgia; neurology. 
ortho- ‘correct, standard’: orthodox; orthopaedic. 
paleo-, 
palaeo- 
‘of ancient times’: paleolithic; paleontology. 
patri- ‘father’: patriarch; patricide. 
phono- ‘of sound’: phonetic; phonology. 
socio- ‘of society’: sociology; socio-economic. 
sym-, syn- ‘sharing with, together’: sympathy; synchronize. 
techno- ‘of applied science’: technocracy; technology. 
tele- ‘of linking across distances’: telepathy; television. 
theo- ‘of God’: theocracy; theology. 
thermo- ‘of heat, of temperature’: thermostat; thermometer. 
 
 
 
 
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 Table 7: Derivational suffixes that do not change the grammatical class of the words they are 
attached to. 
-ade lemonade 
-ana, iana ‘collection of facts, objects, etc.; relating to’: Africana 
-arian ‘practicer of’: disciplinarian; vegetarian. 
-ate directorate 
-cide ‘killing, killer’: suicide; insecticide. 
 
-cracy ‘government or rule by, class characterized by’: democracy; aristocracy. 
-crat ‘member or supporter of a –cracy’: democrat; aristocrat. 
-(a)cy ‘condition, quality’: accuracy; infancy; supremacy. 
-ee ‘diminutive’: bootie; coatee. 
-eer ‘person concerned with the n’: auctioneer; mountaineer. 
-er ‘practicer of’: astronomer; philosopher. 
-ese ‘in the (literary) style of’: journalese; officialese. 
-ess ‘female’: lioness; actress; mistress. 
-ette 1. ‘diminutive’: cigarette; kitchenette. 2. ‘female’: usherette; suffragette. 3. ‘imitation’: 
flannelette; leatherette. 
-fold 1. ‘multiplied by’: tenfold; hundredfold. 2. ‘of (so many) parts’: 
twofold. 
-form ‘having the shape or character of’: uniform; cuneiform. 
-gamy ‘of marriage’: monogamy; polygamy. 
-gon ‘angles, corner’: polygon; pentagon. 
-gram ‘something written down or drawn’: telegram; monogram; diagram. 
-graph ‘something written down, of writing’: autograph; telegraph. 
-graphy calligraphy; orthography. 
-ful ‘amount that fills’: handful; mouthful; spoonful. 
-hood ‘status, rank, condition of life’: boyhood; brotherhood. 
-ian 1. ‘belonging to’: Brazilian; Shakespearean. 2. ‘specialist in’: 
optician, pediatrician; mathematician. 
-ics ‘science or specific activity’: physics; politics; athletics. 
-ide ‘chemical compound’: chloride; sulphide. 
-ie, -y ‘pet name or familiar name’: piggy; doggie; Susie. 
-ish ‘somewhat, near to’: reddish; twentyish. 
-ism 1. ‘showing qualities typical of’: Americanism; heroism. 2. ‘specific doctrine, principal 
or movement’: Buddhism; Communism. 
-ist 1. ‘agent of an –ize verb’: dramatist; publicist. 2. ‘follower, practicer of an –ism’: 
industrialist; fascist. 3. ‘person concerned with a specific activity or thing’: 
tobacconist; motorist. 
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-ite 1. ‘follower, devotee of a person or organization’: Laborite. 2. ‘specific chemical 
substance’: anthracite; dynamite. 
-itis ‘inflammation of’: appendicitis; tonsilitis. 
-let ‘diminutive’: piglet; booklet. 
-ling 1. ‘diminutive’: duckling; fledgling. 2. ‘person connected with (often used 
disparingly)’: hireling; underling. 
-log(ue) ‘something spoken’: dialogue; monologue; travelogue. 
-logy ‘branch of learning’: biology; sociology. 
-man 
1. ‘dweller in’: Irishman; countryman. 2. ‘somebody connected by a specific activity 
to’: guardsman; doorman; businessman; milkman 
-mania ‘abnormal behavior, excessive enthusiasm’: kleptomania; bibliomania. 
-manic ‘somebody affected by a –mania’: kleptomaniac. 
-meter 1. ‘a means of measuring’: speedometer; kilometer. 2. ‘a part of a meter’: centimeter. 
-monger ‘somebody who deals in’: fishmonger; scandalmonger. 
-most ‘superlative; very’: inmost; outermost. 
-oid ‘resembling in shape’: asteroid; rhomboid. 
-osis ‘a process, change’: hypnosis; metamorphosis. 
-phile ‘lover of something in excess’: Anglophile; bibliophile. 
-philia ‘excessive love of’: Anglophilia; bibliophilia. 
-phobe ‘fearer of’: xenophobe. 
-phobia ‘excessive fear of’: claustrophobia; xenophobia. 
-phobic ‘fearful in excess of’: claustrophobic; xenophobic. 
-phone ‘means of reproducing a sound’: megaphone; telephone. 
-phonic ‘relating the means of reproducing sounds’: stereophonic. 
-scape ‘a stretch of scenery’: landscape; moonscape. 
-scope ‘means of observing or showing’: microscope; stroboscope. 
-ship 1. ‘astate of being, status; office’: friendship; ownership; professorship. 2. ‘skill, 
proficiency as’: musicianship; scholarship. 
-sphere ‘spherical, of a sphere’: hemisphere; atmosphere. 
-ster 1. ‘somebody connected with the n’: songster; gangster. 
-tude ‘condition’: magnitude; exactitude. 
-ule ‘relative smallness’: capsule; globule. 
-worth ‘using the amount of’: poundsworth; daysworth. 
 
 
 
WORD FORMATION UNIT 
I 
 
 
 
Page 26 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
On this unit 
 noun 
 Noun gender 
 The plural of nouns 
 Countable and uncountable nouns 
 Compound nouns 
 Use of capital letters with nouns 
 Nationalities 
 The possessive 's 
 All 
 
 
UNIT 1 
 
NOUNS 
 
 
 
 
Page 27 
NOUNS 
 
Nouns answer the questions "What is it?" and "Who is it?" 
They give names to things, people and qualities. 
 
 Examples 
• dog, bicycle, man, girl, beauty, truth, world. 
 
NOUN GENDER 
In general, there is no distinction between masculine, feminine and neuter in English nouns. However, 
gender is sometimes shown by different forms or different words. 
 
 Different Words Different forms 
Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine 
man woman actor actress 
father mother prince princess 
uncle aunt hero heroine 
boy girl waiter waitress 
husband wife widower widow 
 
Some nouns can be used for either a masculine or a feminine subject. 
 Examples 
cousin teenager teacher doctor 
cook student parent friend 
relation colleague partner leader 
• Mary is a doctor. She is a doctor 
• Peter is a doctor. He is a doctor. 
• Arthur is my cousin. He is my cousin. 
• Jane is my cousin. She is my cousin. 
It is possible to make the distinction by adding the words 'male' or 'female'. 
• a female student; a male cousin 
For professions, we can add the word 'woman' 
• a woman doctor; a woman journalist. 
In some cases, nouns describing things are given gender. 
• I love my car. She (the car) is my greatest passion. 
• France is popular with her (France's) neighbors at the moment. 
• I travelled from England to New York on the Queen Elizabeth, she (the Queen Elizabeth) is a 
great ship. 
 
NOUNS UNIT 
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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS 
Most nouns form the plural by adding -s or -es. 
 Examples 
• boat → boats 
• house → houses 
Words that end in -ch, x, s or s-like sounds, however, will require an -es for the plural: 
 Examples 
• witch → witches box → boxes gas → gases 
• bus → buses kiss → kisses Jones → Joneses 
 
Note: There’s one exception to this rule. If the -ch ending is pronounced with a ‘k’ sound, you add -s 
rather than -es: 
 Examples 
Singular Plural 
Stomach 
epoch 
Stomachs 
epochs 
 
A noun ending in -y preceded by a consonant makes the plural with -ies. 
 Examples 
• a cry → cries 
• a fly → flies 
• a nappy → nappies 
 
Nouns ending in -f or -fe 
With nouns that end in a consonant or a single vowel plus -f or -fe, change the -f or -fe to ves: 
 Example 
Singular Plural 
Knife 
Half 
scarf 
Knives 
Halves 
scarves 
 
Nouns which end in two vowels plus -f usually form plurals in the normal way, with just an -s 
 Example 
Singular Plural 
Chief 
spoof 
chiefs 
spoofs 
 
 
NOUNS UNIT 
2 
 
 
 
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There are some irregular formations for noun plurals. 
Some of the most common ones are listed below. 
 Examples of irregular plurals 
Singular Plural Singular Plural 
Man 
Child 
Tooth 
Foot 
Person 
Leaf 
Half 
Knife 
Wife 
Phenomenon 
Criterion 
datum 
Men 
Children 
Teeth 
Feet 
People/persons 
Leaves 
Halves 
Knives 
Wives 
Phenomena 
Criteria 
Data 
 Life 
Loaf 
Cactus 
Focus 
Fungus 
Nucleus 
Syllabus 
Analysis 
Diagnosis 
Oasis 
Thesis 
crisis 
Lives 
Loaves 
Cacti 
Foci 
Fungi 
Nuclei 
Syllabi/syllabuses 
Analyses 
Diagnoses 
Oases 
Theses 
Crises 
 
Some nouns have the same form in the singular and the plural. 
 Examples 
Singular Plural 
Sheep 
Fish 
Sheep 
Fish 
 
Some nouns have a plural form but take a singular verb. 
 Examples 
• news → The news is on at 6.30 p.m. 
• athletics → Athletics is good for young people. 
• linguistics → Linguistics is the study of language. 
• darts → Darts is a popular game in England. 
• billiards → Billiards is played all over the world. 
Some nouns have a plural form and take a plural verb. 
 Examples 
• trousers →My trousers are too tight. 
• jeans → Her jeans are black. 
• glasses → Those glasses are his. 
others include: 
savings, thanks, steps, stair, customs, congratulations, tropics, wages, spectacles, outskirts, goods, 
wits 
NOUNS UNIT 
2 
 
 
 
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COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS 
Countable nouns 
Countable nouns are for things we can count. They usually have a singular and plural form. 
 Examples 
• dog,two dogs, horse,ten horses, a man, six men, shop,the shops, a few ideas, idea... 
We can use the indefinite article a/an with countable nouns: 
✓ A dog is an animal. 
When a countable noun is singular, we must use a word like a/the/my/this with it: 
✓ I want an orange. (not I want orange.) 
✓ Where is my bottle? (not Where is bottle?) 
When a countable noun is plural, we can use it alone: 
✓ I like oranges. 
✓ Bottles can break. 
We can use some and any with countable nouns: 
✓ I've got some dollars. 
✓ Have you got any pens? 
We can use a few and many with countable nouns: 
✓ I've got a few dollars. 
✓ I haven't got many pens. 
 
Uncountable nouns 
Uncountable nouns are for the things that we cannot count 
 Examples 
• tea, sugar, water, air, rice. 
They are often the names for abstract ideas or qualities. 
 Examples 
• knowledge, beauty, anger, fear, love. 
They are used with a singular verb. They usually do not have a plural form. We cannot say sugars, 
angers, knowledges. 
 Examples of common uncountable nouns: 
• money, furniture, happiness, sadness, research, evidence, safety, beauty, knowledge. 
We cannot use a/an with these nouns. To express a quantity of one of these nouns, use a word or 
expression like: 
• some, a lot of, a piece of, a bit of, a great deal of... 
 Examples 
There has been a lot of research into the causes of this disease. 
He gave me a great deal of advice before my interview. 
They've got a lot of furniture. 
Can you give me some information about uncountable nouns? 
 
NOUNS UNIT 
2 
 
 
 
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 Some nouns are countable in other languages but uncountable in English. Some of the most common 
of these are: 
BE CAREFUL 
Sometimes, the same noun can be countable and uncountable, often with a change of meaning. 
 Example: with the noun 'hair' which is normally uncountable in English: 
• She has long blonde hair 
It can also be countable when referring to individual hairs: 
• My father's getting a few grey hairs now 
Countable Uncountable 
There are two hairs in my coffee! hair I don't have much hair 
There are two lights in our bedroom. light 
Close the curtain. There's too much 
light! 
Shhhhh! I thought I heard a noise. 
There are so many different noises in 
the city 
noise 
It's difficult to work when there is so 
much noise. 
Have you got a paper to read? 
(newspaper). Hand me those student 
papers. 
paper 
Paper I want to draw a picture. Have you 
got some paper? 
Our house has seven rooms. room Is there room for me to sit here? 
We had a great time at the party. 
How many times have I told you no? 
time Have you got time for a cup of coffee? 
Macbeth is one of Shakespeare's 
greatest works 
work Work I have no money. I need work! 
 
COMPOUND NOUNS 
Formation 
Words can be combined to form compound nouns. These are very common, and new combinations are 
invented almost daily. They normally have two parts. The second part identifiesthe object or person in 
question (man, friend, tank, table, room). The first part tells us what kind of object or person it is, or 
what its purpose is (police, boy, water, dining, bed): 
What type/what purpose What or do 
police man 
boy friend 
water tank 
dining table 
bed room 
Accommodation 
Advice 
Behaviour 
News 
Progress 
Traffic 
Trouble 
Weather 
Work 
Furniture 
Information 
luggage 
Travel 
Bread 
 
NOUNS UNIT 
2 
 
 
 
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The two parts may be written in a number of ways: 
1. as one word. 
 Examples: policeman, boyfriend 
 
2. as two words joined with a hyphen. 
 Examples: dining-table 
 
3. as two separate words. 
 Examples: fish tank. 
There are no clear rules about this - so write the common compounds that you know well as one word, 
and the others as two words. 
The two parts maybe: Examples 
Noun + noun Bedroom, water tank, motorcycle, printer cartridge 
Noun + verb Rainfall, haircut, train-spotting 
Noun + adverb Hanger-on, passer-bye 
Verb + noun Washing machine, driving license, 
Verb + adverb Lookout, take-off, drawback 
Adjective + noun Greenhouse, software, redhead 
Adjective + verb Dry-cleaning, public speaking 
Adverb + noun Onlooker, bystander 
Adverb + verb Output, overthrow, upturn. input 
 
Compound nouns often have a meaning that is different from the two separate words. 
Stress is important in pronunciation, as it distinguishes between a compound noun (e.g. greenhouse) 
and an adjective with a noun (e.g. green house). 
In compound nouns, the stress usually falls on the first syllable: 
• a 'greenhouse = place where we grow plants (compound noun) 
• a green 'house = house painted green (adjective and noun) 
• a 'bluebird = type of bird (compound noun) 
• a blue 'bird = any bird with blue feathers (adjective and noun) 
*Many common compound nouns are formed from phrasal verbs (verb + adverb or adverb + verb). 
 Examples: breakdown, outbreak, outcome, cutback, drive-in, drop-out, feedback, flyover, hold-
up, hangover, outlay, outlet, inlet, makeup, output, set-back, stand-in, takeaway, walkover. 
 
NOUNS UNIT 
2 
 
 
 
Page 33 
USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS WITH NOUNS 
Capital letters are used with: 
1. Names and titles of people 
Winston Churchill Marilyn Monroe the Queen of England 
the President of the United States the Headmaster of Eton Doctor Mathews 
Note: The personal pronoun 'I' is always written with a capital letter. 
2. Titles of works, books etc. 
• War and Peace 
• The Merchant of Venice 
• Crime and Punishment 
 
3. Months of the year 
• January, February, March, April, May, June, April, May, June, July, August, September, 
October, November, December. 
 
4. Day of the Week 
• Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday. 
 
5. Seasons 
• Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter. 
6. Holidays 
• Christmas, Easter, New Year's Day, Thanksgiving Day, etc. 
 
7. Geography names…...Name of countries and continents 
• Europe, China, Asia, Africa, etc. 
 
8. Names of regions, states, districts, etc. 
• California, Florida, Provence, etc. 
 
9. Names of Cities, towns, villages, etc. 
• London, Chimoio, Bairro 5, etc. 
 
10. Names of rivers, oceans, seas, lakes, etc. 
• the Atlantic, Lake Victoria, the Nile, Save River, etc. 
 
11. Names of geographical formations. 
• the Sahara, the Alps. etc. 
 
NOUNS UNIT 
2 
 
 
 
Page 34 
 
12. Adjectives relating to nationality nouns 
• Italy - Italian music 
• China - Chinese food 
• Zimbabwe - Zimbabwean literature. 
 
13. Names of streets, buildings, parks etc. 
• George Street, Central Park, Sydney Opera House etc. 
 
NATIONALITIES 
Country: I live in England. 
Adjective: He reads English literature. 
Noun: He is an Englishman 
 
Country Adjective Noun 
Africa African an African 
America American an American 
Belgium Belgian a Belgian 
China Chinese a Chinese 
Britain British a Briton/ Britisher 
 
Note: We use the + nationality adjective ending in –ese or –ish with a plural verb, to refer to all people 
of that nationality: 
• The Chinese are very hard-working. 
• The Spanish often go to sleep in the afternoon. 
 
THE POSSESSIVE 'S 
To form the possessive, add 's ('apostrophe -s') to the noun. 
If the noun is plural, or already ends in -s, just add:' (an apostrophe). 
 
For names ending in -s: 
In speaking we add the sound /z/ to the name, but in writing it is possible to use either 's or just '. The 's 
form is more common. e.g. Thomas's book, James's shop. 
 Examples 
• The car of John = John's car. 
• The room of the girls = The girls' room. 
• Clothes for men = Men's clothes. 
• The sister of Charles = Charles' sister. 
• The boat of the sailors = The sailors' boat. 
NOUNS UNIT 
2 
 
 
 
Page 35 
There are also some fixed expressions where the possessive form is used: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Using of the possessive 
The possessive form is used with nouns referring to people, groups of people, countries, and animals. 
'Belonging to' or 'ownership' is one of the relationships it expresses: 
• John owns a car. ('John' is the possessor or owner). It is John's car. 
• America has some gold reserves. ('America' is the owner). They are America's gold reserves. 
 
It can also express other relationships, for example: 
Where someone works or studies or spends time: 
• John goes to this school. This is John's school. 
• John sleeps in this room. This is John's room. 
 
A family relationship: 
• John's mother 
• The Queen's daughter 
 
qualities: 
• John's patience. 
• The politician's hypocrisy. 
The possessive is also used to refer to shops, restaurants, churches and colleges, using the name or job 
title of the owner. 
 Examples 
 the grocer's the doctor’s the vet's 
the newsagent's the chemist's Smith’s 
the dentist's Tommy Tucker's Luigi's 
Saint Mary's Saint James's 
 
• Shall we go to Luigi's for lunch? 
• I've got an appointment at the dentists at eleven o'clock. 
• Is Saint Mary's an all-girls school? 
 
NOUNS 
Time expressions Other expressions 
a day's work For God's sake! 
a fortnight's holiday a pound's worth of apples 
a month's pay the water's edge 
today's newspaper a stone's throw away (= very near) 
in a year's time at death's door (= very ill) 
 in my mind's eye (= in my imagination) 
UNIT 
2 
 
 
 
Page 36 
All 
All refers to three or more items. It is used mostly before plural and uncountable nouns. 
• All children need love. 
• I love all music. 
• All the invitees turned up. 
When all is followed by a plural noun, the verb is normally plural. After an uncountable noun, we use a 
singular verb. 
• All cheese contains fat. 
• All the lights were out. 
All + noun is not normally used as the subject of a negative verb. We more often use the structure not 
all + noun + affirmative verb. 
• Not all birds can sing. (NOT All birds cannot sing.) 
 
All and All of 
Before a noun with no determiner (possessives, articles and demonstratives) we use all. 
• All children need love. 
• All cheese contains fat. 
• All lights were out. 
Before a noun with a determiner (the, my, this etc.), all and all of are both possible. 
• All the lights were out. 
• All of the lights were out. 
• I have invited all my friends to my birthday party. 
• I have invited all of my friends to my birthday party. 
Before a personal pronoun (us, them etc.) we use all of + object form. 
• All of us love music. (NOT All us love music) I have invited all of them. (NOT I have invited 
all them.) 
All with nouns and pronouns 
• All can modify nouns and pronouns. We normally place it before the noun/pronoun. 
• I have invited all (of) my friends. 
• All of us love music. 
• I love all of you. 
• All of us are going to the movies. 
 
We can put all after pronouns used as objects.• I love you all. (= I love all of you.) 
• Give my love to them all. (= Give my love to all of them.) 
• I have made you all something to eat. (= I have made all of you something to eat.) 
 
Note that all cannot be put after pronouns used as subject complements. 
Is that all of them? (NOT Is that them all?) 
NOUNS UNIT 
2 
 
 
 
Page 37 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
On this unit: 
 Pronouns 
 Personal pronouns 
 Relative pronouns 
 Intensive pronouns 
 Reflexive pronouns 
 Indefinite pronouns 
 Demonstrative pronouns 
 Interrogative pronouns 
 Subject pronouns 
 Object pronouns 
 Pronouns this, that, these and those 
 Relative clauses and types 
 
 
 
UNIT 3 
 
PRONOUNS 
 
 
 
 
Page 38 
PRONOUNS 
A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun or noun phrase. Using pronouns correctly eliminates 
unnecessary noun repetition in your writing. 
Unnecessary repetition: 
e.g., Mary 1 is in Mary’s 1 office, but Mary 1 asked not to be interrupted. 
Pronoun use eliminates repetition 
Eg: Mary1 is in her 2 office, but she 2 asked not to be interrupted. 
1 Noun 
2 Pronoun 
Personal Pronouns (the most common type) 
Personal pronouns refer to people and things; they can be singular or plural, and their form often 
changes according to their grammatical function in a sentence, as seen in the table below: 
 
Pronouns Adjective 
pronouns Number Person Gender Subject Object Possessive Reflexive 
Singular 
1st m/f I me mine myself my 
2nd m/f you you yours yourself your 
3rd 
me he him his himself his 
f she her hers herself her 
n it it its itself its 
Plural 
1st m/f we us ours ourselves our 
2nd m/f you you yours yourselves your 
3rd m/f/n they them theirs themselves their 
 
A pronoun generally refers back to a noun that was written earlier. There are many different kinds of 
pronouns. Each kind has different forms and rules for when it is used. 
Learning Hint: 
Check whether the pronoun used in a sentence matches the noun or subject of the sentence. 
Personal Pronouns 
Personal pronouns refer to a specific person or persons. The personal pronouns are I, you, he, she, it, we 
and they. Personal pronouns change form depending on their role in a sentence. The subjective case 
means the pronoun is used as the subject of a sentence or a clause. The subjective personal pronouns are 
I, he, she, you, it, we and they. 
 Examples: 
• We are going to the meeting in the same car. 
• She is going to send the fax now. 
The other cases are objective and possessive. Objective case means a pronoun usually is the object of the 
verb or a preposition in a sentence. Objective pronouns are me, him, her, us and them. 
PRONOUNS PRONOUNS UNIT 
3 
UNIT 
3 
 
 
 
Page 39 
 Examples: 
• The metal chair gave him an electric shock. 
• Let us finalize the contract. 
• Frank took a phone message for her. 
Note: When there is a linking verb in a sentence, the pronoun that follows it must be in the subjective, 
not objective, case. A common linking verb is any form of the verb be such as is, are, was and were. 
Incorrect: This is her speaking. 
Correct: This is she speaking. 
 
The possessive case pronoun shows ownership. The possessive pronouns are my, mine, our, ours, his, 
her, hers, their, theirs. 
 Examples: 
• My boss approves of my conducting of the interview. 
• Michael bumped his hip against the desk. 
Note: Only the personal pronouns have these three cases. All other types of pronouns only have their 
regular (dictionary) form and a possessive case. The exception is the relative pronoun who. Whom is the 
objective case and whose is the possessive case. 
Relative Pronouns 
Relative pronouns are which, that, and who / whom. Relative pronouns relate groups of words to nouns 
or other pronouns. 
 Example: 
• The secretary gave three boxes to the mailman who entered the office. 
That and which can only refer to things. Who and whom can only refer to people. Who is used as the 
subject of a sentence or a clause. Whom is always the object of a verb or prepositional phrase. 
 Examples: 
• He doesn't know whom to assign to the project. 
(Whom is the object of the verb to assign.) 
• Who will be assigned to the project has not been decided. 
(Who is the subject of the verb will be assigned.) 
Intensive Pronouns 
Intensive pronouns add emphasis to a noun or another pronoun. The form of an intensive pronoun is a 
personal pronoun plus -self: himself, herself, myself, yourself, themselves, ourselves. 
 Example: 
• He himself made the coffee. 
Reflexive Pronouns 
Reflexive pronouns show that the sentence subject also receives the action of the verb in the sentence. 
Reflexive pronouns have the same form as intensive ones: a personal pronoun plus -self. 
PRONOUNS PRONOUNS UNIT 
3 
UNIT 
3 
 
 
 
Page 40 
 Example: 
• You might injure yourself. 
Note: Objective or possessive pronouns are mistakenly used when a reflexive one is needed. 
Incorrect: Help you to whatever you need. 
Correct: Help yourself to whatever you need. 
 
When we use a reflexive pronoun 
We use a reflexive pronoun: 
 as a direct object when the object is the same as the subject of the verb: 
• I am teaching myself to play the piano. 
• Be careful with that knife. You might cut yourself. 
We can use a reflexive pronoun as direct object with most transitive verbs, but these are the most 
common: 
 
Some verbs change their meaning slightly when they have a reflexive pronoun as direct object: 
❖ Would you like to help yourself to another drink? 
▪ Would you like to take another drink? 
❖ I wish the children would behave themselves. 
▪ I wish the children would behave well. 
❖ He found himself lying by the side of the road. 
▪ He was surprised when he realised that he was at the side of the road. 
❖ I saw myself as a famous actor. 
▪ I imagined that I was a famous actor. 
❖ She applied herself to the job of mending the lights. 
▪ She worked very hard to mend the lights. 
❖ He busied himself in the kitchen. 
▪ He worked busily in the kitchen. 
❖ I had to content myself with a few Euros. 
▪ I had to be satisfied with a few Euros. 
We do not use a reflexive pronoun after verbs which describe things people usually do for themselves, 
such as wash, shave, dress: 
• He washed [himself] in cold water. 
• He always shaved [himself] before going out in the evening. 
• Michael dressed [himself] and got ready for the party. 
We only use reflexives with these verbs for emphasis: 
• He dressed himself in spite of his injuries. 
• She’s old enough to wash herself. 
amuse cut enjoy hurt Kill satisfy 
blame dry help introduce prepare teach 
PRONOUNS UNIT 
3 
 
 
 
Page 41 
 as indirect object when the indirect object is the same as the subject of the verb: 
• Would you like to pour yourself a drink? 
• We’ve brought ourselves something to eat. 
 as the object of a preposition when the object refers to the subject of the clause: 
• They had to cook for themselves. 
• He was feeling very sorry for himself. 
 
 
. 
 
We use a reflexive pronoun... 
 with the preposition by when we want to show that someone did something alone and/or without 
any help: 
• He lived by himself in an enormous house. 
• She walked home by herself. 
• The children got dressed by themselves. 
• I prepared the whole meal by myself. 
 to emphasise the person or thing we are referring to: 
• Kendal itself is quite a small town. 
 
especially if we are talking about someone very famous: 
• Sir Paul McCartney himself sang the final song. 
We often put the reflexive pronoun at the end of the clause when we are using it for emphasis: 
I baked the bread myself. 
She mended the car herself 
 
Indefinite Pronouns 
These pronouns do not point to any particular nouns, but refer to things or people in general. 
Singular: 
 
 Examples: 
• Somebodyis coming to dinner. 
• Neither of us believes a word Harry says. 
Warning 
But we use personal pronouns, not reflexives, after prepositions of place... 
He had a suitcase beside him. 
and after with when it means "accompanied by": 
She had a few friends with her. 
 
one someone anyone No one everyone 
each somebody anybody Nobody everybody 
(n)either something anything nothing everything 
PRONOUNS UNIT 
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Page 42 
Plural: 
 Examples: 
• Both are expected at the airport at the same time. 
• Several have suggested cancelling the meeting. 
Singular with non-countable / Plural with countable: 
 Examples: 
• Some of the dirt has become a permanent part of the rug. 
• Some of the trees have been weakened by the storm. 
Indefinite pronouns use apostrophes to indicate possessive case. 
 Examples: 
• The accident is nobody’s fault. 
• How will the roadwork affect one's daily commute? 
Some indefinite pronouns may also be used as determiners. 
one, each, either, neither, some, any, one, all, both, few, several, many, most 
Note the differences: 
✓ Each person has a chance. (Each is a determiner describing person.) 
✓ Each has a chance. (Each is an indefinite pronoun replacing a noun.) 
✓ Both lawyers pled their cases well. (Both is a determiner describing lawyers.) 
✓ Both were in the room. (Both is an indefinite pronoun replacing a noun.) 
 
Demonstrative Pronouns 
Demonstrative pronouns identify or point to nouns. Demonstrative pronouns include this, that and such. 
 Example: This is the cup he used. 
Interrogative Pronouns 
Interrogative pronouns introduce questions. Interrogative pronouns include who, which and what. 
 Example: 
• Who will be making a speech tonight? 
PRONOUNS UNIT 
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Page 43 
Pronoun Agreement with the Noun 
One general rule for all pronouns is that a singular noun must be replaced with a singular pronoun. Also, 
a plural noun must be replaced with a plural pronoun. 
 Examples: 
• I have to do a presentation tomorrow for my manager. 
• The employees want their afternoon break to start later. 
Note: It is important to remember that any word with an every, like everybody, everyone, or everything 
is singular, not plural. Therefore, every type words need a singular pronoun like his or her, and not a 
plural one like their. 
Incorrect: Everybody needs to hand in their report to the manager. 
Correct: Everybody needs to hand in his report to the manager. 
Another general rule is that the pronoun must have the same gender (feminine, masculine or neuter) as 
the noun it replaces. 
 Examples: 
• Julie wants to upgrade her computer software. 
• The computer had new software installed on its hard drive. 
Subject Pronouns 
Subject pronouns are often (but not always) found at the beginning of a sentence. They are I, he, she, it, we, they 
and you. More precisely, the subject of a sentence is the person or thing that lives out the verb. 
• I owe that person $3,000. – I am living out that debt. I is the subject pronoun. 
• He and I had a fight. – This sentence has two subjects because he and I were both involved in the 
fight. 
• He broke my kneecaps. – You get the idea. 
• To him, I must now pay my children's college funds. – If you'll notice, the verb in this sentence 
– the action – is "pay." Although I is not at the beginning of the sentence, it is the person living 
out the action and is, therefore, the subject. 
Object Pronouns 
By contrast, objects and object pronouns indicate the recipient of an action or motion. They are me, him, her, it, 
us, them and you They come after verbs and prepositions (to, with, for, at, on, beside, under, around, 
etc.). 
• The guy I borrowed money from showed me a crowbar and told me to pay him immediately. 
• I begged him for more time. 
• He said he'd given me enough time already. 
• I tried to dodge the crowbar, but he hit me with it anyway. 
• Just then, the police arrived and arrested us. 
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Subject vs. Object Pronouns 
There is often confusion over which pronouns you should use when you are one half of a dual subject or object. 
For example, should you say: 
• "Me and him had a fight." or "He and I had a fight?" 
• "The police arrested me and him." or "The police arrested he and I?" 
Some people will tell you that you should always put the other person first and refer to yourself as "I" because it's 
more proper, but those people are wrong. You can put the other person first out of politeness, but you should 
always use the correct pronouns (subject or object) for the sentence. 
A good test to decide which one you need is to try the sentence with one pronoun at a time. Would you say, "Me 
had a fight?" Of course not. You'd say, "I had a fight." What about, "Him had a fight?" No, you'd say, "He had a 
fight." So when you put the two subjects together, you get, "He and I had a fight." The same rule applies to the 
other example. 
• You wouldn't say, "The police arrested he," or, "The police arrested I. 
• "You would use "him" and "me." 
 
So the correct sentence is, "The police arrested him and me." 
Possessive Adjectives vs. Possessive Pronouns 
Possessive adjectives include the following: my; your; our; their; his; her and its. They are sort of pronouns 
in that they refer to an understood noun, showing possession by that noun of something. They are 
technically adjectives, though, because they modify a noun that follows them. 
• My money is all gone. 
• I gambled it all away on your race horse. 
• His jockey was too fat. 
In all of these examples, there is a noun (money, race horse, jockey) that has not been replaced with a pronoun. 
Instead, an adjective is there to show whose money, horse and jockey we’re talking about. 
Possessive pronouns, on the other hand – mine; yours; ours; theirs; his; hers; its – are truly pronouns because 
they refer to a previously named or understood noun. They stand alone, not followed by any other noun. For 
comparison's sake, look at this sentence: 
• You have your vices, and I have mine. 
There are two types of pronouns here: subject (you/I) and possessive (mine). There's also a possessive adjective 
(your). We'll deal with the subject pronouns momentarily, but for now, just look at the others. 
Your is followed by the noun, vices, so although we know that your refers to you, it is not the noun or the noun 
substitute (pronoun). Vices is the noun. In the second half of the sentence, however, the noun and the possessive 
adjective have both been replaced with one word – the pronoun, mine. Because it stands in the place of the 
noun, mine is a true pronoun whereas your is an adjective that must be followed by a noun. 
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Pronouns: this, that, these and those 
This and These 
We use this (singular) and these (plural) as pronouns: 
➢ to talk about people or things near us: 
• This is a nice cup of tea. 
• Whose shoes are these? 
 
➢ to introduce people: 
• This is Janet. 
• These are my friends, John and Michael. 
WARNING: 
• We don’t say These are John and Michael. 
• We say This is John and this is Michael. 
 
➢ to introduce ourselves to begin a conversation on the phone: 
• Hello, this is David, Can I speak to Sally? 
That and Those 
We use that (singular) and those (plural): 
➢ to talk about things that are not near us: 
• What’s that? 
• This is our house, and that’s Rebecca’s house over there. 
• Those are very expensive shoes. 
We also use that to refer back to something someone said or did: - Shall we go to the cinema? 
- Yes, that’s a good idea 
- I’ve got a new job. 
- That’s great. 
- I’m very tired. 
- Why is that? 
 
this, these, that, those with nouns 
We also use this, these, that and those with nouns to show proximity 
We use this and these for people or things near us: 
We have lived in this house for twenty years.Have you read all of these books? 
… and that and those for people or things that are not near us: 
Who lives in that house? 
Who are those people? 
PRONOUNS UNIT 
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RELATIVE CLAUSES 
 
 Also see the page on Pronouns 
 
✓ A "defining" or identifying clause, which tells us which person or thing we are talking about. 
This kind of clause could often be information included in brackets (...) 
✓ A "non-defining" or non-essential clause, which gives us more information about the person or 
thing we are talking about. 
 Examples 
✓ The farmer (his name was Fred) sold us some potatoes.  The farmer, whose name was Fred, 
sold us some potatoes. 
 
It is important to see the difference between the two types of clause, as it affects: 
✓ the choice of pronoun used to introduce the clause, 
✓ the punctuation - you must use commas with a non-defining clause. 
 
 
DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES 
As the name suggests, these clauses give essential information to define or identify the person or thing 
we are talking about. Obviously, this is only necessary if there is more than one person or thing involved. 
 Examples 
• Dogs that like cats are very unusual. 
In this sentence we understand that there are many dogs, but it is clear that we are only talking about the 
ones that like cats. 
 
Punctuation 
 Commas are not used in defining relative clauses. 
 
Relative pronouns 
The following relative pronouns are used in defining relative clauses: 
 Person Thing Place Time Reason 
Subject who/what which/that 
Object who/whom/that which/what where when why 
Possessive whose whose 
Notes: 
 The relative pronoun stands in place of a noun. 
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This noun usually appears earlier in the sentence: 
The woman who/that spoke at the meeting Was very knowledgeable. 
Noun, subject of 
main clause 
relative pronoun referring 
to 'the woman', subject of 
'spoke' 
verb + rest of relative 
clause 
verb + rest of main clause 
 
✓ Who, whom and which can be replaced by that. This is very common in spoken English. 
✓ The relative pronoun can be omitted when it is the object of the clause 
The woman that the man loved was living in New York. 
Noun, subject of 
main clause 
relative pronoun, referring to 
'the woman', object of 'loved' 
verb + rest of relative 
clause 
verb + rest of main clause 
 
(You can usually decide whether a relative pronoun is an object because it is normally followed by 
another subject + verb.) 
 
4. Whose is a possessive pronoun used to refer to ownership. Whose is used for things as well as for 
people. 
 Examples 
• The man whose car was stolen. 
• A tree whose leaves have fallen. 
 
5. Whom is very formal and is only used in written English. You can use who/that, or omit the pronoun 
completely: 
• The doctor whom/who/that/ I was hoping to see wasn't on duty. 
6. That normally follows words like something, anything, everything, nothing, all, and superlatives. 
We use that for both a person and a thing/idea. 
• I'm talking about the person that I saw yesterday. 
• This is the style that I want to use. 
7. When who is the object, whom, with a preposition, can be used instead, but it is formal and rather old-
fashioned. In modern speech, we use who, or we leave out the pronoun. 
• You are referring to a person who no longer works here. 
• The person to whom you are referring no longer works here. 
• The person (who) you are you referring to no longer works here. 
8. Where (relative adverb) refers to places and locations. 
• Where is the station please? 
• That's where I spent my childhood. 
 Examples 
• There's something that you should know. 
• It was the best film that I've ever seen. 
PRONOUNS UNIT 
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• A clown is someone who makes you laugh. 
• An elephant is an animal that lives in hot countries. 
• The plums that were in the fridge were delicious. I have eaten them. 
• Where are the plums (that) I put in the fridge? 
• Has anyone seen the book I was reading? 
• Nothing that anyone does can replace my lost bag. 
• Let's go to a country where the sun always shines. 
• They live in the house whose roof is full of holes. 
I know a woman. She speaks 6 languages. I know a woman who speaks 6 languages. 
 I know a woman. Her husband speaks 6 
languages. 
I know a woman whose husband speaks 6 
languages. 
I spoke to a person yesterday. The person to whom I spoke yesterday. (formal) 
The person (who) I spoke to yesterday. (informal) 
 I live in a house. It is 200 years old. I live in a house which/that is 200 years old. 
That's the hotel. We stayed there last year. That's the hotel where we stayed last year. 
That's the hotel that we stayed in last year. 
Placing the preposition in a relative clause 
There are often prepositions in relative clauses, and the relative pronoun is the object of the preposition. 
This means that the preposition can sometimes be omitted. 
The preposition is normally placed at the end of the relative clause (except for WITHOUT): 
• Is that the man (who) you arrived with? 
• Do you know the girl (that) John is talking to? 
• That is the man without whom we'll get lost. (NOT ... the man whom we'll get lost without.) 
In formal or written English, the preposition is often placed before the relative pronoun, and in this case 
the pronoun cannot be omitted: 
• The person with whom he is negotiating is the Chairman of a large company. 
• It is a society to which many important people belong. 
However, this is unusual in spoken English. 
 Examples 
• The jungle the tribe lived in was full of strange and unusual animals. 
• He liked the people that he lived with. 
• The tree under which they had their picnic was the largest and oldest in the park. 
• To the east of the city was a lake that many people went to on the weekend. 
• It was the river in which the children preferred to swim. 
The preposition is not placed before WHO/THAT 
 Example: 
• The man who/that Mike is talking to is Mr. Pike. (NOT The man to who/that Mike is talking to 
is Mr. Pike) 
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The preposition is not placed before the relative pronoun when it is a part of phrasal verb: 
 Examples: 
• This is the book that I am looking for. 
• That is a child whom you have to look after. 
 
Non-defining relative clauses 
The information in these clauses is not essential. It tells us more about someone or something, but it does 
not help us to identify them or it. 
 Compare: 
• Dogs that like cats are very unusual. (This tells us which dogs we are talking about). 
• Gorillas, which are large and originate in Africa, can sometimes be found in zoos. (This gives 
us some extra information about gorillas - we are talking about all gorillas, not just one type or 
group). 
• John's mother, who lives in Scotland, has 6 grandchildren. (We know who John's mother is, and 
he only has one. The important information is the number of grandchildren, but the fact that she 
lives in Scotland might be followed with the words "by the way" - it is additional information). 
 
Punctuation 
Non-defining relative clauses are always separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. The commas 
have a similar function to brackets: 
• My friend John has just written a best-selling novel. (He went to the same school as me) 
• My friend John, who went to the same school as me, has just written a best-selling novel. 
Relative pronouns in non-defining clauses 
 
 
Notes 
✓ In non-defining clauses, you cannot use 'that' instead of who, whom or which. 
✓ You cannot leave out the relative pronoun, even when it is the object of the verb in the 
relative clause (we will talk about this at the end of this lesson): 
✓ He gave me the letter, which was in a blue envelope. (can not remove the "Which") 
✓ He gave me the letter, which I read immediately.(You can remove the "Which") 
 
✓ The preposition in these clauses can go at the end of the clause, e.g. 
✓ This is Stratford-on-Avon, which you have all heard about. 
 
PRONOUNS 
 Person Thing Place 
Subject who which 
Object who/whom which where 
Possessive whose 
UNIT 
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This pattern is often used in spoken English, but in written or formal English you can also put the 
preposition before the pronoun: e.g. 
Stratford-on-Avon, about which many people have written is Shakespeare's birthplace. 
✓ Non-defining clauses can be introduced by expressions like all of, many of + relative 
pronoun: 
 Person Thing Person Thing 
all of + whom + which half of + whom + which 
any of + whom + which many of + whom + which 
(a) few of + whom + which most of + whom + which 
both of + whom + which much of + whom + which 
each of + whom + which none of + whom + which 
either of + whom + which one of + whom + which 
two of 
etc... 
+ whom + which 
 
 Examples 
• There were a lot of people at the party, many of whom I had known for years. 
• He was carrying his belongings, many of which were broken. 
• The relative pronoun which at the beginning of a non-defining relative clause, can refer to all the 
information contained in the previous part of the sentence, rather than to just one word. Chris did 
really well in his exams, which was a big surprise. (= the fact that he did well in his exams was 
a big surprise). 
• A socialist and a conservative agreed on the new law, which is most unusual. (= the fact that 
they agreed is unusual). 
 
 Examples 
• My grandmother, who is dead now, came from the North of England. 
• I spoke to Fred, who explained the problem. 
• The old man looked at the tree, under which he had often sat. 
• We stopped at the museum, which we'd never been into. 
• She's studying maths, which many people hate. 
• I've just met Susan, whose husband works in London. 
• He had thousands of books, most of which he had read. 
 
 When can we leave out relative pronouns (who, whom, which, that)? 
In conversational English relative pronouns can be omitted when they are the object of a relative clause. 
In a formal context it is usually wiser to leave the relative pronoun. 
 
 
PRONOUNS 
Subject Verb Object 
Tom drives a red truck 
UNIT 
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 The person who drives a red truck is called Tom. 
In this sentence 'who' refers to the subject so it cannot be omitted. 
 The truck (that) Tom drives is red. 
In this sentence 'that' refers to the object (the truck) so it can be omitted. 
 Compare: 
✓ The woman who wanted to see me is a doctor. ('Woman' is the subject of the sentence) 
✓ The woman (that) I wanted to see is a doctor. (Here 'woman' is the object, 'I" is the subject.) 
 
WHEN TO USE THAT IN RELATIVE CLAUSE 
1. That is used to replace who, whom, which in defining relative clauses: 
 Example: 
• The doctor whom/ that/ I was hoping to see wasn't on duty. 
 
2. after superlatives: 
 Example: 
• He was the most interesting person that I have ever met. 
 
3. after only, the first, the second, the last, ... 
 Example: 
• It was the first time that I heard of it. 
 
4. after noun phrase compose of person and object: 
 Example: 
• She talked about the people and places that she had visited. 
 
5. after indefinite pronouns, quantity pronouns: someone, something, anyone, anything, no one, 
nothing, all, some, any, little, ... 
 Example: 
• These books are all that my sister left me. 
NOTES: 
1.We cannot use That in non-defining relative clauses. 
2. We cannot use That after preposition. 
Reduced relative clauses: 
A relative clause is a type of subordinate clause introduced by a relative pronoun. 
What is the name of that boy who just walked in? 
Here the clause ‘who just walked in’ is an example of a relative clause. It modifies the noun boy. Relative clauses 
are also called adjective clauses. 
Relative clauses are sometimes shortened. 
PRONOUNS UNIT 
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How to reduce a relative clause? 
A participle can often be used instead of a relative pronoun and full verb. 
 
Read the sentence given below. 
The girl who sits next to Peter is my neighbour’s daughter. 
 
Now when we shorten the relative clause ‘who sits next to Peter’, we get: 
The girl sitting next to Peter is my neighbour’s daughter. 
 
Another example is given below. 
Who is the girl who is sitting next to your brother? 
 
Now when we reduce the relative clause, we get: 
Who is the girl sitting next to your brother? 
 
More examples are given below. 
A girl who works at a pub has won a lottery. 
A girl working at a pub has won a lottery. 
 
The lady who lives next door throws numerous parties. 
The lady living next door throws numerous parties. 
 
Yesterday I read a book which was written by Hemingway. 
Yesterday I read a book written by Hemingway. 
 
Most people who were invited to the party didn’t turn up. 
Most people invited to the party didn’t turn up. 
 
Anyone who enters the garden without permission will be punished. 
Anyone entering the garden without permission will be punished. 
 
Reduced structures can also be used with the adjectives available and possible. 
Please book all the tickets available (= Please book all the tickets that are available.) 
 
Relative Clause Reduction Rules 
 
1. In defining clauses, we can omit the relative pronoun in the position of object. 
The boy who / whom / that you don’t like much wants to talk to you. 
The boy you don’t like much wants to talk to you. 
 
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Note In non-defining sentences you neither omit the relative pronoun nor use "that". 
My mother, who / whom that you met yesterday, wants to talk to you. 
My mother you met yesterday… 
2. We can use participles when reducing the sentence. 
a. Present Participle V-ing (simultaneous) 
We stood on the bridge which connects the two halves of the city. 
We stood on the bridge connecting the two halves of the city. (Present Participle) 
b. Past Participle V3 or being V3 (passive simultaneous) 
Two boy who was attacked by a dog was taken to hospital. 
Two boy attacked by a dog was taken to hospital. (Past Participle) 
c. Perfect Participle having V3 (active-explaining sth. happened before the others) 
The girl who has asked a question is very clever. 
The girl having asked a question is very clever. (Perfect Participle) 
d. Perfect passive participle having been V3 (passive-explaining sth happened before the others) 
The teacher who has been asked a question is very clever. 
The teacher having been asked a question is very clever. (Perfect passive participle) 
 
3. If "To be" verb is used after a relative pronoun we can omit "Relative Pronoun + To be". 
The car which is parked next to mine is very expensive. 
The car parked next to mine is very expensive. 
Hamlet which was written by Shakespeare sometime in the early 1600s, is among the classics. 
Hamlet written by Shakespeare sometime in the early 1600s, is among the classics. 
4. When the verb “have” meaning possession, we can omit relative pronoun and “have” and use 
with (+) or without(-). 
Students who have enough knowledge and skills will be admitted. 
Students with enough knowledge and skills will be admitted. 
People who don’t have their ID cards can not get in. 
People without their ID cards can not get in. 
5. We can use infinitive “to” in the cases below. 
1 The only...to 
2 Superlative...to 
3 The first, last, second, next...to 
John is the only person who understands me. 
John is the only person to understand me. 
 
Tom is the most handsome boy who came in this school. 
Tom is the most handsome boy to come in this school. 
 
PRONOUNS PRONOUNS UNIT 
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UNIT 
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On this unit: 
 Form and placement of adjectives 
Function of adjective. 
 Order of adjectives 
 Negative prefixes 
 Adjective endings 
 Comparisons 
 Adverbs of frequency 
 
 
UNIT 4 
 
ADJECTIVES 
 
 
 
 
Page 55 
ADJECTIVES 
Form and placement of Adjectives. 
1. The adjectives are invariable 
They do not change their form depending on the gender or number of the noun. 
A hot potato Some hot potatoes 
2. To emphasise or strengthen the meaning of an adjective use ‘use’ or ‘really’ 
A very hot potato Some really hot potatoes 
 
Position of Adjectives 
a) Usually in front of a noun: 
• A beautiful girl. 
b) After verbs like ‘to be’ linking verbs like “become”, ‘seem”, “appear”, “turn”, “get”, “be” 
…and cognitive verbs like “look”, “taste”, “sound”, “smell”, … 
• A beautiful girl. 
• You look tired. 
• This meat tastes funny. 
c) After a noun. In some fixed expressions. 
• The President elect. 
• A court martial. 
d) After a noun with adjectives: involved, present, concerned: 
• I want to see the people involved/concerned. (=the people who have something to do 
with the matter) 
• Here is a list of the people present. (=the people who were in the building or at the 
meeting) 
Be careful! When these adjectives are used before the noun they have a different meaning. 
• An involved discussion = detailed, complex 
• A concerned father = worried, anxious. 
• The present situation = current, happening now. 
e) After indefinite pronouns like, someone, something, anything, none, ... 
• I couldn't see anything wrong here. 
Forming Adjectives. 
Some adjectives can be identified by their endings. Typical adjectives endings include: 
• -able/-ible: understandable, capable, readable, incredible…. 
• -al: mathematical, functional, chemical, influential … 
• -ful: beautiful, bashful, helpful, harmful … 
• -ic: artistic, manic, rustic, terrific 
• -ive: submissive, intuitive, inventive, attractive … 
• -less: sleeveless, hopeless, groundless, restless … 
• -ous: gorgeous, dangerous, adventurous, fabulous … 
ADJECTIVES UNIT 
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Sometimes adding these endings, changes have to be made. Here are some rules for forming adjectives 
and their exceptions. 
Add Exceptions Word Adjective 
-al If ending with an ‘e’, drop it Nature, Function Natural, Functional 
-y If ending with an ‘e’, drop it Ice, Oil Icy, Oily 
-ful If ending with a ‘y’, replace it with an ‘i’ Beauty, peace Beautiful, peaceful 
-ous/ious If ending with a ‘y’, drop it Mystery, Danger Mysterious, Dangerous 
-ic If ending with a ‘y’, drop it History, Rust Historic, Rustic 
 
Forming adjectives from nouns and verbs 
 Adjectives can be formed from different words. 
 
Some adjectives and adverbs have to write and how to read the same: 
 
 NOTES 
Besides, we can use adjectives in structure 
 be + too + adj + to do something 
Ex: She is too short to play basketball. 
 be + adj + enough (+ for someone/something) + to do something 
Ex: Requelm is intelligent enough to do that work. 
 Subject + be/verb + so + adj + that + clause (S + V) 
Ex: He is so kind that everyone loves him 
 S + V + such + a/an + adj + that + clause 
Ex: It was such a hot day that we decided to stay indoors 
ADJECTIVES 
They can be formed from nouns From verbs Or even from other adjective 
Verb Adjective Noun Adjective Adjective Adjective 
enjoy enjoyable accident accidental comic comical 
help helpful danger dangerous correct corrective 
obey obedient length long elder elderly 
play playful star starry red reddish 
talk talkative wind windy sick sickly 
Adjective Adverb Adjective Adverb Adjective Adverb 
fast fast hard hard little little 
only only fair fair much much 
late late even even sound sound 
pretty pretty cheap cheap short short 
right right early early 
UNIT 
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Page 57 
Adjective in an exclamative sentence. 
 What + a/ an +adj + noun! 
Ex: What an awful day! 
 How + adj + S + V! 
Ex: How kind the girl is! 
 S + find + it + adj + to do ST 
Ex: Bryan find it difficult to learn English 
Function of Adjective 
 can: 
Describe feelings or qualities: 
 Examples 
• He is a lonely man 
• They are honest people 
 
Tell more about a thing's characteristics: 
 Examples 
• A wooden table. 
• The knife is sharp. 
 
Tell us about size and measurement: 
 Examples 
• This is a very long film. 
• John tall man. 
 
Tell us about material/what something is 
made of: 
 Examples 
• It was a wooden table 
• She wore a cotton dress 
 
Adverbs modify, or tell us more about 
other words, usually verbs: 
 Examples 
• The bus moved slowly. 
• The bears ate greedily. 
They can also modify other adverbs: 
 Examples 
• She played the violin extremely well. 
• You're speaking too quietly. 
Give nationality or origin: 
 Examples 
• Pierre is French 
• Our house is Victorian 
 
Tell us about age: 
 Examples 
• He's young man 
• My coat is very old 
 
Tell us about colour: 
 Examples 
• Paul wore a red shirt. 
• The sunset was crimson and gold. 
 
Tell us about shape: 
 Examples 
• A rectangular box 
• A square envelope 
 
 
Express a judgment or a value: 
 Examples 
• A fantastic film 
• Grammar is boring. 
 
 Sometimes they tell us more about 
adjectives: 
 Examples 
• You look absolutely fabulous! 
ADJECTIVES UNIT 
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Order of Adjectives 
Rules 
Where a number of adjectives are used together, the order depends on the function of the adjective. The 
usual order is: 
Value/opinion, Size, Age/Temperature, Shape, Colour, Origin, Material 
Value/opinion delicious, lovely, charming 
Sizes mall, huge, tiny 
Age/Temperature old, hot, young 
Shape round, square, rectangular 
Colour red, blonde, black 
Origin Swedish, Victorian, Chinese 
Material plastic, wooden, silver 
 Examples 
• a lovely old red post-box 
• some small round plastic tables 
• some charming small silver ornaments 
 
Negative prefixes 
Negative statements are the opposite of affirmative statements. In English, one way to make negative 
statements is by adding negative prefixes to nouns, adjectives, and verbs. Here are some English negative 
prefixes: a-, dis-, il-, im-, in-, ir-, non-, un-. 
For example, the prefix un- can be attached to the adjective happy to create the negative adjective 
unhappy. Or you can use the negative adverb not. Note that there is no difference in meaning between 
these two forms. 
affirmative negative 
 negative prefix not.. 
Tom is happy Tom is unhappy Tom is not happy 
 Words that take a- as a negative prefix is used before words beginning with consonant. 
 
 
 
Words that take dis- as a negative prefix may begin with a vowel or a consonant. 
 
 
 
 
ADJECTIVES 
affirmative negative 
political apolitical 
sexual asexual 
theist atheist 
affirmative negative 
agree Disagree 
comfort discomfort 
mount dismount 
orient disorient 
UNIT 
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Words that take il- as a negative prefix always begin with the letter l. 
 
 
 
 
Words that take im- as a negative prefix always begin with the letter m or p. 
 
 
 
 
Words that take in- as a negative prefix can begin with a vowel (except i or u) or a consonant. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Note: There are many words that begin with in- that are not words with a negative prefix. For 
example: 
 
 
 
 
Words that take ir- as a negative prefix always begin with the letter r. 
 
 
 
 
Words that take non- as a negative prefix may begin with a vowel or a consonant. 
 
 
 
 
affirmative negative 
Legal illegal 
legible illegible 
logical illogical 
literate illiterate 
ADJECTIVES 
affirmative negative 
mobile immobile 
moral immoral 
perfect imperfect 
possible impossible 
affirmative negative 
Accurate inaccurate 
eligible ineligible 
organic inorganicdecent indecent 
sane insane 
word does not mean 
incline not cline 
 indulge not dulge 
insist not sist 
invoke not voke 
affirmative negative 
rational irrational 
reconciliable irreconciliable 
regular irregular 
resistible irresistible 
affirmative negative 
conformist nonconformist 
essential nonessential 
fiction nonfiction 
sense nonsense 
UNIT 
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Page 60 
 
Words that take un- as a negative prefix may begin with a vowel or consonant. 
 
 
 
 
 
Remember, not all words that appear to have a negative prefix are negative. 
 
 
 
 
Most compounds with non- are written with a hyphen in British English, but not in American English: 
non-alcoholic, nonalcoholic 
 
Adjectives ending in ED and ING 
There are many adjectives that we have in English that end in -ED or -ING. 
Yes, that's correct, they are not only endings that we use for verbs! 
 
An adjective that ends in -ING is used to describe: the characteristic of a person, a thing or a situation. 
 
An adjective that ends in -ED is used to describe: a feeling (or how a person feels) or an emotion. It is 
used to describe a temporary thing. Since only people (and some animals) have feelings, -ed adjectives 
cannot be used to describe an object or situation. 
 
Compare the difference: 
✓ My girlfriend is bored. - (My girlfriend feels bored) 
✓ My girlfriend is boring. - (My girlfriend is a boring person) 
 
You can use these adjectives to describe people or situations but be careful that you are using the correct 
adjective. For example, there is a big difference in meaning between: 
✓ I am confused. - (I don't understand something) 
✓ I am confusing. - (I will cause you to be confused) 
 
 
ADJECTIVES 
affirmative negative 
able unable 
usual unusual 
interesting uninteresting 
comfortable uncomfortable 
helpful unhelpful 
word does not mean 
alike not like 
discuss not cuss 
universe not iverse 
illuminate not luminate 
important not portant 
UNIT 
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Note that the sentences below are to highlight the difference between the two types of adjectives. They 
are NOT common to do or say because they sound repetitive. 
✓ I was shocked by how shocking the accident was last night. 
✓ They were frightened by the frightening roller-coaster ride! 
✓ I am annoyed by how annoying that person in front of us is. 
✓ Pensa was confused by the confusing street signs in the city. 
 
Example sentences of adjectives ending in -ED and -ING 
• This grammar lesson is boring. I am bored reading all about these grammar rules. 
• I am tired right now. My flight was tiring (because it was a twelve-hour flight). 
• Public toilets are usually disgusting. I am disgusted by the smell in some of them. 
• Your speech was very inspiring. I am now inspired to do wonderful things with my life. 
 
Adjectives-Comparisons 
FORMING THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE 
Using the comparative of adjectives in English is quite easy once you have understood the few simple 
rules that govern them. 
 
Below you will find the rules with examples for each condition. 
If you are not sure what a syllable or a consonant is - have a look here. 
 
Rules 
Number of syllables Comparative Superlative (see rule) 
one syllabe + -er + -est 
tall taller tallest 
one syllable with the spelling consonant + single vowel + consonant: double the final consonant: 
fat fatter fattest 
big bigger biggest 
sad sadder saddest 
 
Number of syllables Comparative Superlative (see rule) 
two syllabes + -er or more + adj + -est or more + adj 
ending in: -y, -ly, -ow 
ending in: -le, -er or -ure 
these common adjectives - handsome, polite, pleasant, common, quiet 
happy happier/ more happy happiest/ most happy 
yellow yellower/ more yellow yellowest/ most yellow 
simple simpler/ more simple simplest/ most simple 
tender tenderer/ more tender tenderest/ most tender 
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If you are not sure, use MORE + OR MOST + 
Note: Adjectives ending in '-y' like happy, pretty, busy, sunny, lucky etc:. replace the -y with -ier 
or -iest in the comparative and superlative form 
 
busy busier busiest 
 
Number of syllables Comparative Superlative 
three syllables or more more + adj most + adj 
important more important most important 
expensive more expensive most expensive 
 
 Examples 
 A cat is fast; a tiger is faster but a cheetah is the fastest. 
 A car is heavy, a truck is heavier, but a train is the heaviest. 
 A park bench is comfortable, a restaurant chair is more comfortable, but a sofa is the most 
comfortable. 
 
 
IRREGULAR COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES 
These adjectives have completely irregular comparative and superlative forms: 
Adjective Comparative Superlative 
Good 
bad 
little 
much 
far 
 
better 
worse 
less 
more 
further / farther 
 
best 
worst 
least 
most 
furthest / farthest 
 
 
Comparative and Superlative 
Adjectives and adverbs can be used to make comparisons. They are used to show what is different or 
similar about two or more things. There are three kinds of possible comparisons: equal, comparative and 
superlative. 
 
Learning Hint: 
Forming the comparative and superlative forms usually depends on the number of syllables in the 
adjective. Learn the rules for each type of adjective and adverb. Do not combine the two ways of forming 
comparisons in a single sentence. 
 
 
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Equal Comparison 
An adjective or adverb is used to show that two things share a quality in the same amount. A quality 
shared in the same amount means that the two things are equal is some way. The form used to make this 
kind of comparison is as adjective / adverb as. The as as comparison is better known as a correlative 
conjunction. 
Adjective Examples: 
Our boss is as friendly as yours. 
Her vacation lasted as long as her boyfriend’s vacation. 
 
Adverb Examples: 
He works as efficiently as you. 
His computer can download files as fast as their computer does. 
 
Comparative 
To show a difference or to show that there is only a similarity between two things, the comparative form 
must be used. An adjective or adverb is made into the comparative form in one of two ways. The way 
that is used depends on the number of syllables the adjective or adverb have: 
 
Most one-syllable adjectives and adverbs take the ending -er. Two-syllable adjectives ending in y form 
the comparative by taking the ending -er. Other two-syllable adjectives use more + regular form to make 
the comparative. Most adverbs of two or more syllables must use more + regular form to make the 
comparative. All three or more syllable adjectives must use more + regular form to make the comparative. 
 Examples: 
Adjectives 
• She is the shorter of the two sisters. 
• She is shorter than her sister. 
• This fax machine is newer than that one. 
• The manager wants to be more popular than the previous one. 
 
Adverbs: 
• We finished our project faster than they finished theirs. 
• The new copier prints pages more quickly than the old one. 
• He understands the course more easily than her. 
• The word than is usually used following the comparative form in a sentence. 
 
Note: Never mix the two ways to form the comparative. 
Incorrect: She gets lots of benefits because she's been here more longer. 
Correct: She gets lots of benefits because she's been here longer. 
 
Incorrect: He works more quicklier than us. 
Correct: He works more quickly than us. 
ADJECTIVES UNIT 
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Superlative 
If the comparison is between three or more things, then the superlative form must be used. An adjective 
or adverb is made into the superlative form in one of two ways. The way that is used depends on the 
number of syllables contained in the adjective or adverb: 
 
Most one-syllableadjectives and adverbs take the ending -est. Two-syllable adjectives ending in y form 
the superlative by taking the ending -est. Other two-syllable adjectives use most + regular form to make 
the superlative. Most adverbs of two or more syllables must use most + regular form to make the 
superlative. All three or more syllable adjectives must use most + regular form to make the superlative. 
 Examples: 
Adjectives: 
• This office is the most modern one in the building. 
• She is the youngest employee in the company to be promoted. 
(Note: She is being compared to all other employees at the company.) 
Adverbs: 
• She can find files the most quickly. 
• He spoke the most forcefully at the meeting. 
• The word the is always used before the superlative form in a sentence. 
 
Note: Never mix the two ways to form the superlative. 
Incorrect: He was the most wisest man I ever knew. 
Correct: He was the wisest man I ever knew. 
 
Incorrect: She types the most fastest out of all the secretaries. 
Correct: She types the fastest out of all the secretaries. 
 
Irregular Adjectives and Adverbs 
There are some irregular adjectives and adverbs. They do not make the comparative or superlative the 
same way that other ones do. They do not use either -er / -est or more / most. Their comparative and 
superlative forms have to be remembered: 
 Examples: 
• This program is better than the previous ones. 
• This program is the best of all. 
 
Incorrect: The software we bought the muchest of came from an online supplier. 
Correct: The software we bought the most of came from an online supplier. 
 
Incorrect: She has to travel the far of anyone in the office. 
Correct: She has to travel the farthest of anyone in the office. 
 
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Words with No Comparative and Superlative Forms 
Not ALL adjectives and adverbs can have a comparative or superlative form. 
 
No type of comparison is possible with certain adjectives and adverbs. They cannot show a greater or 
lesser amount, so they can only have one form. Some of these words are perfect, unique, dead, 
impossible, and infinite. 
 Example: 
Incorrect: He was the most unique president we had. 
Correct: He was a unique president. 
 
(Unique means one of a kind. There is no other like it, so it is not possible for one president to be more 
or less unique than another one.) 
 
Parallel Structure Required 
The comparisons must make sense. You cannot compare things that are very different. They must be 
similar. Apples and oranges are both fruits, but they are still two different kinds of fruit. So, an apple 
cannot be compared to an orange. 
 Examples: 
Incorrect: Michael's computer is much older than Will. 
(Comparing a computer to a person.) 
Correct: Michael's computer is much older than Will's computer. 
(Comparing one computer to another.) 
 
Incorrect: The English that is spoken in Canada is close to the United States. 
(Comparing a language to a country.) 
Correct: The English that is spoken in Canada is close to that of the United States. 
(Comparing the English spoken in two countries.) 
 
 
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THE + SUPERLATIVE 
'the' is placed before the superlative: 
 Examples 
• He is the richest man in the world. 
• That is the biggest crocodile I have ever seen. 
• She is the tallest girl in her class. 
 
COMPARATIVE + THAN 
To compare the difference between two people, things or events. 
 Examples 
• Mt. Everest is higher than Mt. Blanc. 
• Thailand is sunnier than Norway. 
• A car is more expensive than a bicycle. 
• Albert is more intelligent than Arthur. 
 
AS + ADJECTIVE + AS 
To compare people, places, events or things, when there is no difference, use as + adjective + as: 
 Examples 
• Peter is 24 years old. John is 24 years old. Peter is as old as John. 
• Moscow is as cold as St. Petersburg in the winter. 
• Ramona is as happy as Raphael. 
• Einstein is as famous as Darwin. 
• A tiger is as dangerous as a lion. 
 
 
NOT AS + ADJECTIVE + AS 
Difference can also be shown by using not so/as ...as: 
 Examples 
• Mont Blanc is not as high as Mount Everest. 
• Norway is not as sunny as Thailand. 
• A bicycle is not as expensive as a car. 
• Arthur is not as intelligent as Albert. 
 
COMPARISONS OF QUANTITY 
To show difference: 
To show difference we use more, less, fewer + than 
 
MORE + nouns that are countable or uncountable 
FEWER + countable nouns 
LESS + uncountable nouns 
 
ADJECTIVES UNIT 
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 Examples 
With countable nouns: more / fewer 
• Eloise has more children than Chantal. 
• Chantal has fewer children than Eloise. 
• There are fewer dogs in Cardiff than in Bristol. 
• I have visited fewer countries than my friend has. 
• He has read fewer books than she has. 
 
With uncountable nouns: more / less 
• Eloise has more money than Chantal. 
• Chantal has less money than Eloise. 
• I spend less time on homework than you do. 
• Cats drink less water than dogs. 
• This new dictionary gives more information than the old one. 
 
To show no difference: 
To show no difference we use as much as , as many as, as few as, as little as 
✓ as many as / as few as + countable nouns 
✓ as much as / as little as + uncountable nouns 
 
 Examples 
With countable nouns: 
• They have as many children as us. 
• We have as many customers as them. 
• Tom has as few books as Jane. 
• There are as few houses in his village as in mine. 
• You know as many people as I do. 
• I have visited the States as many times as he has. 
 
With uncountable nouns: 
• John eats as much food as Peter. 
• Jim has as little food as Sam. 
• You've heard as much news as I have. 
• He's had as much success as his brother has. 
• They've got as little water as we have. 
ADJECTIVES UNIT 
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Adverbs of Frequency 
Adverbs are words that are used to help describe verbs. Adverbs can also be used to describe adjectives 
and other adverbs. Adverbs of frequency are ones that describe when or how often something is done. 
There are two types: adverbs of definite frequency and adverbs of indefinite frequency. 
 
Learning Hint: 
The position of an adverb in a sentence tells you whether it is an adverb of definite or indefinite 
frequency. 
 
Adverbs of Definite Frequency 
Adverbs of definite frequency occur at the beginning or the end of a sentence. 
 
Common ones are hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, and yearly. Other ones are once a month, every month, 
and every other month. In each one, month can be replaced with hour, day, week, or year. Any exact 
number of times that happen in a given time period are also adverbs of definite frequency: twice a week, 
twice a year, three times a month, four times a year, once every five years, and so on. 
 Examples: 
• Every day, some employees go out for lunch. 
• Some employees go out for lunch every day. 
• Payroll must be done every two weeks. 
• The sales manager gets new e-mail hourly. 
 
Adverbs of Indefinite Frequency 
Adverbs of indefinite frequency include always, usually, never, often, very often, rarely, sometimes, 
seldom, once in a while, repeatedly, typically, hardly ever, and occasionally. Adverbs of indefinite 
frequency occur in the middle of the sentence. Where exactly it is placed depends on the type of verbs in 
the sentence. There are three possible places: 
 
1. Between the subject and the main verb UNLESS the verb is a form of be: is, am, are, was, were. 
 Examples: 
• She often takes her vacation in winter. 
• The employees always work until seven. 
• The manager usually arrives first at the staff meetings. 
 
2. After the be verb form when it is the main verb. 
 Examples:• She is often ill in winter. 
• The employees are always working until seven. 
• The manager is usually the first person to arrive. 
ADJECTIVES UNIT 
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3. Between the helping verb and the main verb. This is always true, even when the main verb is a 
verb form of be. 
 Examples: 
• She has often gone on vacation in winter. 
• The employees can always work until seven. 
• The manager will usually arrive first at the staff meetings. 
 
Incorrect: The owners have been rarely unreasonable. 
Correct: The owners have rarely been unreasonable. 
(Have is the helping verb, been is the be verb form) 
 
 Usage note: Some indefinite frequency adverbs can be placed at the beginning or end of a main clause: 
usually, normally, often, frequently, sometimes, once in a while, and occasionally. 
 
 Examples: 
• Once in a while we like to for a long drive. 
• He accompanies her to the shopping mall occasionally. 
 
-er and -er, more and more 
To talk about how a person or thing is changing and gaining more of a particular quality, we can use two 
-er form adjectives connected by and, or we can use more and more before an adjective. We don’t follow 
such comparisons with than: 
• The weather is getting hotter and hotter. 
• I am getting more and more interested in conservation these days. 
 
the -er, the -er and the more …, the more … 
If a person or things gains more of a particular quality and this causes a parallel increase of another 
quality, we can repeat the + a comparative adjective: 
• The colder it is, the hungrier I get. (as the weather gets colder, I get hungrier) 
• The more generous you are towards others, the more generous they are likely to be towards you. 
ADJECTIVES UNIT 
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On this unit: 
 Verb forms, types and tenses 
 Verb to get 
 Verb to be 
 Matching verbs and subjects 
 Rise and raise 
 Matching verbs to collective nouns 
 Do or Make 
 Tell, say, speak, talk 
 Auxiliary verbs 
 Lay-lie 
 Must and have to 
 Have got and have 
 May or might 
 Be used to, get used to, used to 
 Will/would and shall/should 
 Can 
 
 
UNIT 5 
 
VERBS 
 
 
 
 
Page 71 
VERBS 
Verb Forms and Tenses 
 A verb expresses action or a state of being and tells (in active voice) what the subject of the clause is 
or does. A verb is necessary to make a complete statement. 
 
All verbs are constructed from three basic forms known as the principal parts of a verb: 
• Infinitive (or present) is the base form of a verb, preceded by to: to run, to go, to laugh. 
• Past is the simplest form of a verb. Past is used to show action that has already taken place: ran, 
gone, laughed. 
• Past participle is the form a verb takes when it is accompanied by an auxiliary verb (helping verbs 
using forms of be, have, or do) to show a more complex past tense form: had gone, will have gone, 
would have laughed. 
 
Active and Passive Verbs 
Active verbs (active voice) tell what the subject (a person, place, thing, or concept) does. 
Example: The boy kicked the ball. 
 
Passive verbs (passive voice) tell what is done to the subject. 
Example: The ball was kicked by the boy. 
 Verb types 
There are three types of verbs: action verbs, linking verbs, and helping verbs. 
 
Action Verbs 
Action verbs are words that express action (give, eat, walk, etc.) or possession (have, own, etc.). 
Action verbs can be either transitive or intransitive. 
 
Transitive Verbs 
A transitive verb always has a noun that receives the action of the verb, called the direct object. 
 EXAMPLE: Larissa raises her hand. 
The verb is raises. Her hand is the object receiving the verb’s action. Therefore, raises is a transitive 
verb. 
Transitive verbs sometimes have indirect objects, which name the object to whom or for whom the 
action was done. 
 EXAMPLE: Abdus gave Becky the pencil. 
The verb is gave. The direct object is the pencil. (What did he give? The pencil.) The indirect object is 
Becky. (To whom did he give it? To Becky.) 
 
 
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Intransitive Verbs 
An intransitive verb never has a direct or indirect object. Although an intransitive verb may be 
followed by an adverb or adverbial phrase, there is no object to receive its action. 
 EXAMPLE: Larissa rises slowly from her seat. 
The verb is rises. The phrase, slowly from her seat, modifies the verb, but no object receives the action. 
 
Transitive or Intransitive? 
To determine whether a verb is transitive or intransitive, follow these two steps: 
1. Find the verb in the sentence. 
EXAMPLE 1 Dustin will lay down his book. What is the action? will lay 
 
 Ask yourself, “What is receiving the action of the verb?” If there is a noun receiving the action of the 
verb, then the verb is transitive. If there is no direct object to receive the action, and if the verb does not 
make sense with a direct object, then it is intransitive. 
 
EXAMPLE 1 Dustin will 
lay down his 
book. 
 Dustin will lay 
down what? 
 his book. Since the verb can 
take a direct object, 
it is transitive. 
 
EXAMPLE 2 His book 
will lie there 
all day 
 His book will 
lie what? 
 nothing. It does not make sense to 
“lie something.” Since the 
verb has no direct object, 
it is intransitive. 
 
Linking Verbs 
A linking verb connects the subject of a sentence to a noun or adjective that renames or describes the 
subject. This noun or adjective is called the subject complement. 
 EXAMPLE: Jason became a business major. 
 The verb, became, links the subject, Jason, to its complement, a business major. 
Lisa is in love with Jason. 
The verb, is, links the subject, Lisa, to the subject complement, in love with Jason (describing Lisa). 
 
The most common linking verb is the verb to be in all of its forms (am, are, is, was, were, etc.). This 
verb may also be used as a helping verb (see next section). To become and to seem are always linking 
verbs. 
 
Other verbs may be linking verbs in some cases and action verbs in others: 
 
 
 
VERBS 
EXAMPLE 2 His book will lie there all day What is the action? will lie 
to appear to feel to look to remain to stay to taste 
to continue to grow to prove to sound to smell to turn 
UNIT 
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LINKING: Libby appeared happy. (Appeared links Libby to the subject complement, happy.) 
ACTION: Deon suddenly appeared. (Here, appeared is an intransitive action verb.) 
 
Helping Verbs 
Helping verbs are used before action or linking verbs to convey additional information regarding 
aspects of possibility (can, could, etc.) or time (was, did, has, etc.). The main verb with its 
accompanying helping verb is called a verb phrase. 
 
 EXAMPLES: Teju is (helping verb) going (main verb) to Florida. 
 The trip might (helping verb) be (main verb) dangerous. 
The following words, called modals, always function as helping verbs: 
 
 
 
EXAMPLES: Tanya could learn to fly helicopters. (Could helps the main verb, learn.) 
 Janine will drive to Idaho tomorrow. (Will helps the main verb, drive.) 
In addition, the following forms of the verbs to be, to do, and to have sometimes serve as helping verbs. 
(Note: In other cases, they may serve as action or linking verbs.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Verb Forms 
Regular Verbs 
A regular verb is used to form the past tense by adding a suffix –d or -ed. 
 Example: 
Present Past Past Participle Present Participle 
cough coughed coughed coughing 
dance 
play 
danced 
played 
 danced 
 played 
dancing 
playing 
 
 
Irregular Verbs 
An irregular verb does not take the –d or –ed ending. The past tense for irregular verbs is 
formed by changing the verb internally. 
VERBS 
can may mustshall will 
could might ought to should would 
am be being do had have was 
are been did does has is were 
HELPING: Jana is moving to a new house. 
LINKING: 
 
Jana is ready to go. 
HELPING: Dustin did eat his vegetables! 
ACTION: Dustin did his homework last night. 
VERBS 
 
UNIT 
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UNIT 
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Page 74 
VERBS 
 
Present Past Past participle Present Past Past participle 
Arise arose arisen Hurt hurt hurt 
Awake awoke awoken Keep kept kept 
Be (am, are, is) was (were) been Know knew known 
Become became become Lay laid laid 
Begin began begun lead led led 
Bend bent bent lend lent lent 
Bite bit bitten leave left left 
Blow blew blown lie lay lain 
Break broke broken Light lit lit 
Bring brought brought Lose lost lost 
Build built built Make made made 
Buy bought bought Meet met met 
Catch caught caught Pay Paid/payed Paid/payed 
Choose chose chosen Ride rode ridden 
Come came come Ring rang rung 
Do (does) did done Rise rose risen 
Draw drew drawn Run ran run 
Drink drank drunk Say said said 
Drive drove driven See saw seen 
Eat ate eaten sell sold sold 
Drink arose arisen send sent sent 
Fall fell fallen Shake shook shaken 
Feed fed fed Shrink shrank shrunk 
Feel felt felt sing sang sung 
Fall fell fallen swim swam swum 
Feed fed fed swear swore sworn 
Feel felt felt sleep slept slept 
Find found found Speak spoke spoken 
Fly flew flown Spend spent spent 
Freeze froze frozen Stand stood stood 
Get got got or gotten Steal stole stolen 
Give gave given Take took taken 
Go (goes) went gone Teach taught taught 
Grow grew grown Tear tore torn 
Have (has) had had Tell told told 
Hear heard heard Think thought thought 
Hide hid hidden Wake woke or waked woken or waked 
Hold held held Wear wore worn 
 Write wrote written 
UNIT 
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Verb Tenses 
Verb tenses are used to show time. Verb tenses tell when events happen, 
happened, or will happen. Simple Tense 
Present 
The present tense may express an action that is repeated or ongoing. It can also express 
an action that is happening at this moment or a situation that is always true. 
Example: Jane and Sarah jog every morning. 
 
Past 
The past tense expresses an action that has already happened. In regular verbs, the past 
tense is formed by adding –ed or –d to the base form. In irregular verbs, the past tense 
takes a variety of forms. 
Example: John and Sara hiked to the top of the mountain. 
 
Future 
The future tense expresses an action that will take place in the future. The future tense 
is formed by adding will to the base form. 
Example: I will fly to Atlanta Friday evening. 
 
Perfect Tense 
Present perfect 
The present perfect tense is used to express an action that took place at some 
unspecified time in the past. The present perfect tense can also be used to express an 
action that began in the past and continues in the present. The present perfect tense is 
formed with the past tense of the verb and the helping verbs has or have. 
Example: Sarah has watched the movie. 
 
Past perfect 
The past perfect tense is used to show that one action in the past began and ended 
before another action in the past started. The past perfect tense is formed with the past 
participle of the verb and the helping verb had. 
Example: Sarah had seen the movie before I watched it. 
 
Future perfect 
The future perfect tense is used to show that one action or condition in the future will 
begin and end before another event in the future starts. The future perfect tense is 
formed with the past participle of the verb and the construction will have. 
Example: By the time I finish this semester, I will have read ten novels. 
 
 
VERBS 
 
UNIT 
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Progressive Tense 
Present Progressive 
The present progressive tense is used to show an ongoing event that is happening at the 
moment of speaking or writing. The present progressive tense is formed by using am, is, 
or are with the verb form ending in –ing. 
Example: The children are sleeping. 
 
 Past progressive 
The past progressive tense is used to show a past event that was happening when 
another event occurred. The past progressive tense is formed by using was or were with 
the verb form ending in –ing. 
Example: The children were sleeping when we arrived. 
 
 Future progressive 
The future progressive tense is used to show an ongoing or continuous event that will 
take place in the future. The future progressive tense is formed by using will be or shall 
be with the verb form ending in –ing. 
Example: The children will be sleeping when we arrive. 
 
 Present perfect progressive 
The present perfect progressive tense is used to show an event that began in the past, 
continues in the present, and may continue in the future. The present perfect progressive 
tense is form by using has been or have been with the present participle verb form 
ending in –ing. 
Example: The children have been sleeping. 
 
 Past perfect progressive 
The past perfect progressive tense is used to show a past, ongoing event that was 
completed before another past event. The past perfect progressive tense is formed by 
using had been with the present perfect verb form ending in -ing. 
Example: The children had been sleeping when we arrived. 
 
Future perfect progressive 
The future perfect progressive tense is used to show a future, ongoing event that will 
happen before a specified future time. The future perfect progressive tense is formed by 
using will have been and the present participle verb form ending in –ing. 
Example: The children will have been sleeping. 
 
 
 
VERBS 
 
UNIT 
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Page 77 
Verb-Vocabularies 
Word Choice 
 
In word choice, how well you understand many kinds of grammar are tested. Your knowledge of 
vocabulary is also tested. You will see many commonly confused words. The right answer may be a 
noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition or conjunction. The questions with four answers listed are 
related in some way. The words may look or sound similar, but have different meanings. Words that are 
opposite in meaning might also be used. Sometimes more than one word may seem to be the right choice. 
Picking the right one will depend on knowing how and when a word is used in English. These words 
may have similar meanings (for example, house and home) or grammatical use (for example, much and 
many). Only one choice can work properly in the sentence. 
 
Learning Hint: 
This is one of the most difficult parts of learning English because there are many words that sound or 
look the same, but have different meanings. Pay close attention to each answer choice and check whether 
it fits in the context of the sentence. 
 
Common Examples 
Words with similar spelling, words that rhyme, words that sound alike, or words that are opposite that 
do not have similar meanings: 
 
1) Make sure to only use the _____ paper. 
A. vain 
B. vein 
C. pain 
D. plain 
The correct answer is (D). An adjective is needed to complete the sentence. Plain is the only adjective 
that makes sense. (A) is an adjective used to describe people, not things (paper). (B) is a noun that sounds 
like (A). (C) is a noun that rhymes with vein and plain. 
 
2) Charles forgot to order more _____ for the office. 
A. stationary 
B. stationery 
C. statue 
D. moving 
The correct answer is (B). A noun is needed to complete the sentence. (B) is a noun meaning writing 
materials. (C) is a singular noun which does not make sense in this sentence. (A) is an adjective meaning 
unmoving. (D) is an adjective with the opposite meaning of (A).VERBS 
 
UNIT 
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Words with similar meanings, but different usage: 
1) The boss thinks we are doing a _____ job. 
A. goods 
B. well 
C. good 
D. badly 
The correct answer is (C). An adjective needed to complete the sentence. Good is the only adjective. (A) 
is a noun. (D) is an adverb. (B) is also an adverb. To use well, the sentence would be, The boss thinks 
we are doing the job well. How is the job being done? It is being done well. You cannot say, The boss 
thinks we are doing the job good. 
 
2) I need to choose _____ the report and the presentation. 
A. among 
B. between 
C. along 
D. beside 
The correct answer is (B). Between compares exactly two things. Among always compares more than 
two. The prepositions along and beside are not used for comparisons. 
 
Unnecessary Words 
There are rules to follow to make a proper sentence in English. You learn what words must be used to 
make a sentence. You learn how to add words to make sentences express more detail. You learn when 
each type of word can and cannot be used. It is not easy to understand all the rules, or to remember them 
all. So mistakes are sometimes made when creating sentences. One common type of error is to use too 
many words. The extra word may be an article, a verb, a pronoun, a preposition, an adjective, a 
conjunction, or an entire phrase. Using words with the same meaning in one sentence is another kind of 
unnecessary word error. Sometimes a sentence can be written with less words if the word order is 
changed. In this section, you will need to use all of your knowledge of grammar. Read through the 
question. Decide if each answer choice MUST be in that sentence to make it work. 
 
Learning Hint: 
Read the sentence out loud and pay attention to how the sentence sounds. If a phrase sounds awkward or 
incorrect, check to see if there are extra words that are not needed. 
 
Common Types of Examples 
Too many words with the same meaning used: 
 
Incorrect: He is nearly almost finished with the financial statement. 
Correct: He is nearly finished with the financial statement. 
Correct: He is almost finished with the financial statement. 
Incorrect: Despite leaving 10 minutes early, the worker arrived late nonetheless. 
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Correct: Despite leaving 10 minutes early, the worker arrived late. 
Correct: Leaving 10 minutes early, the worker nonetheless arrived late. 
 
 
Extra words: 
Incorrect: The secretary was annoyed when the copier broke on down. 
Correct: The secretary was annoyed when the copier broke down. 
 
The preposition on is not used in the verb form broke down. 
Incorrect: I will have buy a new car. (Mixed up verb tense formation.) 
Correct: I will buy a new car. (Future tense of irregular verb buy is will buy.) 
 
Correct: I will have bought a new car. (Future perfect form: will have + verbs past participle.) 
 
Incorrect: The postman delivers a mail in the morning. 
Correct: The postman delivers mail in the morning. 
 
The indefinite article a is not used in front of a non-count noun. 
Incorrect: My manager she has some contracts for me to sign. 
Correct: My manager has some contracts for me to sign. 
Right after a noun, do not also use a pronoun that replaces the noun. 
 
Unnecessary phrase: 
Simple, direct sentences are better than complicated, indirect ones. 
 
Incorrect: It was a project which was very complex in structure and very ambitious in nature. 
Correct: The project was complex and ambitious. 
 
The verb TO GET 
'To get' can be used in a number of patterns and has a number of meaning 
 
TO GET + direct object = obtain, receive, buy. 
Example 
I got my passport last week. 
She got her driving license last week. 
They got permission to live in Switzerland. 
I got a letter from my friend in Nigeria. 
He gets $1,000 a year from his father. 
She got a new coat from Zappaloni in Rome. 
We got a new television for the sitting room 
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TO GET + place expression = reach, arrive at a place. 
Example 
How are you getting home tonight? 
We got to London around 6 p.m. 
What time will we get there? 
When did you get back from New York? 
 
 
TO GET + preposition/adverb is used in many phrasal verbs. 
Examples 
Phrasal Verb Meaning 
get at try to express 
get away with escape punishment for a crime or bad action 
get by manage (financially) 
get down descend; depress 
get off leave a form of transport (train, bus, bicycle, plane) 
get on 
 
enter/sit on a form of transport (train, bus, bicycle, plane); 
have a relationship with someone; 
manage 
get out of avoid doing something, especially a duty 
get over recover (from an illness, a surprise) 
get through use or finish the supply of something 
get up leave your bed 
get up to do - usually something bad 
Examples 
He got on his bicycle and rode down the street. 
He gets up at 6.00 a.m. every morning. 
She got out of the washing-up every day, even when it was her turn. 
We got off the train just before the bomb exploded. 
We've got through all the sugar - can you buy some more? 
The children are very quiet - I wonder what they're getting up to. 
 
TO GET + adjective = become, show a change of state. 
Example 
I am getting old. 
It's getting hotter. 
By the time they reached the house they were getting hungry. 
I'm getting tired of all this nonsense. 
My mother's getting old and needs looking after. 
It gets dark very early in the winter. 
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TO GET has a number of other meanings 
Example 
Do you get it? (= understand) 
He's getting dinner tonight. (= prepare a meal) 
I'll get the bill. (= pay) 
That really gets me! (= irritate, annoy) 
 
Other expressions with GET: 
Examples 
To get rid of something means to throw it away. 
 Example: I'm going to get rid of all these old newspapers. 
 
 To get out of bed on the wrong side means to be in a bad mood. 
 Example: He got out of the wrong side of the bed this morning and he's been horrible all day. 
 
 To get your own back means to have your revenge or punish someone. 
 Example: She's getting her own back for all those rude things you said at the party last night. 
 
 
The Verb To Be 
Use: 
Use be with: 
Names Hello, I’m John. 
Your age How old are you? 
I’m 17 
Places. London is in England. 
 The Pyramids are in Egypt. 
The bank is one kilometre from here. 
Adjectives This hotel is nice. 
I’m hungry. 
Jobs and family I’m a student. 
 My parents are doctors. 
 This is my sister. 
 Ann and Tom are my children. 
Other Nouns Jess is a dog. 
‘Hamlet’ is a play. 
adjective + noun That’s a nice dress. 
 She’s a good actor. 
 
 
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Form: 
Positive sentences 
I am / ‘m cold / hungry 
a student / a teacher 
at home / in the kitchen 
You / We / They are / ’re 
He / She / It is / ‘s 
 
Negative Sentences 
I am not / ‘m not cold / hungry 
a student / a teacher 
at home / in the kitchen 
You / We / They are not / aren’t / ’re not 
He / She / It is not / isn’t / ‘s not 
 
Questions 
 
 
 
 
Short answers 
Yes, 
I am. 
you are. 
he / she / 
it is. 
we are. 
they are. 
 
No, 
 
I’m not. 
you aren’t / you’re not. 
he isn’t / he’s not. 
we aren’t / we’re not. 
they aren’t / they’re 
not. 
 
Contractions 
The verb be has a full form and a contracted form. 
I am = I’m 
He is = He’s 
We normally use the contracted form (‘m / ‘s / ‘re) in speaking and informal writing. 
We write the words in full in formal writing. 
 
You can only use one contraction at a time: 
eg: He isn’t 
He’s not but NOT He’sn’t 
 
You can contract ‘be’ after pronouns(I, you, she etc) and names. 
You can contract ‘is’ after question words. 
What is your name? → What’s your name? 
But do not contract ‘are’ after question words. 
Where are you from? → Where’re you from? 
 
VERBS 
 
Am I cold / hungry? 
a student / a teacher? 
at home / in the kitchen? 
Are you / we / they 
Is he / she / it 
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Do not contract short answers: 
Yes, I am NOT Yes, I’m 
 
Common mistakes 
1. In English, every sentence must have a verb. Some students write sentences with no verb. 
I very hungry. → I’m very hungry 
My brother in his bedroom. → My brother is in his bedroom. 
 
2. Some students write questions incorrectly. 
She is your sister? → Is she your sister? 
 
be – past tense 
 
Use: 
1) Use was and were to talk about situations in the past. 
 It was cold yesterday. 
 My mum was a teacher when she was younger. 
 The children were late for school yesterday. 
 
2) You can use was and were before: 
 a) nouns My mum was a teacher. 
 b) adjectives We were late yesterday. 
 c) locations The book was in my bag! 
She wasn’t there. 
 
 DON’T use was and were before an infinitive verb. 
 I was go to the park yesterday. → I went to the park yesterday. 
 
Form: 
Positive Negative 
I was at school. 
late. 
a doctor. 
 I wasn’t at school. 
late. 
a doctor. 
You were You weren’t 
He / She / It was He / She / It wasn’t 
We / They were We / They weren’t 
 
Question Short answers 
 
VERBS 
 
was I at 
school. 
late. 
a doctor. 
 Yes, I / he / 
she / it 
was. 
Yes, you / we 
/ they 
were. 
were You 
was He / She / It No, I / he / 
she / it 
wasn’t. 
 
No, you / we 
/ they 
weren’t. 
 were We / They 
UNIT 
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Common mistakes 
1) Some students make questions incorrectly. 
You were at the party? → Were you at the party? 
2) Some students use the wrong verb. 
We was very happy. → We were very happy. 
 
Matching subjects and verbs 
 
1. Spot the subject 
If you’re not sure whether to use a singular or a plural verb, think carefully about what the subject of a 
sentence or clause actually is. The subjects in these simple examples are easy to identify and are clearly 
either singular or plural: 
singular subject singular verb 
The cat was curled up in front of the fire. 
His speciality is meat dishes such as steak and casseroles. 
We were tired and went to bed early. 
Five friends go to the woods for a spot of rest and relaxation. 
 
However, the following two cases may be a little more thought-provoking: 
✓ Limitless quantities of easy-drinking wine was served to wash the meal down. 
✓ More than one in five Britons is now classed as obese. 
 
If you thought the above sentences were incorrect, you were right. In the first example, it’s easy to make 
mistakes when the subject is quite long and the noun nearest to the verb is a singular or uncountable one 
(such as wine). Here, the overall subject is a plural phrase (limitless quantities of easy-drinking wine) 
and therefore the verb should be the plural form were rather than the singular was: 
✓ Limitless quantities of easy-drinking wine were served to wash the meal down. 
 
As for the second sentence, phrases such as more than one in five /ten etc. can cause problems because 
people may think the subject is singular. In fact, the subject is plural (Britons, not one Briton) so you 
should use the plural verb are: 
✓ More than one in five Britons are now classed as obese. 
 
However, if you use the phrase more than one with a singular noun, then the verb should also be singular, 
even though the underlying meaning is plural: 
✓ More than one bathroom in the home is definitely an asset. 
 
 
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2. Is there more than one subject? 
 
What should you do if the subject of a sentence or clause is two or more people or things, linked by the 
coordinating conjunctions or or and? 
When two singular subjects are joined by and, the verb should almost always be in the plural: 
✓ Bill and Karen were introduced by a mutual friend. 
✓ Mutuality and respect are part of our tradition. 
 
The main exception to this rule is when the subject is a specific phrase that’s treated as a single idea or 
entity – this means that it should take a singular verb: 
✓ Fish and chips is a British institution. 
✓ Joanna’s rum and coke was equal parts rum and coke. 
 
When or separates two singular subjects, the verb should usually be in the singular: 
✓ A dog or another small mammal is not just for Christmas, it is for life. 
 
When one of the subjects linked by or is singular and the other plural, the verb normally agrees with the 
one that’s nearest to it. 
Nearest subject is plural – plural verb: 
✓ It’s pleasant when my family or my friends dream about what we’d do if one of us won the lottery. 
 
Nearest subject is singular – singular verb: 
✓ It’s up to them to have children when they feel ready, not when their parents or anyone else tells 
them to. 
 
Is there more than one subject in the following examples? 
✓ Whisky, along with rare birds, is one of the magnets drawing visitors to this island. 
✓ My brother Sam, as well as my sister Holly, are very good tennis players. 
 
No, both of these sentences have a single subject (whisky and my brother Sam respectively). This means 
that the first sentence is correct (the singular subject has a singular verb) but the second one should be 
reworded: 
✓ My brother Sam, as well as my sister Holly, is a very good tennis player. 
 
This rule should also be followed with similar parenthetical words and phrases, such as accompanied by, 
including, or together with. The easiest way to get the agreement right is to imagine the sentence without 
the extra phrase, or to think of the phrase as being in brackets: 
✓ My brother Sam is a very good tennis player. 
✓ My brother Sam (as well as my sister Holly) is a very good tennis player. 
 
 
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3. Where’s the subject? 
 
Not all sentences or clauses follow the typical word order in English, which is a subject followed by a 
verb. Exceptions include sentences beginning with here is/here are, there is/there are, and questions 
which start with where is/where are: 
✓ There’s some beautiful engravings in those early botanical books. 
✓ Where’s my keys? 
✓ Here’s some tips to help you get it right. 
 
The above expressions occur frequently in informal spoken English. People are often not aware that 
they’re ungrammatical, perhaps because they forget that the contractions here’s, there’s, and where’s 
actually contain a shortened form of the singular verbs is or has. Although such constructions are 
common, they are not regarded as standard English and you should avoid them in formal and written 
contexts. The subjects in all these examples are plural, so the verbs should be plural too: 
✓ There are some beautiful engravings in those early botanical books. 
✓ Where are my keys? 
✓ Here are some tips to help you get it right. 
 
4. Either/neither 
The main meaning of either is ‘one or the other of two people or things’. Similarly, neither means ‘not 
one nor the other of two people or things’. When neither and either function as determiners and appear 
without of, you should always use a singular noun and verb: 
✓ Neither kid seems that bothered by it all. 
✓ There is little evidence that either parent has addressed these issues. 
 
The expressionsneither of and either of are followed by a plural noun or pronoun. In formal and written 
English, the correct verb form should be singular: 
✓ I think either of them is qualified to be president. 
✓ Neither of her ex-husbands was remotely attractive. 
 
The use of a plural verb in such cases is regarded as more informal, but most grammar guides advise that 
it’s acceptable to do so if you want to emphasize the fact that the whole statement is plural: 
✓ Neither of his parents drink or smoke. 
✓ Do either of these machines work? 
 
In the constructions either. . . or and neither. . . nor, you can use either singular or plural subjects, which 
should be matched to singular or plural verbs, respectively: 
✓ It’s one of the best songs that either he or anyone else has composed. 
✓ Neither the politicians nor their advisers are able to determine these outcomes. 
 
 
 
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Sometimes there’s a mix of singular and plural subjects in these expressions – what verb should you use? 
✓ Either his drawings or the map is [?] are [?] inaccurate. 
✓ Neither she nor her managers was [?]were [?] aware of what was happening. 
 
Some guides advise that you should follow the rule given above for or when it occurs in the same 
situation. So if the singular subject is second, use a singular verb, but if the plural subject is second, use 
a plural verb: 
✓ Either his drawings or the map is inaccurate. 
✓ Neither she nor her managers were aware of what was happening. 
 
However, other authorities recommend that a plural verb can sound more natural in both cases, even if 
it’s preceded by a singular noun: 
✓ Either his drawings or the map are inaccurate. 
 
If you’re not sure, why not rephrase the sentence so that the plural subject is nearest to the plural verb? 
✓ Either the map or his drawings are inaccurate. 
 
Or you could do a more radical recasting of the sentence, adding a singular verb: 
✓ Either his drawings are inaccurate, or the map is. 
 
5. The + Adj → N 
We always use plural verb for the subject created by "The + Adj". 
Ex: The rich are not always happy. 
 
rise or raise 
raise: /reɪz/ 
rise: /rʌɪz/ (past rose /rəʊz/ past participle risen /ˈrɪz(ə)n/) 
 
Both words technically mean the same thing (to move upwards), but there is a difference in how you 
should use each one. 
 
Rise is intransitive verb and does not take an object. What this means is that you use the verb rise when 
something moves upwards by itself. 
The sun rises every morning. 
I rise out of bed quickly when the smell of freshly cooked bacon is in the air. 
 
In these examples, the subjects (“the sun” and “I”) move upward on their own, without the physical help 
of an outside force (though the smell of bacon certainly helps in its own way). 
Raise, on the other hand, is a transitive verb that requires that the subject act upon an object. In other 
words, something raises something else. 
 
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The Boy Scouts raised money to offset the cost of their next camping trip. 
I raised my hand in the meeting to ask, “Why isn’t there any bacon here?” 
 
In the first sentence, the Boy scouts (subject) raised money (object). In the second, I (subject) raised my 
hand (object). 
 
When constructing your sentence, just look to see if the subject rises on its own or if it’s raising something 
else. This will help you determine which verb to use. 
 
matching verbs to collective nouns 
Collective nouns are nouns which stand for a group or collection of people or things. They include words 
such as audience, committee, police, crew, family, government, group, and team. 
Most collective nouns can be treated as singular or plural, with either a singular or plural verb: 
example: 
 The whole family was at the table. [singular verb] 
 The whole family were at the table. [plural verb] 
 
There are a few collective nouns which are always used with a plural verb, the commonest of which 
are police and people: 
example: 
She’s happy with the way the police have handled the case. 
X She’s happy with the way the police has handled the case. 
 
DO OR MAKE 
 
DO 
We use the verb 'do' when someone performs an action, activity or task. 
do a crossword 
do the ironing 
do the laundry 
do the washing 
do the washing up 
 
'Do' is often used when referring to work of any kind. 
do your work 
do homework 
do housework 
do your job 
 
!Note - these activities do not usually produce a physical object. 
 
 
 
 
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UNIT 
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'Do' for General Ideas 
Use the verb 'do' when speaking about things in general. In other words, to describe an action without 
saying exactly what the action is. This form is often used with the words 'something, nothing, anything, 
everything, etc.' 
I am not doing anything today. 
He does everything for his mother. 
She's doing nothing. 
 
Important Expressions with 'Do' 
There are a number of standard expressions that take the verb 'do'. The best solution is to try to learn 
them. 
do badly 
do business 
do the dishes 
do a favour 
 
do good 
do harm 
do time - (to go to prison) 
do well 
 
do your best 
do your hair 
do your nails 
do your worst 
 
MAKE 
We use the verb 'make' for constructing, building or creating 
make a dress 
make food 
make a cup of tea / coffee 
 
'Make' is often used when referring to preparing food of any kind. 
make a meal - breakfast / lunch / dinner 
 
!Note - these activities usually create something that you can touch. 
Important Expressions with 'Make' 
There are a number of standard expressions that take the verb 'make'. The best solution is to try to learn 
them. 
make amends 
make arrangements 
make believe - (to 
pretend) 
make a choice 
make a comment 
make a decision 
make a difference 
make an effort 
make an excuse 
enquiry make an 
make a noise 
make a fool of yourself 
make a fortune 
make friends 
make a fuss 
make a journey 
make love 
make a mess 
make a mistake 
make money 
make a move 
make a payment 
make a phone call 
make a plan 
make a point 
make a profit 
make a promise 
make a remark 
make a sound 
make a speech 
make a suggestion 
make time 
make a visit 
make your bed - (to prepare the bed 
for sleeping in) 
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tell, say, speak, talk 
 
TELL = to give information to somebody by speaking or writing 
 
tell someone something: 'I told him about it.' 
tell something to somebody: 'He told the news to his co-worker. 
 'Please, tell me your name' 
= we usually say who is told (personal object) and what they were told 
'I told him...', 'They told us...', 'We told them...' 
'He told me ( that ) he was hungry.' 
 
'Mary told me to eat dinner.' 
'Our parents told us about it.' 
 
SAY = Never has a person as the object. You say something or say something to somebody. 
 Tell me what he said to you. 
 I want to say something on this subject. 
 
= The construction 'He said that' is very common, but the 'that' is often omitted in informal writing and 
speech. 
 She said (that) she worked in the big company. 
 He said (that) he was ill. 
 Sally said that John would be late to the party. 
 
Both ' SAY ' and ' TELL ' can be used in direct or indirect speech. 
DIRECT SPEECH: I said:' I'm hungry'. / I told him: 'I'm hungry'. 
INDIRECT SPEECH: I said that I was hungry'. / I told him that I was hungry. 
 
SPEAK = We often use it for one-way communication, and also for more serious or formal situations. 
 I need to speak to you after class. 
 The king of this country spoke to the audience about the war. 
 
= When we want to refer to a person's ability to speak a language.He speaks two languages. 
 Do you speak English? 
 
 
 
 
 
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TALK = It is used about a general topic. It cannot be used to report specific indirect speech. 
 This verb usually refers to two or more people exchanging or sharing information. 
 
 We talked about my big project. 
 Let's talk about it! 
 
Both ' SPEAK ' and ' TALK' have similar meanings. 
 
There is no big difference between them. 
They can often be used in the same situation. 
I spoke to her about the meeting. 
 I talked to her about the meeting. 
 
('SPEAK' has a more serious or formal tone.) 
 
Auxiliary verbs 
Auxiliary Verbs are the verbs be, do, have, will when they are followed by another verb (the full verb) 
in order to form a question, a negative sentence, a compound tense or the passive. 
 
In this question, " Do you like Czech food?" - do is the auxiliary verb, like is the main verb. 
In questions, auxiliary verbs come before the subject - in our example question, you is the subject. 
 
Auxiliary verbs - Do/does/did 
Do is used for forming questions and making negatives. 
Do is used with the present simple tense. 
Does is the form for the 3rd person singular (does she...) and did is the past tense of do . 
Do and does is never used for the past. 
 
The verb "be" 
The verb be can be used as an auxiliary and a full verb. 
Be when it is used as an auxiliary verb is used to form the continuous tense, compound tenses and 
the passive form. 
 
"Am, is, are" are the present tense for be. 
Am is used for the first person singular (I) Is is used for the 3rd person singular (he, she, it). Are is used 
for the other cases (you, they and we).Was is the form used for the 1st and 3rd person singular - I, he , 
she, it .Were is the past tense for - you, they and we . 
 
You can tell that in the following sentences be is an auxiliary because it is followed by another verb 
(the full verb).(For progressive forms use the "-ing" form of the full verb; for passive voice, use the past 
participle of the full verb.) 
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UNIT 
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Page 92 
 
Progressive Forms 
Present Progressive: 
He is playing football. 
Past Progressive: 
He was playing football. 
Present Perfect Progressive: 
He has been playing football. 
Past Perfect Progressive: 
He had been playing football. 
 
Passive 
Simple Present/Past: 
The house is/was built. 
Present/Past Perfect: 
The house has/had been built. 
Future I: 
The house will be built. 
 
"be" as a full verb 
The verb be can also be a full verb. In this case, it's not followed by another verb. If be is used as a full 
verb, we do not need an auxiliary in negative sentences or questions. 
positive sentence: 
They are fifteen years old. 
negative sentence: 
They are not fifteen years old. 
question: 
Are they fifteen years old? 
 
 
The auxiliary verb "have" 
Have is used to make the perfect tenses (it is always followed by the past participle - the third form of 
the verb). The forms of the perfect tense are the present perfect, past perfect and future perfect. 
 
Has is the form for the 3rd person singular (he, she, it) 
Have is used for all other forms (I, you, we, they). 
Had is the past tense for "have" for all pronouns. Other auxiliary verbs - modal verbs 
 
 
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Other auxiliary verbs: 
can could, may, might, shall, should, will, would and ought to. 
These are also known as modal verbs. We use them to show obligation, possibility and necessity. 
For example: 
Jack is late. He might be sleeping. (Possibility) 
I should clean my room today. (Obligation) 
I must wear a tie to school. (Necessity) 
 
lay - lie 
Lie and lay both have many definitions, but they’re most often confused where lie means to 
recline and lay means to put down. But the distinction is simple: Lay needs an object—something being 
laid—while lie cannot have an object. For example, you might lay a book on the table, lay a sweater on 
the bed, or lay a child in her crib. When you feel tired at the end of the day, you may lie down. But you 
can’t lie a book anywhere, and you can’t lay down (no object) at the end of the day. 
 
The verbs’ inflections are as follows: 
Verb present tense past tense past participle present participle 
Lay lay laid laid laying 
lie lie lay lain lying 
 
This is where things get weird, especially in the past-tense and past-participial inflections of lie, which 
sound like they should correspond to lay. For example, one would be correct in saying, 
I lay down in bed at 8:45. I had lain there a few minutes when I realized the oven was on. 
 
The past-tense lied is reserved for the sense of lie that involves intentionally making false statements. 
Examples 
These words can be tricky, but if you memorize the above table and remember that lay is transitive (i.e., 
it has an object) and lie intransitive (it doesn’t have an object), the words are not so difficult. These 
writers deploy them in some potentially tricky situations: 
▪ Mr Beveridge believes the bomb had lain undiscovered for decades. [Scotland Courier] 
▪ On Tuesday afternoon, crews had laid what appeared to be one layer of asphalt on one lane. 
[Newnan Times-Herald] 
▪ Beyond it lay an unshoveled yard where the snow was dotted with candles and two smoky 
fires. [NY Times] 
▪ If ever there was a work that lay down and died in the stillness of reproduction, this is 
it. [Chicago Tribune] 
 
The most common errors involving lie and lay are so widespread that some English reference sources 
have all but given up on keeping the words separate, and of course, not using the proper form is not a big 
error in informal speech or writing. Still, if you are writing for school or work or in any context where 
you need to be taken seriously, it is best to use the traditional inflections. 
VERBS 
 
UNIT 
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Page 94 
 
Must and Have To 
We can use 'must' to show that we are certain something is true. We are making a logical deduction 
based upon some clear evidence or reason. 
▪ There's no heating on. You must be freezing. 
▪ You must be worried that she is so late coming home. 
▪ I can't remember what I did with it. I must be getting old. 
▪ It must be nice to live in Florida. 
 
We also use 'must' to express a strong obligation. When we use 'must' this usually means that some 
personal circumstance makes the obligation necessary (and the speaker almost certainly agrees with the 
obligation.) 
▪ I must go to bed earlier. 
▪ They must do something about it. 
▪ You must come and see us some time. 
▪ I must say, I don't think you were very nice to him. 
 
We can also use 'have to' to express a strong obligation. When we use 'have to' this usually means that 
some external circumstance makes the obligation necessary. 
▪ I have to arrive at work at 9 sharp. My boss is very strict. 
▪ We have to give him our answer today or lose out on the contract. 
▪ You have to pass your exams or the university will not accept you. 
▪ I have to send a report to Head Office every week. 
 
In British English, we often use 'have got to' to mean the same as 'have to'. 
▪ I've got to take this book back to the library or I'll get a fine. 
▪ We've got to finish now as somebody else needs this room. 
 
We can also use ' will have to' to talk about strong obligations. Like 'must' this usually means that that 
some personal circumstance makes the obligation necessary. (Remember that 'will' is often used to show 
'willingness'.) 
▪ I'll have to speak to him. 
▪ We'll have to have lunch and catch up on all the gossip. 
▪ They'll have to do something about it. 
▪ I'll have to get back to you on that. 
 
As you can see, the differences between the present forms are sometimes very small and very subtle. 
However, there is a huge difference in the negative forms.VERBS 
 
VERBS 
 
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We use 'mustn't' to express strong obligations NOT to do something. 
▪ We mustn't talk about it. It's confidential. 
▪ I mustn't eat chocolate. It's bad for me. 
▪ You mustn't phone me at work. We aren't allowed personal calls. 
▪ They mustn't see us talking or they'll suspect something. 
 
We use 'don't have to' (or 'haven't got to' in British English) to state that there is NO obligation or 
necessity. 
▪ We don't have to get there on time. The boss is away today. 
▪ I don't have to listen to this. I'm leaving. 
▪ You don't have to come if you don't want to. 
▪ He doesn't have to sign anything if he doesn't want to at this stage. 
▪ I haven't got to go. Only if I want to 
 
Have got and have 
Have got and have mean the same. Have got is more informal. We use have (got) here to refer to both 
verbs: 
▪ I’ve got a terrible pain in my back. 
▪ I have a terrible pain in my back. (more formal) 
▪ They haven’t got a car. 
▪ They don’t have a car. (more formal) 
 
We use have (got) to talk about possession, relationships, characteristics and illnesses. In these contexts, 
it is not used in the continuous form: 
▪ She’s got two cats and a dog. 
▪ She has two cats and a dog. 
▪ Not: She is having got two cats and a dog. 
▪ Have you got a drill? 
▪ Do you have a drill? (more formal) 
▪ How many brothers have you got? 
▪ How many brothers do you have? (more 
formal) 
▪ She’s got a headache. 
▪ Not: She is having a headache. 
▪ She’s got a new boyfriend. 
▪ She has a new boyfriend. (more 
formal) 
▪ She’s got a delightful voice. 
▪ She has a delightful voice. (more 
formal) 
▪ It’s got 153 calories and 45g of 
carbohydrates. 
▪ It has 153 calories and 45g of 
carbohydrates. (more formal) 
▪ I have never had the measles. 
 
may or might 
We can use 'may' to ask for permission. However, this is rather formal and not used very often in modern 
spoken English 
▪ May I borrow your pen? 
▪ May we think about it? 
▪ May I go now? 
VERBS 
 
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We use 'may' to suggest something is possible 
▪ It may rain later today. 
▪ I may not have time to do it today. 
▪ Pete may come with us 
 
might 
We use 'might' to suggest a small possibility of something. Often we read that 'might' suggests a smaller 
possibility that 'may', there is in fact little difference and 'might is more usual than 'may' in spoken 
English. 
▪ She might be at home by now but it's not sure at all. 
▪ It might rain this afternoon. 
▪ I might not have time to go to the shops for you. 
▪ I might not go. 
 
For the past, we use 'might have'. 
▪ He might have tried to call while I was out. 
▪ I might have dropped it in the street. 
 
Be used to, get used to, used to 
How to use be used to, get used to and used to correctly. 
Be used to 
If you are used to something, you have often 
done or experienced it; it is not strange, new 
or difficult for you. 
Structure: Be used to + noun phrase or verb 
(-ing form) 
I am used to getting up early in the morning. I don't 
mind it. 
He didn't complain about the neighbours’ loud party – 
he was used to the noise. 
 
We can also say be used to someone. I don’t think Tom’s strange – I’m used to him. 
Negative be not used to I don't understand him: I'm not used to his accent yet. 
 
Get used to 
Structure: 
Get used to + something / someone 
Get used to + verb (-ing form) 
I got used to his Scottish accent after a while. 
I got used to waking up early in the morning. 
 
If you get used to something, you become 
accustomed to it; it is no longer unusual or strange. 
Get used to is the process of becoming used to 
something. 
After a while he didn't mind the noise in the 
office; he got used to it. 
 
 
 
VERBS 
 
 UNIT 
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Will/Would and Shall/Should 
The verbs will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might, and must cannot be the main (full) verbs 
alone. They are used as auxiliary verbs only and always need a main verb to follow. 
 
Will 
Used to express desire, preference, choice, or consent: 
▪ I will take this duty. 
▪ Will you stop talking like that? 
Used to express the future: 
▪ It will rain tomorrow. 
▪ The news will spread soon. 
Used to express capacity or capability: 
▪ This bucket will hold two gallons of water. 
▪ This airplane will take 200 passengers. 
Used to express determination, insistence, or persistence: 
▪ I will do it as you say. 
 
Would (past form of will) 
Often used in auxiliary functions with rather to express preference: 
▪ I would rather go shopping today. 
▪ We’d rather say something than stay quiet. 
Used to express a wish or desire: 
▪ I would like to have one more pencil. 
 
 
VERBS 
 
Used to 
Used to + verb infinitive refers to a habit or state in the past. It is used only in the past simple tense. 
Past habits 
If you used to do something, you did it for a period 
of time in the past, but you don't do it anymore. 
We used to live there when I was a child. 
I used to walk to school every day when I was a 
child. 
Past states 
We also say used to to express a state that existed 
in the past but doesn't exist now. States are NOT 
actions. We express states with stative verbs such 
as have believe, know and like. 
I used to like The Beatles, but now I never listen 
to them. 
He used to have long hair, but now it’s very short. 
I used to believe in magic when I was a child. 
Structure of questions 
did(n't) + subject + use to be 
Did(n't) he use to work in your office? 
Structure of negative: 
 subject + didn't + use to be 
I didn't use to like wine, but now I love it. 
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Used to express contingency or possibility: 
▪ If I were you, I would be so happy. 
Used to express routine or habitual things: 
▪ Normally, we would work until 6 p.m. 
 
Would like / 'd like and do you like 
We use would like or ’d like to say politely what we want, especially when making offers and requests: 
▪ Would you like a biscuit with your coffee? 
▪ Can you order for Ellie? She’d like the Margarita pizza, please. 
 
Verbs that follow would like are in the to-infinitive form: 
▪ Would you like to listen to that again? 
▪ I’d like to get a return ticket for tomorrow. 
 
We use Do you like …? to ask about preferences in general. We don’t use Do you like …? to make 
offers or requests. 
Compare 
Do you like rice? Would you like some 
rice? 
Do you like dancing? Would you like to 
dance? 
asks about likes and dislikes 
in general 
offers some rice asks about likes and dislikes 
in general 
invites you to dance 
 
Would like to have + -ed form 
We use would like to have + -ed form when talking about things in the past that we have missed: 
▪ I’d like to have watched the football but I had to go out. (I wanted to watch the football, but I 
didn’t.) 
I’d like to 
We can use I’d like to as a short answer to an offer or invitation: 
A: You must have dinner with us. 
B: Yes, I’d like to. 
A: Good. Is Sunday night any good? 
 
Shall 
Mainly used in American English to ask questions politely (it has more usages in British English). For 
the future tense, will is more frequently used in American English than shall. 
▪ Shall we dance? 
▪ Shall I go now? 
▪ Let’s drink, shall we? 
Often used in formal settings to deliver obligation or requirement: 
▪ You shall abide by the law. 
▪ There shall be no trespassing on this property. 
▪ Students shall not enter this room. 
VERBS 
 
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Should (past form of shall) 
Often used in auxiliary functions to express an opinion, suggestion, preference, or idea: 
▪ You should rest at home today. 
▪ I should take a bus this time. 
▪ He should be more thoughtful in the decision-making process. 
Used to express that you wish something had happened but it didn’t or couldn’t (should+ have + past 
participle): 
▪ You should have seen it. It was really beautiful. 
▪ I should have completed it earlier to meet the deadline. 
▪ We should have visited the place on the way. 
 
Used to ask for someone’s opinion: 
▪ What should we do now? 
▪ Should we continue our meeting? 
▪ Should we go this way? 
▪ Where should we go this summer? 
Used to say something expected or correct: 
▪ There should be an old city hall building here. 
▪ Everybody should arrive by 6 p.m. 
▪ We should be there this evening. 
 
Can 
Can is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use can to: 
✓ Talk about possibility and ability 
✓ Make requests 
✓ Ask for or give permission 
 
Structure of can 
The basic structure for can is: 
 
The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without to). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
VERBS 
 
Subject + auxiliary verb can + main verb 
Auxiliary verb 
 Subject Main verb 
 can 
+ I can 
play 
tennis. 
- He 
cannot 
Can’t 
? Can you tennis? 
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Notice that: 
Can is invariable. There is only one form: can 
The main verb is always the bare infinitive. 
The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without to). We cannot say: I can to play tennis. 
 
Use of can 
We use can to talk about what is possible, what we are able or free to do: 
▪ She can drive a car. 
▪ John can speak Spanish. 
▪ I cannot hear you. (I can't hear you.) 
▪ Can you hear me? 
 
Normally, we use can for the present. But it is possible to use can when we make present decisions about 
future ability. 
▪ Can you help me with my homework? (present) 
▪ Sorry. I'm busy today. But I can help you tomorrow. (future) 
 
can for requests and orders 
We often use can in a question to ask somebody to do something. This is not a real question - we do not 
really want to know if the person is able to do something, we want them to do it! The use of can in this 
way is informal (mainly between friends and family): 
▪ Can you make a cup of coffee, please? 
▪ Can you put the TV on? 
▪ Can you come here a minute? 
▪ Can you be quiet! 
 
can for permission 
We sometimes use can to ask or give permission for something: 
▪ Can I smoke in this room? 
▪ You can't smoke here, but you can smoke in the garden. 
(Note that we also use could, may, might for permission. The use of can for permission is informal.) 
 
 
VERBS 
 
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On this unit: 
 Function of adverbs 
 Formation of adverbs 
 Types of adverbs 
 Adverbs of manner 
 Comparative and Superlative 
 Viewpoint and Commenting 
 Interrogating adverbs 
 Relative Adverbs 
 Adverbs of Time 
 So, too, neither, either 
 Conjunctive adverbs 
 
 
 
 
UNIT 6 
 ADVERBS 
 
 
 
 
Page 102 
ADVERBS 
Adverbs are words that are used to modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and clauses. This handout 
will help you identify and use different types of adverbs. 
 
The Function of adverbs 
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and clauses by answering the questions “how,” 
“where,” “when,” “why” or “to what extent?” 
 
How: I ran quickly. 
Note: The adverb “quickly” modifies the verb “ran” and answers the question “how?” 
 
Where: The cat jumped inside. 
Note: The adverb “inside” modifies the verb “jumped” and answers the question “where?” 
 
When: The site is updated hourly. 
Note: The adverb “hourly” modifies the verb “updated” and answers the question “when?” 
 
Why: We eat vegetables for nourishment. 
Note: The phrase “for nourishment” acts as an adverb that modifies the verb “eat” and answers the 
question “why?” 
 
To what extent: The artist is extremely talented. 
Note: The adverb “extremely” modifies the adjective “talented” and answers the question “to what 
extent?” 
 
 
 
ADVERBS: How adverbs are formed 
Rules 
1. In most cases, an adverb is formed by adding '-ly' to an adjective: 
 Adverb 
cheap 
quick 
slow 
cheaply 
quickly 
 slowly 
 
Examples 
 Time goes quickly. 
 He walked slowly to the door. 
 She certainly had an interesting life. 
 He carefully picked up the sleeping child. 
ADVERBS 
 
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If the adjective ends in '-y', replace the 'y' with 'i' and add '-ly': 
Adjective Adverb 
easy 
angry 
happy 
lucky 
easily 
angrily 
happily 
luckily 
 
If the adjective ends in -'able', '-ible', or '-le', replace the '-e' with '-y': 
Adjective Adverb 
probable 
terrible 
gentle 
probably 
terribly 
gently 
 
If the adjective ends in '-ic', add '-ally': 
Adjective Adverb 
basic 
economic 
tragic 
basically 
economically 
tragically 
Note: Exception: public - publicly 
 
2. Some adverbs have the same form as the adjective: 
Adjective and Adverb 
early 
fast 
hard 
high 
late 
near 
straight 
wrong 
Compare: 
✓ It is a fast car. 
✓ He drives very fast. 
✓ This is a hard exercise. 
✓ He works hard. 
✓ We saw many high buildings. 
✓ The bird flew high in the sky. 
 
3. 'Well' and 'good' 
'Well' is the adverb that corresponds to the adjective 'good'. 
Examples 
He is a good student. 
He studies well. 
She is a good pianist. 
She plays the piano well. 
ADVERBS 
 
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Types of adverbs 
 
 Types of adverbs Examples 
manner well, badly, accurately, quickly 
place here, there, in the laboratory 
time now, yesterday, in 2000 
indefinite frequency often, seldom, usually 
definite frequency monthly, never, once a year 
degree/extent slightly, considerably, totally 
probability possibly, probably, certainly 
attitude/opinion naturally, surprisingly, in my opinion 
aspect technically, politically, scientifically 
 
 
ADVERBS OF PLACE 
Rule 
Adverbs of place tell us where something happens. 
They are usually placed after the main verb or after the object: 
 
After the main verb: 
 Examples 
• I looked everywhere 
• John looked away, up, down, around... 
• I'm going home, out, back 
• Come in 
 
After the object: 
 Examples 
• They built a house nearby 
• She took the child outside 
 
Common Adverbs of Place 
'Here' and 'there' 
With verbs of movement, here means towards or with the speaker: 
✓ Come here (= towards me) 
✓ It's in here (= come with me to see it) 
 
ADVERBS 
 
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There means away from, or not with the speaker: 
✓ Put it there (= away from me) 
✓ It's in there (= go by yourself to see it) 
 
Here and there are combined with prepositions to make many common adverbial phrases: 
down here, down there; 
over here, over there; 
under here, under there; 
up here, up there 
 
Here and there are placed at the beginning of the sentence in exclamations or when emphasis is needed. 
They are followed by the verb if the subject is a noun: 
✓ Here comes the bus. (followed by the verb) 
 
Or by a pronoun if this is the subject (it, she, he etc.): 
✓ Here it is! (followed by the pronoun) 
✓ There she goes! (followed by the pronoun) 
 
NOTE: most common adverbs of place also function as prepositions. 
 
 Examples 
about, across, along, around, behind, by, down, in, off, on, over, round, through, under, up. 
 
Go to Prepositions or Phrasal Verbs 
Other adverbs of place: ending in '-wards', expressing movement in a particular direction: 
backwards 
forwards 
downwards 
upwards 
inwards 
outwards 
northwards 
southwards 
eastwards 
westwards 
homewards 
onwards 
 
 Examples 
• Cats don't usually walk backwards. 
• The ship sailed westwards. 
 
BE CAREFUL! 'Towards' is a preposition, not an adverb, so it is always followed by a noun or a 
pronoun: 
• He walked towards the car. 
• She ran towards me. 
 
 
ADVERBS 
 
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expressing both movement and location: 
ahead, abroad, overseas,uphill, downhill, sideways, indoors, outdoors 
 
 Examples 
• The child went indoors. 
• He lived and worked abroad. 
 
 
KINDS OF ADVERBS - ADVERBS OF MANNER 
Rule 
Adverbs of manner tell us how something happens. They are usually placed after the main verb or after 
the object. 
 Examples 
He swims well, (after the main verb) 
He ran... rapidly, slowly, quickly… 
She spoke... softly, loudly, aggressively. 
James coughed loudly to attract her attention. 
He plays the flute beautifully. (after the object) 
He ate the chocolate cake greedily. 
 
BE CAREFUL! 
The adverb should not be put between the verb and the object: 
Examples 
He ate greedily the chocolate cake [incorrect] 
He ate the chocolate cake greedily [correct] 
 
If there is a preposition before the object, e.g. at, towards, we can place the adverb either before the 
preposition or after the object. 
Examples 
The child ran happily towards his mother. 
The child ran towards his mother happily. 
 
Sometimes an adverb of manner is placed before a verb + object to add emphasis: 
Examples 
He gently woke the sleeping woman. 
 
Some writers put an adverb of manner at the beginning of the sentence to catch our attention and make 
us curious: 
Examples 
Slowly she picked up the knife. 
 
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However, adverbs should always come AFTER intransitive verbs (=verbs which have no object). 
Examples 
The town grew quickly 
He waited patiently 
Also, these common adverbs are almost always placed AFTER the verb: 
well, badly, hard, fast 
 
The position of the adverb is important when there is more than one verb in a sentence. If the adverb is 
placed after a clause, then it modifies the whole action described by the clause. 
Notice the difference in meaning between the following pairs of sentences: 
✓ She quickly agreed to re-type the letter (= her agreement was quick) 
✓ She agreed to re-type the letter quickly (= the re-typing was quick) 
✓ He quietly asked me to leave the house (= his request was quiet) 
✓ He asked me to leave the house quietly (= the leaving was quiet) 
 
Adverbs: Comparative & Superlative 
Rule 
In general, comparative and superlative forms of adverbs are the same as for adjectives: 
✓ add -er or -est to short adverbs: 
Adverb Comparative Superlative 
hard 
late 
fast 
harder 
later 
 faster 
the hardest 
the latest 
the fastest 
 
Examples 
Jim works harder than his brother. 
Everyone in the race ran fast, but John ran the fastest of all. 
 
With adverbs ending in -ly, use more for the comparative and most for the superlative: 
Adverb Comparative Superlative 
quietly 
slowly 
seriously 
more quietly 
more slowly 
more seriously 
most quietly 
most slowly 
most seriously 
 
Examples 
The teacher spoke more slowly to help us to understand. 
Could you sing more quietly please? 
 
 
ADVERBS 
 
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Some adverbs have irregular comparative forms: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Examples 
The little boy ran further than his friends. 
You're driving worse today than yesterday! 
 
BE CAREFUL! Sometimes 'most' can mean 'very': 
We were most grateful for your help. 
I am most impressed by this application. 
 
 
Adverbs of Degree 
Usage 
Adverbs of degree tell us about the intensity or degree of an action, an adjective or another adverb. 
Common adverbs of degree: 
Almost, nearly, quite, just, too, enough, hardly, scarcely, completely, very, extremely. 
 
Adverbs of degree are usually placed: 
✓ before the adjective or adverb, they are modifying: 
 e.g. The water was extremely cold. 
✓ before the main verb: 
 e.g. He was just leaving. She has almost finished. 
 
 Examples 
✓ She doesn't quite know what she'll do after university. 
✓ They are completely exhausted from the trip. 
✓ I am too tired to go out tonight. 
✓ He hardly noticed what she was saying. 
 
Enough, very, too 
Enough as an adverb meaning 'to the necessary degree' goes after adjectives and adverbs. 
 Examples 
✓ Is your coffee hot enough? (adjective) 
✓ He didn't work hard enough. (adverb) 
 
ADVERBS 
 
Adverb Comparative Superlative 
badly 
far 
little 
well 
worse 
farther/further 
less 
better 
worst 
farthest/furthest 
least 
best 
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It also goes before nouns, and means 'as much as is necessary'. In this case it is not an adverb, but a 
'determiner'. 
 Examples 
✓ We have enough bread. 
✓ They don't have enough food. 
 
Too as an adverb meaning 'more than is necessary or useful' goes before adjectives and adverbs, e.g. 
✓ This coffee is too hot. (adjective) 
✓ He works too hard. (adverb) 
 
Enough and too with adjectives can be followed by 'for someone/something'. 
 Examples 
✓ The dress was big enough for me. 
✓ She's not experienced enough for this job. 
✓ The coffee was too hot for me. 
✓ The dress was too small for her. 
 
We can also use 'to + infinitive' after enough and too with adjectives/adverb. 
 Examples 
✓ The coffee was too hot to drink. 
✓ He didn't work hard enough to pass the exam. 
✓ She's not old enough to get married. 
✓ You're too young to have grandchildren! 
 
Very goes before an adverb or adjective to make it stronger. 
 Examples 
✓ The girl was very beautiful. (adjective) 
✓ He worked very quickly. (adverb) 
 
If we want to make a negative form of an adjective or adverb, we can use a word of opposite meaning, 
or not very. 
 Examples 
✓ The girl was ugly OR The girl was not very beautiful 
✓ He worked slowly OR He didn't work very quickly. 
 
BE CAREFUL! There is a big difference between too and very. 
✓ Very expresses a fact: 
 He speaks very quickly. 
✓ Too suggests there is a problem: 
 He speaks too quickly (for me to understand). 
 
 
ADVERBS 
 
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Other adverbs like very 
These common adverbs are used like very and not very, and are listed in order of strength, from positive 
to negative: 
extremely, especially, particularly, pretty, rather, quite, fairly, rather, not especially, not particularly. 
 
Note: rather can be positive or negative, depending on the adjective or adverb that follows: 
Positive: The teacher was rather nice. 
Negative: The film was rather disappointing. 
 
Note on inversion with negative adverbs 
Normally the subject goes before the verb: 
SUBJECT VERB 
I 
She 
left 
goes 
 
However, some negative adverbs can cause an inversion - the order is reversed and the verb goes before 
the subject 
 Examples 
✓ I have never seen such courage. Never have I seen such courage. 
✓ She rarely left the house. Rarely did she leave the house. 
 
Negative inversion is used in writing, not in speaking. 
 
Other adverbs and adverbial expressions that can be used like this: 
seldom, scarcely, hardly, not only ...... 
but also, no sooner ...... 
than, not until, under no circumstances. 
 
 
Adverbs of Certainty 
Adverbs of certainty express how certain or sure we feel about an action or event. 
 
Usage 
Common adverbs of certainty: 
certainly, definitely, probably, undoubtedly, surely 
 
1. Adverbs of certainty go before the main verb but after the verb 'to be': 
• He definitely left the house this morning. 
• He is probably in the park. 
 
 
ADVERBS 
 
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2. With other auxiliary verb, these adverbs go between the auxiliary and the main verb: 
• He has certainly forgotten the meeting. 
• He will probably remember tomorrow. 
 
3. Sometimes these adverbs can be placed at the beginning of the sentence: 
• Undoubtedly, Winston Churchill was a great politician. 
 
BE CAREFUL! with surely. When it is placed at the beginning of the sentence, it means the speaker 
thinks something is true, but is looking for confirmation: 
• Surely you've got a bicycle? 
 
See also ADVERBS OF ATTITUDE 
 
 
 
Adverbs:Viewpoint and Commenting 
There are some adverbs and adverbial expressions which tell us about the speaker's viewpoint or opinion 
about an action, or make some comment on the action. 
Viewpoint 
Frankly, I think he is a liar. (= this is my frank, honest opinion) 
Theoretically, you should pay a fine. (= from a theoretical point of view but there may be another way 
of looking at the situation) 
 
These adverbs are placed at the beginning of the sentence and are separated from the rest of the 
sentence by a comma. 
 
Some common Viewpoint adverbs: 
honestly, seriously, confidentially, personally, surprisingly, ideally, economically, officially, 
obviously, clearly, surely, undoubtedly. 
 
Examples 
Personally, I'd rather go by train. 
Surprisingly, this car is cheaper than the smaller model. 
Geographically, Britain is rather cut off from the rest of Europe. 
Commenting 
These are very similar to viewpoint adverbs, and often the same words, but they go in a different 
position - after the verb to be and before the main verb. 
Examples 
She is certainly the best person for the job. 
You obviously enjoyed your meal 
Some common Commenting adverbs: definitely, certainly, obviously, simply 
ADVERBS 
 
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Interrogative Adverbs 
These are: 
why, where, how, when 
 
They are usually placed at the beginning of a question. 
 Examples 
• Why are you so late? 
• Where is my passport? 
• How are you? 
• How much is that coat? 
• When does the train arrive? 
 
Notice that how can be used in four different ways: 
1. meaning 'in what way?': 
How did you make this sauce? 
How do you start the car? 
 
2. with adjectives: 
How tall are you? 
How old is your house? 
 
3. with much and many: 
How much are these tomatoes? 
How many people are coming to the party? 
 
4. with other adverbs: 
How quickly can you read this? 
How often do you go to London? 
 
 
 
ADVERBS 
 
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Relative Adverbs 
Rule 
The following adverbs can be used to join sentences or clauses. They replace the more formal structure 
of preposition + which in a relative clause: 
where, when, why 
 
Examples 
That's the restaurant where we met for the first time. 
(where = at/in which) 
 
I remember the day when we first met. 
(when = on which) 
 
There was a very hot summer the year when he was born. 
(when = in which) 
 
Tell me (the reason) why you were late home. 
(why = for which, but could replace the whole phrase 'the reason for which') 
 
 
 
Adverbs of Time 
Adverbs of time tell us when an action happened, but also for how long, and how often. 
 Examples 
• When: today, yesterday, later, now, last year 
• For how long: all day, not long, for a while, since last year 
• How often: sometimes, frequently, never, often, yearly 
 
When adverbs are usually placed at the end of the sentence: 
 Examples 
• Goldilocks went to the Bears' house yesterday. 
• I'm going to tidy my room tomorrow. 
 
This is a neutral position, but some when adverbs can be put in other positions to give a different emphasis 
Compare: 
✓ Later Goldilocks ate some porridge. (the time is more important) 
✓ Goldilocks later ate some porridge. (this is more formal, like a policeman's report) 
✓ Goldilocks ate some porridge later. (this is neutral, no particular emphasis) 
 
 
ADVERBS 
 
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"For how long" adverbs are usually placed at the end of the sentence: 
 Examples 
• She stayed in the Bears' house all day. 
• My mother lived in France for a year. 
 
Notice: 'for' is always followed by an expression of duration: 
Examples 
for three days, 
for a week, 
for several years, 
for two centuries. 
 
'since' is always followed by an expression of a point in time: 
Examples 
since Monday, 
since 1997, 
since the last war. 
 
"How often" adverbs expressing the frequency of an action are usually placed before the main verb but 
after auxiliary verbs (such as be, have, may, must): 
 Examples 
• I often eat vegetarian food. (before the main verb) 
• He never drinks milk. (before the main verb) 
• You must always fasten your seat belt. (after the auxiliary must) 
• She is never sea-sick. (after the auxiliary is) 
• I have never forgotten my first kiss. (after the auxiliary have and before the main verb forgotten) 
 
Some other "how often" adverbs express the exact number of times an action happens and are usually 
placed at the end of the sentence: 
 Examples 
• This magazine is published monthly. 
• He visits his mother once a week. 
 
When a frequency adverb is placed at the end of a sentence it is much stronger. 
Compare: 
✓ She regularly visits France. 
✓ She visits France regularly. 
 
Adverbs that can be used in these two positions: 
Frequently, generally, normally, occasionally, often, regularly, sometimes, usually 
 
ADVERBS 
 
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'Yet' and 'still' 
Yet is used in questions and in negative sentences, and is placed at the end of the sentence or after not. 
 Examples 
• Have you finished your work yet? (= a simple request for information) No, not yet. (= simple 
negative answer) 
• They haven't met him yet. (= simple negative statement) 
• Haven't you finished yet? (= expressing slight surprise) 
 
Still expresses continuity; it is used in positive sentences and questions, and is placed before the main 
verb and after auxiliary verbs (such as be, have, might, will) 
 Examples 
• I am still hungry. 
• She is still waiting for you 
• Are you still here? 
• Do you still work for the BBC? 
 
ORDER OF ADVERBS OF TIME 
If you need to use more than one adverb of time at the end of a sentence, use them in this order: 
1: 'how long' 
2: 'how often' 
3: 'when' (think of 'low') 
 
 Examples 
• + 2 : I work (1) for five hours (2) every day. 
• 2 + 3 : The magazine was published (2) weekly (3) last year. 
• 1 + 3 : I was abroad (1) for two months (3) last year. 
• 1 + 2 + 3 : She worked in a hospital (1) for two days (2) every week (3) last year. 
 
 
so, too, neither, either 
'So do I' and 'neither do I' 
We use 'so do I' to say that a positive sentence is also true for speaker, and we use 'neither do I' to say 
that a negative sentence is also true for speaker: 
+Peter hates mushrooms. So do I (=I also hate mushrooms). 
+Marry doesn't live in London. Neither do I (=I also don't live in London). 
The verb after 'so' or 'neither' changes depending on the tense of the verb in the first sentence. 
 
Present simple: use 'do / does 'Lucy likes coffee. So do I. 
Lucy doesn't like coffee. Neither do I. 
Present simple with 'be': use 'am / is / are' John's at the office. So am I. 
John isn't at the office. Neither am I. 
ADVERBS 
 
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Past Simple: use 'did' 
 
Jill went to the cinema yesterday. So did I. 
Jill didn't go to the cinema yesterday. Neither did I. 
Past simple with 'be': use 'was / were' 
 
She was at the library. So was I. 
She wasn't at the library. Neither was I. 
Present perfect: use 'have / has' 
 
They've been to Colombia. So have I. 
They haven't been to Colombia. Neither have I. 
Future simple: use 'will' 
 
Edward will be at the cafe later. So will I. 
Edward won't be at the cafe later. Neither will I. 
Modal verbs: repeat the modal verb 
 
He would like a cup of tea. So would I. 
He wouldn't like a cup of tea. Neither would I. 
Emma can speak Russian. So can I. 
Emma can't speak Russian. Neither can I. 
Present continuous: use 'am / is / are' 
 
Luke's going out tonight. So am I. 
Luke isn't going out tonight. Neither am I. 
 
 What about 'too' and 'either'? 
 
We can also use 'I do too' and 'I don't either', which mean the same as 'so do I' and 'neither do I': 
+Peter hates mushrooms. I do too.(=I also hate mushrooms). 
+Marry doesn't live in London. I don't either. (=I also don'tlive in London). 
 
The verb changes in the same way as with 'so do I' and 'neither do I' (remember you need a negative verb 
with 'either'): 
Present simple: John's at the office. I am too. 
Present continuous: Luke isn't going out tonight. I'm not either. 
Present perfect: They've been to Colombia. I have too. 
Modal verbs: Emma can't speak Russian. I can't either. 
 
 Me too' and 'me neither': 
We can also use 'me too' and 'me neither'. 'Me too' has the same meaning as 'so + auxiliary verb + I' and 
'me neither' has the same meaning as 'neither + auxiliary verb + I'. 'Me too' and 'me neither' are very 
informal: 
+ Peter hates mushrooms Me too.( I also hate mushrooms). 
+Marry doesn't live in London. Me neither. (=I also don't live in London). 
 
ADVERBS 
 
UNIT 
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Conjunctive adverbs 
A conjunctive adverb connects two independent clauses or sentences. Other adverbs modify or add to a 
word, but a conjunctive affects two sentences. The word “conjunctive” comes from the Latin for “join 
together.” 
 
Conjunctive Adverbs in Action 
A conjunctive adverb brings together two complete thoughts. Each clause can stand on its own as a 
sentence. The first clause is followed by a semi-colon. Sometimes there is a comma after the conjunctive 
adverb. 
 
Following is a list of conjunctive adverbs: 
also, anyway, besides, certainly, earlier, finally, further, for instance, for example, however, 
hence, in addition, instead, later, likewise, moreover, namely, next, now, nevertheless, on the 
other hand, otherwise, perhaps, so, still, then, therefore, thus, and undoubtedly. 
 
Conjunctive adverbs can be grouped according to function. This may help you understand them a bit better: 
Sometimes their function is addition, and examples of these would be: “in addition, next, still, 
also, and again.” 
Comparison is another way they work, such as words like “also, likewise, and similarly.” 
Concession is sometimes made with words like “granted and of course.” 
Adverbs like “although, instead, in spite of, and regardless”, show a contrast. 
Sometimes emphasis is the function, with words like “indeed, of course, and certainly.” 
Conjunctive adverbs can illustrate with words such as: “for example, namely, thus, and in 
conclusion.” 
Words that summarize include: “all in all, that is, in summary, and finally.” 
Time can be referred to with these words: “before, meanwhile, furthermore, lately, now, since, 
and thereafter.” 
 
Examples of Conjunctive Adverbs 
Conjunctive adverbs are also called adverbial conjunctions. Here are a few examples to further illustrate what they 
do for sentences. 
I wanted to see a scary movie; however, my friend wanted to see a comedy. 
You need to concentrate on your studies; otherwise, you will fail the class. 
The thunder and lightning were intense; consequently, the crowd dispersed. 
He enjoyed getting a new tie; nevertheless, a sports car would have been a better gift. 
We really need to go to the mall; in addition, we should see a movie. 
Conjunctive adverbs act like conjunctions; however, they are adverbs. 
 
 
 
ADVERBS 
 
UNIT 
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Other Functions 
 
Conjunctive adverbs can also function as a regular adverb and modify a verb, an adjective, or another 
adverb. In this case, they will not need extra punctuation. 
Here is an example: 
“He was accordingly very interested in jazz.” 
 
In this sentence the word “accordingly” is acting like an adverb and modifying the verb “interested.” 
 
Many times a conjunctive adverb will start a sentence and need a comma after it since it appears before an 
independent clause. Following are some examples: 
Therefore, I will eat green eggs and ham. 
In other words, English is a hard language. 
Above all, we must try and save the planet. 
 
Remember, adverbs change or modify verbs. Many end with "ly" which makes them easy to spot. Other adverbs, 
such as conjunctive adverbs may also end with "ly" (such as accordingly) or may not end in "ly" (such as also, 
next and before) 
 
 
 
ADVERBS 
 
UNIT 
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On this unit: 
 Prepositions 
 Types of prepositions 
 Preposition of time, place and other important prepositions 
 Preposition with noun, adjectives and verbs 
 Preposition on, at, and in 
 Preposition of, to and for 
 Preposition with, over, by 
 
 
UNIT 7 
 PREPOSITIONS 
 
 
 
 
Page 120 
PREPOSITIONS 
“The plane flew above the cloud, behind the cloud, around the cloud, below the cloud, beneath the 
cloud, beside the cloud, beyond the cloud, into the cloud, near the cloud, outside the cloud, over the 
cloud, past the cloud, through the cloud, toward the cloud, under the cloud, and finally dived 
underneath the cloud.” 
 
A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between two things. In the example above, the 
prepositions show the relationships between a plane and a cloud. Below is a list of most common 
prepositions: 
about beside inside to 
above besides like toward 
across between near under 
after beyond of underneath 
against by off until 
along despite on up 
among down out with 
around during outside within 
at except over without 
before for past 
behind from since 
below in through 
beneath into throughout 
 
Some prepositions consist of more than one word. Here is a list of the most common multiword 
prepositions: 
along with in place of 
because of in spite of 
Due to instead of 
except for on account of 
in addition to out of 
in case of up to 
in front of with the exception of 
 
 
 
PREPOSITIONS 
 
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Prepositions - Time 
English Usage Example 
on days of the week on Monday 
in months / seasons 
time of day 
year 
before a certain period of time (when?) 
in August / in winter 
in the morning 
in 2006 
in an hour 
at for night 
for weekend 
a certain point of time (when?) 
at night 
at the weekend 
at half past nine 
since from a certain point of time (past till now) since 1980 
for over a certain period of time (past till now) for 2 years 
ago a certain time in the past 2 years ago 
Before earlier than a certain point of time before 2004 
to telling the time ten to six (5:50) 
past telling the time ten past six (6:10) 
to / till / until marking the beginning and end of a period of time from Monday to/till Friday 
till / until in the sense of how long something is going to last He is on holiday until Friday. 
by in the sense of at the latest, 
 up to a certain time 
I will be back by 6 o’clock. 
By 11 o'clock, I had read five pages 
PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE 
in room, building, street, town, country book, paper 
etc. 
car, taxi, picture, world 
 
in the kitchen, in London 
in the book 
in the car, in a taxi 
in the picture, in the world 
at meaning next to, by an object 
for table 
for events 
place where you are to do something typical (watch 
a film, study, work) 
at the door, at the station 
at the table 
at a concert, at the party 
at the cinema, at school, 
at work 
on attached 
for a place with a river 
being on a surface 
for a certain side (left, right) 
for a floor in a house 
for public transport 
for television, radio 
the picture on the wall 
London lies on the Thames. on the 
table 
on the left 
on the first floor 
on the bus, on a plane 
on TV, on the radio 
by, next to, 
beside 
left or right of 
somebody or something 
Jane is standing by / next to / beside 
the car. 
under on the ground, lower than (or covered by) 
something else 
the bag is under the table 
below lower than something else but above ground the fish are below the surface 
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over covered by something else 
meaning more than 
getting to the other side (also across) 
overcoming an obstacle 
put a jacket over your shirt 
over 16 years of age 
walk over the bridge 
climb over the wall 
above higher than something else, but not directly over it a path above the lake 
across getting to the other side (also over)getting to the 
other 
side walk across the bridge 
swim across the lake 
through something with limits on top, bottom and the sides drive through the tunnel 
to movement to person or building 
movement to a place or country 
for bed 
go to the cinema 
go to London / Ireland 
go to bed 
into enter a room / a building go into the kitchen / the house 
towards movement in the direction of something (but not 
directly to it) 
go 5 steps towards the house 
onto movement to the top of something jump onto the table 
from in the sense of where from a flower from the garden 
Other important prepositions 
from who gave it a present from Jane 
of who/what does it belong to 
what does it show 
a page of the book 
the picture of a palace 
by who made it a book by Mr Think 
on walking or riding on horseback 
entering a public transport vehicle 
on foot, on horseback 
get on the bus 
in entering a car / Taxi get in the car 
off leaving a public transport vehicle get off the train 
out of leaving a car / Taxi get out of the taxi 
by rise or fall of something 
travelling (other than walking or horse-riding) 
prices have risen by 10 percent 
by car, by bus 
at for age she learned Russian at 45 
about for topics, meaning what about we were talking about you 
 
 
 
Prepositions with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs. 
Prepositions are sometimes so firmly wedded to other words that they have practically become one word. 
(In fact, in other languages, such as German, they would have become one word.) This occurs in three 
categories: nouns, adjectives, and verbs. 
 
 
 
PREPOSITIONS 
 
UNIT 
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NOUNS and PREPOSITIONS ADJECTIVES and PREPOSITIONS 
approval of 
awareness of 
belief in 
concern for 
confusion about 
desire for 
fondness for 
grasp of 
hatred of 
hope for 
interest in 
love of 
need for 
participation in 
reason for 
respect for 
success in 
understanding of 
 afraid of 
angry at 
aware of 
capable of 
careless about 
familiar with 
fond of 
happy about 
interested in 
jealous of 
made of 
married to 
proud of 
similar to 
sorry for 
sure of 
tired of 
worried about 
 
VERBS and PREPOSITIONS 
apologize for 
ask about 
ask for 
belong to 
bring up 
care for 
find out 
give up 
grow up 
look for 
look forward to 
look up 
make up 
pay for 
prepare for 
study for 
talk about 
think about 
trust in 
work for 
worry about 
A combination of verb and preposition is called a phrasal verb. The word that is joined to the verb is then 
called a particle. 
Prepositions On, At, and In 
A preposition is a word that links a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase to some other part of the sentence. 
 
Prepositions can be tricky for English learners. There is no definite rule or formula for choosing a 
preposition. In the beginning stage of learning the language, you should try to identify a preposition when 
reading or listening in English and recognize its usage. 
to the office 
at the desk 
on the table 
in an hour 
about myself 
A preposition is used to show direction, location, or time, or to introduce an object. 
Here are a few common prepositions and examples 
 
On 
Used to express a surface of something: 
 I put an egg on the kitchen table. 
The paper is on my desk. 
 
Used to specify days and dates: 
The garbage truck comes on Wednesdays. 
I was born on the 14th day of June in 1988 
PREPOSITIONS 
 
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Used to indicate a device or machine, such as a phone or computer: 
He is on the phone right now. 
She has been on the computer since this morning. 
My favourite movie will be on TV tonight. 
 
Used to indicate a part of the body: 
The stick hit me on my shoulder. 
He kissed me on my cheek. 
I wear a ring on my finger. 
 
Used to indicate the state of something: 
Everything in this store is on sale. 
The building is on fire. 
 
 At 
Used to point out specific time: 
I will meet you at 12 p.m. 
The bus will stop here at 5:45 p.m. 
 
Used to indicate a place: 
There is a party at the club house. 
There were hundreds of people at the park. 
We saw a baseball game at the stadium 
 
Used to indicate an activity: 
He laughed at my acting. 
I am good at drawing a portrait. 
 
Used to indicate an email address: 
 Please email me at abc@defg.com 
 
In 
Used for unspecific times during a day, month, season, year: 
She always reads newspapers in the morning. 
In the summer, we have a rainy season for three weeks. 
The new semester will start in March. 
 
Used to indicate a location or place: 
She looked me directly in the eyes. 
I am currently staying in a hotel. 
My hometown is Los Angeles, which is in California. 
PREPOSITIONS 
 
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mailto:abc@defg.com
 
 
 
Page 125 
Used to indicate a shape, colour, or size: 
This painting is mostly in blue. 
The students stood in a circle. 
This jacket comes in four different sizes. 
 Used to express while doing something: 
In preparing for the final report, we revised the tone three times. 
A catch phrase needs to be impressive in marketing a product. 
 
Used to indicate a belief, opinion, interest, or feeling: 
I believe in the next life. 
We are not interested in gambling. 
 
Prepositions Of, To and For 
 
Of 
Used for belonging to, relating to, or connected with: 
The secret of this game is that you can’t ever win. 
The highlight of the show is at the end. 
The first page of the book describes the author’s profile. 
Don’t touch it. That’s the bag of my friend’s sister. 
I always dreamed of being rich and famous. 
 
Used to indicate reference: 
I got married in the summer of 2000.This is a picture of my family. 
I got a discount of 10 percent on the purchase. 
 
Used to indicate an amount or number: 
I drank three cups of milk. 
A large number of people gathered to protest. 
I had only four hours of sleep during the last two days. 
He got a perfect score of 5 on his writing assignment. 
 
To 
Used to indicate the place, person, or thing that someone or something moves toward, or the direction 
of something: 
I am heading to the entrance of the building. 
The package was mailed to Mr. Kim yesterday. 
All of us went to the movie theatre. 
Please send it back to me. 
 
PREPOSITIONS 
 
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Used to indicate a limit or an ending point: 
The snow was piled up to the roof. 
The stock prices rose up to 100 dollars. 
 
Used to indicate relationship: 
This letter is very important to your admission. 
My answer to your question is in this envelop. 
Do not respond to every little thing in your life. 
 
Used to indicate a time or a period: 
I work nine to six, Monday to Friday. 
It is now 10 to five. (In other words, it is 4:50.) 
 
For 
Used to indicate the use of something: 
This place is for exhibitions and shows. 
I baked a cake for your birthday. 
I put a note on the door for privacy. 
She has been studying hard for the final exam. 
 
Used to mean because of: 
I am so happy for you. 
We feel deeply sorry for your loss. 
For this reason, I’ve decided to quit this job. 
 
Used to indicate time or duration: 
He’s been famous for many decades. 
I attended the university for one year only. 
This is all I have for today. 
 
Prepositions With, Over and By 
With 
Used to indicate being together or being involved: 
I ordered a sandwich with a drink. 
He was with his friend when he saw me. 
She has been working with her sister at the nail shop. 
The manager will bewith you shortly. 
 
Used to indicate "having": 
I met a guy with green eyes. 
Were you the one talking with an accent? 
PREPOSITIONS 
 
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Used to indicate "using": 
I wrote a letter with the pen you gave me. 
This is the soup that I made with rice and barley. 
He cut my hair with his gold scissors. 
 
Used to indicate feeling: 
I am emailing you with my sincere apology. 
He came to the front stage with confidence. 
 
Used to indicate agreement or understanding: 
Are you with me? 
Yes, I am completely with you. 
She agrees with me. 
 
Over 
Used to indicate movement from one place to another: 
Come over to my house for dinner sometime. 
Could you roll over? 
They sent over a gift for his promotion. 
 
Used to indicate movement downward: 
The big tree fell over on the road. 
Can you bend over and get the dish for me? 
He pushed it over the edge. 
 
Used to indicate more than an expected number or amount: 
This amount is over our prediction. 
Kids twelve and over can watch this movie. 
The phone rang for over a minute. 
 
Used to indicate a period of time: 
I worked there over a year. 
She did not sleep there over this past month. 
 
By 
Used to indicate proximity: 
Can I sit by you? 
He was standing by me. 
The post office is by the bank. 
 
 
PREPOSITIONS 
 
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Used to indicate the person that does something in a passive voice sentence: 
The microwave was fixed by the mechanic. 
The flowers were delivered by a postman. 
The branch office was closed by the head office. 
 
Used to indicate an action with a particular purpose: 
You can pass the exam by preparing for it. 
I expressed my feeling toward her by writing a letter. 
She finally broke the record by pure effort. 
 
Used to indicate a mean or method: 
Please send this package to Russia by airmail. 
I came here by subway. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
PREPOSITIONS 
 
UNIT 
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On this unit: 
 Conjunction: form and function 
 Subordinating conjunction 
 Coordinating conjunction 
 Correlative conjunction 
 Conjunctive adverbs 
 
 
UNIT 8 
 CONJUNCTIONS 
 
 
 
 
Page 130 
CONJUNCTION 
A conjunction is a word that connects elements of a sentence, such as words, phrases, or clauses. The 
three types of conjunctions are: subordinating conjunctions, coordinating conjunctions, and correlative 
conjunctions. 
FORM 
Conjunctions have three basic forms: 
• Single word: but, because, although … 
• Compound. (often ending with as or that) : in order that, as long as … 
• Correlative (surrounding a verb or adverb): so … that 
 
FUNCTION. 
Have two basic functions 
✓ Coordinating conjunctions are used to join independent clauses or elements like multiple nouns 
or phrases within a sentence. 
✓ Subordinating conjunctions connect the dependent clause to the independent clause. 
 
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS 
Subordinating conjunctions break sentences into word clusters called dependent (or subordinate) clauses. 
Dependent clauses cannot stand alone and must be connected to an independent clause to make a complex 
sentence. Subordinating conjunctions connect the dependent clause to the independent clause. 
Everyone was happy when it stopped snowing. 
Common Subordinating Clauses 
 
Examples 
✓ We can go to the beach when it opens in June. 
✓ The baby always cries whenever his mother leaves the room. 
✓ Even if the movies are closed, we could still go to the mall./ We could still go to 
the mall even if the movies are closed. 
 
CONJUNCTIONS 
 
After 
 If only 
Unless 
Although 
In order that 
Until 
As 
Now 
That 
When 
As if 
Once 
Whenever 
As long as 
As though 
Rather than 
Whereas 
Because 
Since 
Wherever 
Before 
Whether 
Even if 
That 
While 
Even though 
Though 
Within 
If 
Without 
Besides 
So that 
Provided 
Where 
 
UNIT 
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COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS 
Coordinating conjunctions are single words that connect similar parts of a sentence, such as adjectives, 
nouns, and clauses. The acronym FANBOYS is often used to refer to coordinating conjunctions. 
 For And Nor But Or Yet So 
 
 Dependent and Independent Clauses 
Conjunctions can be used to connect both dependent and independent clauses. 
• A dependent clause contains a subject and a verb, but by itself it is not a complete thought. On 
their own, dependent clauses cannot be punctuated with periods. 
EXAMPLE: “While I was in Reno” has a subject and verb, but the thought is not complete. 
• An independent clause contains a subject and a verb and is a complete thought. Independent 
clauses can be punctuated with periods and semicolons. 
EXAMPLE: “I was in Reno” has a subject and verb, and the thought is complete. 
 
When connecting two independent clauses, a coordinating conjunction is preceded by a comma. 
 INCORRECT: Tanya went to France but Erin stayed home. 
 CORRECT: Tanya went to France, but Erin stayed home. 
 
When connecting two elements that are not independent clauses, a coordinating conjunction with no 
comma is used. 
 INCORRECT: Tanya flew from Utah to Ohio, and then drove back. 
The second phrase—then drove back—does not have a subject, so it is not an independent clause. 
 
 CORRECT: Tanya flew from Utah to Ohio and then drove back. 
 CORRECT: Tanya flew from Utah to Ohio, and then she drove back. 
With the addition of a subject (she) to the second phrase, the phrase becomes an independent 
clause. 
 
Items in a List 
Lists with three or more items: If a list has more than two elements, each is separated from the next by 
a comma. A coordinating conjunction is used between the final two items, and a comma before the 
conjunction is optional (depending on the purpose and discipline for which the paper is written). 
 EXAMPLES: Erin slept, studied, and ate. 
I don’t know whether Lewis went to work, to the hospital, to school, or to the 
store. 
 
Lists with two items: A comma should not be used before a coordinating conjunction that connects only 
two elements in a list. 
 EXAMPLES: Tanya went to France and Belgium. 
 Erin did her laundry and listened to music 
 
CONJUNCTIONS 
 
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CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS 
Correlative conjunctions connect similar parts of a sentence, such as adjectives, nouns, and clauses. 
However, unlike coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions are combinations of coordinating 
conjunctions, not only a single word. They always come in pairs and link grammatically equivalent items. 
 
Examples 
✓ I like cotton candy as much as I like root beer floats. 
*The correlative conjunctions link two nouns, cotton candy and root beer floats. 
 
✓ Both the dog and the cat knocked over the trashcan. 
*The correlative conjunctions link two nouns, the dog and the cat. 
 
✓ Nadine wants to go to either Rutgers University or James Madison University. 
*The correlative conjunctions link two nouns, RU and JMU. 
 
✓ Neither Molly nor Emma want to see the new Batman movie. 
 *The correlative conjunctions connect two pronouns, Molly and Emma. 
 
✓ To alleviate stress, you should not only identify the stressors but also find ways of coping with 
them. 
*The correlative conjunctions link two clauses, identify the stressors and find ways of coping. 
 
*When using correlative conjunctions, be careful about parallel structure. Notice in the above 
examples, items of the same part of speech are parallel. 
 
 
Conjunctive Adverbs 
A conjunctive adverb is often used as a transition and placed at the beginning of one independent clause 
to show how it relates to the previous statement. It is almost always followed by a comma. 
 
also consequently finally furthermorehowever meanwhile 
nevertheless next still therefore thus then 
 
Unlike subordinating conjunctions, however, conjunctive adverbs do not make clauses dependent. 
Therefore, clauses that begin with conjunctive adverbs must be treated as independent clauses. They may 
not be joined to other sentences by a comma; use a period or a semicolon instead. 
 
 INCORRECT: Erin hates to travel, consequently, she stays home. 
Two independent clauses (Erin hates to travel and consequently, she stays home) joined by a 
comma create a comma splice. 
 
CONJUNCTIONS 
 
As…as 
Neither…nor 
Whether…or 
Both…and 
Not only…but also 
Either…or 
Not…but 
UNIT 
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CORRECT: Erin hates to travel; consequently, she stays home. 
Two independent clauses may be joined by a semicolon to show that they are closely related. 
 
CORRECT: Erin hates to travel. Consequently, she stays home. Two 
independent clauses may be separated by a period. 
 
 
CONJUNCTIONS 
 
UNIT 
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Page 134 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
On this unit: 
 Types of determiners 
 Articles 
 
 
UNIT 9 
 DETERMINERS 
 
 
 
 
Page 135 
DETERMINERS 
FUNCTION AND CLASSES OF DETERMINERS 
 
Function 
Determiners are words placed in front of a noun to make it clear what the noun refers to. 
 
The word people by itself is a general reference to some group of human beings. If someone says these 
people, we know which group they are talking about, and if they say a lot of people we know how big 
the group is. 
These and a lot of are determiners in these sentences. 
CLASSES OF DETERMINERS 
There are several classes of determiners: 
Definite and Indefinite articles 
the, a, an 
 
Demonstratives 
this, that, these, those 
Possessives 
my, your, his, her, its, our, their 
Quantifiers 
a few, a little, much, many, a lot of, most, some, any, enough, etc. 
Numbers 
one, ten, thirty, etc. 
Distributives 
all, both, half, either, neither, each, every 
Difference words 
other, another 
Question words 
Which, what, whose 
 
Defining words 
which, whose 
The following words are pre-determiners. They go before determiners, such as articles: such and what, 
half, rather, quite 
DETERMINERS 
 
UNIT 
9 
 
 
 
Page 136 
 ARTICLES 
Articles are used to indicate whether a noun refers to a specific or a general item. The rules for using 
articles in English are quite complex, so for students whose first language is not English, when to use an 
article, and which article to use can cause problems. This fact sheet will not attempt to cover all the rules, 
but will just provide some of the basic rules for use on: 
1. What is an article? 
There are two types of articles, definite and indefinite. However, in your choice about whether to use 
an article, or which one to use, you have four possible choices: the, a, an, or no article. 
• ‘the’ is known as the DEFINITE ARTICLE 
• ‘a’ and ‘an’ are INDEFINITE ARTICLES 
• no article is sometimes referred to as ZERO ARTICLE 
 
AN EXAMPLE OF ARTICLES IN TEXT 
In the twenty-first century, a number of undesirable practices have emerged as mobile phone usage 
spreads into everyday life. In the workplace, employers report that many members of their staff use an 
individually-owned mobile phone to socialise during work hours, resulting in loss of productive work 
time and effort (Jackson, 1998; James, 2004; Peters, 2005). In social settings, people comment that they 
are irritated by the intrusion of mobile phone conversations in restaurants, theatres and other public 
venues. Waters (2010) observes that: 
One sits in a restaurant, a lecture or just in a quiet public place. Suddenly, loud ringing 
or musical chimes interfere with the social situation or peaceful setting. This is followed 
by a loud personal conversation. Surely, there needs to be a social code of behaviour for 
mobile phone usage that needs to be observed. (para. 10) 
Another worrying trend is that face-to-face social interaction seems to have been taken over by the tools 
of the mobile phone. For example, an analysis of a survey of 2000 teenagers reveals that 93 percent of 
today’s youth terminate relationships by voicemail or text messages rather than negotiate meaningful 
relationships (Jackson & Peters, 2009, p. 36). Therefore, it is important that our society develops some 
social standards to monitor the use of mobile phones in our every-day life. 
NOW TRY THIS EXERCISE ON CHOOSING THE CORRECT ARTICLE 
Write the definite article the, the indefinite article a / an OR if zero article is needed write N 
1__ Communication is 2__ activity in which 3__ information is transferred from 4__ sender to 5__ receiver 
via 6__ medium. 7__ Technology has greatly revolutionised 8__ communication process. For example, 
9__ computer and 10__ Internet allow for 11__ instant response over 12__ great distances. 
ANSWERS 
1. N, 2. an, 3. N, 4. a, 5. a, 6. a, 7. N, 8. the, 9. the, 10. the, 11. an, 12. N 
 
 
DETERMINERS 
 
UNIT 
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Page 137 
Some basic rules for using articles 
The first thing you need to decide is whether the noun is countable or uncountable 
Countable nouns in English are usually those that can take a plural form (e.g. lecture, lectures, 
essay, essays, student, students). 
Uncountable nouns in English usually do not have a plural form. They include names for 
languages, subjects (biology, economics, history), solids (iron, coal), liquids (water, oil), gases 
(oxygen, hydrogen), powders (sugar, flour). However, some nouns can be both countable and 
uncountable, depending on the context or meaning. This group includes words like paper, 
discipline, space. If you are unsure, most learner dictionaries (e.g. Oxford Advanced Learner’s 
Dictionary of Current English) will indicate whether a noun is countable or uncountable. 
Rules for using the indefinite article (a/an) 
1. The indefinite article (a, an) cannot be used with uncountable nouns or with plural nouns. 
2. Use ‘an’ if the word immediately after the article begins with a, e, i, o or u, except where the 
‘u’ is pronounced like a ‘y’ (e.g. an apple, an egg, an interesting result, an odd couple, an 
umbrella, BUT a university). 
3. Use a, an when you first mention a singular countable noun. 
4. Use zero article when you first mention a plural noun or an uncountable noun. 
The definite article (the) can be used for specific references to countable nouns 
Rules for using the definite article (the) 
1. Use ‘the’ for the second and subsequent references to an item. The item could be explicitly 
referred to, or implied (e.g. The committee has approved a new policy. The policy...) (A survey 
was administered to.... The results showed that ... ) 
2. Use ‘the’ when you use ‘most’ as the superlative form (e.g. The most critical step is...) 
3. Use ‘the’ when using ordinal forms to show order or number (e.g. The first students to graduate 
were...; The last students to leave...) 
4. Use ‘the’ when using words that specify a particular item (e.g. The same student, the only essay, 
the principal reason) 
5. Use ‘the’ for reference to an item that is understood by all speakers (the sun, the planets, the 
moon, the stars) 
The examples above refer to specific, real items. You may also need to refer more generally to an 
entire class of things, or to a representative of that class. 
 
 
 
DETERMINERS 
 
Rules for using articles (a/an, the, zero article) for classes of things 
1. Use the definite article (the) to refer to an entire class of things (e.g. The mobile phone has 
revolutionised communications.) 
2. Use the indefinite article (a/an) with a singular countable noun to refer to a representative of the 
class of things (e.g. A mobile phone is a prime example of how technology has shaped our lives.) 
3. Use zero article with plural countablenouns and with uncountable nouns to refer to a 
representative of the class of things (e.g. Mobile phones have revolutionised . . . 
4. ;Technology is revolutionising the way people communicate.) 
UNIT 
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Page 138 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
On this unit: 
 Present Tenses 
 Simple Present Tense 
 Present Continuous Tense 
 Present Perfect Tense 
 For, Since, ever, never, already and yet with the PPT 
 Past Tenses 
 Simple Past Tense 
 Past Continuous Tense 
 Past Continuous Tense + Past Simple Tense 
 Past Perfect Tense 
 Past Perfect Continuous Tense 
 Could have, should have, Would have 
 Future Tenses 
 Simple Future Tense 
 Future Continuous Tense 
 Future Perfect Continuous Tense 
 Simple Present for Future 
 Future with going 
 Other ways of talking the future 
 
 
 
UNIT 10 
 TENSES 
 
 
 
 
Page 139 
 
Simple Present Tense 
I sing 
How do we make the Simple Present Tense? 
subject + auxiliary verb + main verb 
 do base 
There are three important exceptions: 
1. For positive sentences, we do not normally use the auxiliary. 
2. For the 3rd person singular (he, she, it), we add s to the main verb or es to the auxiliary. 
3. For the verb to be, we do not use an auxiliary, even for questions and negatives. 
Look at these examples with the main verb like: 
 
 
 Look at these examples with the main verb be. Notice that there is no auxiliary: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
How do we use the Simple Present Tense? 
We use the simple present tense when: 
• the action is general 
• the action happens all the time, or habitually, in the past, present and future 
• the action is not only happening now 
• the statement is always true 
TENSES 
 
PRESENT TENSES 
 subject auxiliary verb main verb 
+ I, you, we, they like coffee. 
He, she, it likes coffee. 
- 
I, you, we, they do not like coffee. 
He, she, it does not like coffee. 
? 
Do I, you, we, they like coffee? 
Does he, she, it like coffee? 
 subject main verb 
+ 
I am French. 
You, we, they are French. 
He, she, it is French. 
- 
I am old. 
You, we, they are not old. 
He, she, it is not old. 
? 
Am I late? 
Are you, we, they late? 
Is he, she, it late? 
TENSES 
 
UNIT 
10 
UNIT 
10 
 
 
 
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Look at these examples: 
• I live in New York. 
• The Moon goes round the Earth. 
• John drives a taxi. 
• He does not drive a bus. 
• We do not work at night. 
• Do you play football? 
Note that with the verb to be, we can also use the simple present tense for situations that are not general. 
We can use the simple present tense to talk about now. Look at these examples of the verb "to be" in the 
simple present tense—some of them are general, some of them are now: 
Am I right? 
Tara is not at home. 
You are happy. 
past present future 
 
The situation is now. 
 
I am not fat. 
Why are you so beautiful? 
Ram is tall. 
past present future 
 
The situation is general. Past, present and future. 
 
 
This page shows the use of the simple present tense to talk about general events. But note that there are 
some other uses for the simple present tense, for example in conditional or if sentences, or to talk about 
the future. You will learn about those later. 
 
 
TENSES 
 
past present future 
 
It is John's job to drive a taxi. He does it every day. Past, present and future. 
UNIT 
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Present Continuous Tense 
I am singing 
We often use the present continuous tense in English. It is very different from the simple present tense, 
both in structure and in use. 
In this lesson we look the structure and use of the present continuous tense, followed by a quiz to check 
your understanding: 
 
How do we make the Present Continuous Tense? 
The structure of the present continuous tense is: 
subject + auxiliary verb + main verb 
 be base + ing 
Look at these examples: 
 
 
How do we use the Present Continuous Tense? 
We use the present continuous tense to talk about: 
• action happening now 
• action in the future 
Present continuous tense for action happening now 
a) for action happening exactly now 
 
TENSES 
 
 
Continuous tenses are also called progressive tenses. So the present progressive tense is the same as 
the present continuous tense. 
 subject auxiliary verb main verb 
+ I am speaking to you. 
+ You are reading this. 
- She is not staying in London. 
- We are not playing football. 
? Is he watching TV? 
? Are they waiting for John? 
 I am eating my lunch. 
past present future 
 
 The action is happening now. 
UNIT 
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Page 142 
Look at these examples. Right now you are looking at this screen and at the same time... 
 
...the pages are turning. ...the candle is burning. ...the numbers are spinning. b) for action 
b) happening around now 
The action may not be happening exactly now, but it is happening just before and just after now, and it 
is not permanent or habitual. 
 John is going out with Mary. 
past present future 
 
 
 
 
 The action is happening around now. 
 
Look at these examples: 
• Muriel is learning to drive. 
• I am living with my sister until I find an apartment. 
 
Present continuous tense for the future 
We can also use the present continuous tense to talk about the future—if we add a future word!! We 
must add (or understand from the context) a future word. "Future words" include, for example, 
tomorrow, next year, in June, at Christmas etc. We only use the present continuous tense to talk about 
the future when we have planned to do something before we speak. We have already made a decision 
and a plan before speaking. 
I am taking my exam next month. 
past present future 
 !!! 
 A firm plan or programme exists now. The action is in the future. 
 
Look at these examples: 
• We're eating in a restaurant tonight. We've already booked the table.. 
• They can play tennis with you tomorrow. They're not working. 
• When are you starting your new job? 
In these examples, we have a firm plan or programme before speaking. The decision and plan were 
made before speaking. 
 
 
TENSES 
 
UNIT 
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Page 143 
Basic rule Just add -ing to the base verb: 
work → working 
play → playing 
assist → assisting 
see → seeing 
be → being 
Exception 1 If the base verb ends in consonant + stressed vowel + 
consonant, double the last letter 
s t o p 
 
Present Perfect Tense 
I have sung 
The present perfect tense is a rather important tense in English, but it gives speakers of some languages 
a difficult time. That is because it uses concepts or ideas that do not exist in those languages. In fact, 
the structure of the present perfect tense is very simple. The problems come with the use of the tense. 
In addition, there are some differences in usage between British and American English. 
In this lesson we look at the structure and use of the present perfect, followed by a quiz to check your 
understanding: 
The present perfect tense is really a very interesting tense, and a very useful one. 
Try not to translate the present perfect tense into your language. Just try to accept 
the concepts of this tense and learn to "think" present perfect! You will soon 
learn to like the present perfect tense 
 
TENSES 
 
 vowel 
 consonant stressed consonant 
 (vowels = a, e, i, o, u) 
stop → stopping 
run → running 
begin → beginning 
Note that this exception does not apply when the last 
syllable of the base verb isnot stressed: 
open → opening 
Exception 2 
If the base verb ends in ie, change the ie to y: 
lie → lying 
come → coming 
Exception 3 
If the base verb ends in vowel + consonant + e, omit the e: 
come → coming 
mistake → mistaking 
UNIT 
10 
 
 
 
Page 144 
 
How do we make the Present Perfect Tense? 
The structure of the present perfect tense is: 
subject + auxiliary verb + main verb 
 have past participle 
Here are some examples of the present perfect tense 
 subject auxiliary verb main verb 
+ I have seen ET. 
+ You have eaten mine. 
- She has not been to Rome. 
- We have not played football. 
? Have you finished? 
? Have they done it? 
 
Contractions with the present perfect tense 
When we use the present perfect tense in speaking, we usually contract the subject and auxiliary verb. 
We also sometimes do this when we write. 
 
I have I've 
 He's or he's??? Be careful! The 's 
contraction is used for the auxiliary 
verbs have and be. For example, "It's 
eaten" can mean: 
• It has eaten. [present 
perfect tense, active voice] 
• It is eaten. [present 
tense, passive voice] 
 It is usually clear from the context 
You have You've 
He has 
She has 
It has 
John has 
The car has 
He's 
She's 
It's 
John's 
The car's 
 
We have We've 
They have They've 
 
 
Here are some examples: 
• I've finished my work. 
• John's seen ET. 
• They've gone home. 
TENSES 
 
UNIT 
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Page 145 
How do we use the Present Perfect Tense? 
This tense is called the present perfect tense. There is always a connection with the past and with the 
present. There are basically three uses for the present perfect tense: 
1. experience 
2. change 
3. continuing situation 
1. Present perfect tense for experience 
We often use the present perfect tense to talk about experience from the past. We are not interested in 
when you did something. We only want to know if you did it: 
 
The action or state was in the 
past. 
In my head, I have a memory 
now. 
 
Connection with past: the event was in the past. 
Connection with present: in my head, now, I have a memory of the event; I know something about 
the event; I have experience of it. 
2. Present perfect tense for change 
We also use the present perfect tense to talk about a change or new information: 
 I have bought a car. 
past present future 
- + 
Last week I didn't have a car. Now I have a car. 
 
 
TENSES 
 
I have seen ET. 
He has lived in Bangkok. 
Have you been there? 
We have never eaten caviar. 
past present future 
 !!! 
The action or state was in the past. In my head, I have a memory now. 
 John has broken his leg. 
past present future 
+ - 
Yesterday John had a good leg. Now he has a bad leg. 
UNIT 
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Page 146 
 Has the price gone up? 
past present future 
+ - 
Was the price $1.50 yesterday? Is the price $1.70 today? 
 
The police have arrested the killer. 
past present future 
- + 
Yesterday the killer was free. Now he is in prison. 
Connection with past: the past is the opposite of the present. 
Connection with present: the present is the opposite of the past. 
 
 
Americans do not use the present perfect tense so much as British speakers. Americans often use the past 
tense instead. An American might say "Did you have lunch?", where a 
British person would say "Have you had lunch?" 
 
3. Present perfect tense for continuing situation 
We often use the present perfect tense to talk about a continuing situation. This is a state that started 
in the past and continues in the present (and will probably continue into the future). This is a state 
(not an action). We usually use for or since with this structure. 
I have worked here since June. 
He has been ill for 2 days. 
How long have you known Tara? 
past present future 
 
The situation started in the past. It continues up to now. 
(It will probably continue into 
the future.) 
Connection with past: the situation started in the past. 
Connection with present: the situation continues in the present. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
TENSES 
 
UNIT 
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Page 147 
For & Since with Present Perfect Tense 
We often use for and since with the present perfect tense. 
• We use for to talk about a period of time—5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years. 
• We use since to talk about a point in past time—9 o'clock, 1st January, Monday. 
for since 
a period of time a point in past time 
 x------------ 
20 minutes 6.15pm 
three days Monday 
6 months January 
4 years 1994 
2 centuries 1800 
a long time I left school 
ever the beginning of time 
etc etc 
 
Here are some examples: 
• I have been here for 20 minutes. 
• I have been here since 9 o'clock. 
• John hasn't called for 6 months. 
• John hasn't called since February. 
• He has worked in New York for a long time. 
• He has worked in New York since he left school. 
For can be used with all tenses. Since is usually used with perfect tenses only 
 
 
PRESENT PERFECT + ever, never, already, yet 
The adverbs ever and never express the idea of an unidentified time before now e.g. Have you ever 
visited Berlin? 
 
'Ever' is used 
in questions. e.g. 
 Have you ever been to England? 
 Has she ever met the Prime Minister? 
 
 
TENSES 
 
UNIT 
10 
 
 
 
Page 148 
in negative questions e.g. 
 Haven't they ever been to Europe? 
 Haven't you ever eaten Chinese food? 
 
and in negative statements using the pattern nothing.......ever, nobody.......ever e.g. 
 Nobody has ever said that to me before. 
 Nothing like this has ever happened to us. 
 
 'Ever' is also used with 'The first time.... e.g. 
 It's the first time (that) I've ever eaten snails. 
 This is the first time I've ever been to England. 
 
'Never' means at no time before now, and is the same as not ...... ever: 
I have never visited Berlin 
 
BE CAREFUL! 
You must not use never and not together: 
I haven't never been to Italy. 
I have never been to Italy. 
 
Position 
'Ever' and 'never' are always placed before the main verb (past participle). 
 
 
Already and yet 
 
Already 
refers to an action that has happened at an unspecified time before now. It suggests that there is no need 
for repetition, e.g. 
a. I've already drunk three coffees this morning. (and you're offering me another one!) 
b. Don't write to John; I've already done it. 
 
 It is also used in questions: 
✓ Have you already written to John? 
✓ Has she finished her homework already? 
 
Position 
already can be placed before the main verb (past participle) or at the end of the sentence: 
✓ I have already been to Tokyo. 
✓ I have been to Tokyo already. 
 
TENSES 
 
UNIT 
10 
 
 
 
Page 149 
Yet 
is used in negative statements and questions, to mean (not) in the period of time between before now and 
now, (not) up to and including the present. e.g. 
✓ Have you met Judy yet? 
✓ I haven't visited the Tate Gallery yet. 
✓ Has he arrived yet? 
✓ They haven't eaten yet. 
 
Position 
Yet is usually placed at the end of the sentence. 
 
 
 
PAST TENSES 
 
Simple Past Tense 
I sang 
The simple past tense is sometimes called the preterit tense. We can use several tenses to talk about 
the past, but the simple past tense is the one we use most often. 
How do we make the Simple Past Tense? 
To make the simple past tense, we use: 
• past form only or 
• auxiliary did + base form 
Here you can see examples of the past form and base form for irregular verbs and regular verbs: 
 
V1 
base 
V2 
past 
V3 
past participle 
 
regular 
verb 
work 
explode 
like 
worked 
exploded 
liked 
worked 
explodedliked 
The past form for all 
regular verbs ends in -ed. 
irregular 
verb 
go 
see 
sing 
went 
saw 
sang 
gone 
seen 
sung 
The past form for 
irregular verbs is 
variable. You need to 
learn it by heart. 
 
 You do not need the past participle 
form to make the simple past tense. It 
is shown here for completeness only. 
 
 
TENSES 
 
UNIT 
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Page 150 
The structure for positive sentences in the simple past tense is: 
subject + main verb 
 past 
The structure for negative sentences in the simple past tense is: 
subject + auxiliary verb + not + main verb 
 did base 
The structure for question sentences in the simple past tense is: 
auxiliary verb + subject + main verb 
 did base 
The auxiliary verb did is not conjugated. It is the same for all persons (I did, you did, he did etc). And 
the base form and past form do not change. Look at these examples with the main verbs go and work: 
 subject auxiliary verb main verb 
+ I went to school. 
You worked very hard. 
- 
She did not go with me. 
We did not work yesterday. 
? 
Did you go to London? 
Did they work at home? 
 
Exception! The verb to be is different. We conjugate the verb to be (I was, you were, he/she/it was, 
we were, they were); and we do not use an auxiliary for negative and question sentences. To make a 
question, we exchange the subject and verb. Look at these examples: 
 subject main verb 
+ I, he/she/it was here. 
You, we, they were in London. 
- 
I, he/she/it was not there. 
You, we, they were not happy. 
? 
Was I, he/she/it right? 
Were you, we, they late? 
 
TENSES 
 
UNIT 
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Page 151 
How do we use the Simple Past Tense? 
We use the simple past tense to talk about an action or a situation—an event—in the past. The event 
can be short or long. 
Here are some short events with the simple past tense: 
The car exploded at 9.30am yesterday. 
 She went to the door. 
We did not hear the telephone. 
 Did you see that car? 
past present future 
 
The action is in the past. 
 
Here are some long events with the simple past tense: 
I lived in Bangkok for 10 years. 
The Jurassic period lasted about 62 million years. 
We did not sing at the concert. 
Did you watch TV last night? 
past present future 
 
The action is in the past. 
 
Notice that it does not matter how long ago the event is: it can be a few minutes or seconds in the past, 
or millions of years in the past. Also it does not matter how long the event is. It can be a few 
milliseconds (car explosion) or millions of years (Jurassic period). We use the simple past tense when: 
• the event is in the past 
• the event is completely finished 
• we say (or understand) the time and/or place of the event 
Here are some more examples: 
• I lived in that house when I was young. 
• He didn't like the movie. 
• What did you eat for dinner? 
• John drove to London on Monday. 
• Mary did not go to work yesterday. 
• Did you play tennis last week? 
• I was at work yesterday. 
• We were not late (for the train). 
TENSES 
 
In general, if we say the time or place of the event, we must use the simple past tense; we 
 cannot use the present perfect. 
UNIT 
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Page 152 
Note that when we tell a story, we usually use the simple past tense. We may use the past continuous 
tense to "set the scene", but we almost always use the simple past tense for the action. Look at this 
example of the beginning of a story: 
"The wind was howling around the hotel and the rain was pouring down. It was cold. The door opened 
and James Bond entered. He took off his coat, which was very wet, and ordered a drink at the bar. 
He sat down in the corner of the lounge and quietly drank his..." 
This page shows the use of the simple past tense to talk about past events. But note that there are some 
other uses for the simple past tense, for example in conditional or if sentences. 
 
 
Past Continuous Tense 
I was singing 
The past continuous tense is an important tense in English. We use it to say what we were in the middle 
of doing at a particular moment in the past. 
How do we make the Past Continuous Tense? 
The structure of the past continuous tense is: 
subject + auxiliary verb BE + main verb 
 conjugated in simple past tense present participle 
was were base + ing 
 
For negative sentences in the past continuous tense, we insert not between the auxiliary verb and main 
verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example 
sentences with the past continuous tense: 
 subject auxiliary verb main verb 
+ I was watching TV. 
+ You were working hard. 
- He, she, it was not helping Mary. 
- We were not joking. 
? Were you being silly? 
? Were they playing football? 
The spelling rules for adding ing to make the past continuous tense are the same as for the present 
continuous tense. 
 
TENSES 
 
UNIT 
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Page 153 
How do we use the Past Continuous Tense? 
The past continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the past. The action started before 
that moment but has not finished at that moment. For example, yesterday I watched a film on TV. The 
film started at 7pm and finished at 9pm. 
 
At 8pm yesterday, I was watching TV. 
past present future 
 8pm 
At 8pm, I was in the middle of watching TV. 
When we use the past continuous tense, our listener usually knows or understands what time we are 
talking about. Look at these examples: 
• I was working at 10pm last night. 
• They were not playing football at 9am this morning. 
• What were you doing at 10pm last night? 
• What were you doing when he arrived? 
• She was cooking when I telephoned her. 
• We were having dinner when it started to rain. 
• Ram went home early because it was snowing. 
 
Some verbs cannot be used in continuous/progressive tenses 
 
We often use the past continuous tense to "set the scene" in stories. We use it to describe the background 
situation at the moment when the action begins. Often, the story starts with the past continuous tense 
and then moves into the simple past tense. Here is an example: 
" James Bond was driving through town. It was raining. The wind was blowing hard. Nobody was 
walking in the streets. Suddenly, Bond saw the killer in a telephone box..." 
 
Past Continuous Tense + Simple Past Tense 
We often use the past continuous tense with the simple past tense. We use the past continuous tense to 
express a long action. And we use the simple past tense to express a short action that happens in the 
middle of the long action. We can join the two ideas with when or while. 
In the following example, we have two actions: 
1. long action (watching TV), expressed with past continuous tense 
2. short action (telephoned), expressed with simple past tense 
past present future 
Long action. 
I was watching TV at 8pm. 
 8pm 
 You telephoned at 8pm. 
 
Short action. 
TENSES 
 
UNIT 
10 
 
 
 
Page 154 
 
We can join these two actions with when: 
• I was watching TV when you telephoned. 
 
(Notice that "when you telephoned" is also a way of defining the time [8pm].) 
We use: 
• when + short action (simple past tense) 
• while + long action (past continuous tense) 
 
There are four basic combinations: 
 I was walking past the car when it exploded. 
When the car exploded I was walking past it. 
 The car exploded while I was walking past it. 
While I was walking past the car it exploded. 
 
Notice that the long action and short action are relative. 
• "Watching TV" took a fewhours. "Telephoned" took a few seconds. 
• "Walking past the car" took a few seconds. "Exploded" took a few milliseconds. 
 
 
Past Perfect Tense 
I had sung 
The past perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and to use. This tense talks about the "past 
in the past". 
In this lesson we look at: 
How do we make the Past Perfect Tense? 
The structure of the past perfect tense is: 
subject + auxiliary verb HAVE + main verb 
 conjugated in simple past tense past participle 
had V3 
 
For negative sentences in the past perfect tense, we insert not between the auxiliary verb and main verb. 
For question sentences, we exchange the subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences 
with the past perfect tense: 
 subject auxiliary verb main verb 
+ I had finished my work. 
+ You had stopped before me. 
- She had not gone to school. 
- We had not left. 
? Had you arrived? 
? Had they eaten dinner? 
TENSES 
 
UNIT 
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Page 155 
When speaking with the past perfect tense, we often contract the subject and auxiliary verb: 
I had I'd 
you had you'd 
he had 
she had 
it had 
he'd 
she'd 
it'd 
we had we'd 
they had they'd 
 
 
How do we use the Past Perfect Tense? 
The past perfect tense expresses action in the past before another action in the past. This is the past in 
the past. For example: 
• The train left at 9am. We arrived at 9.15am. When we arrived, the train had left. 
The train had left when we arrived. 
past present future 
Train leaves in past at 9am. 
 
We arrive in past at 9.15am. 
 
Look at some more examples: 
• I wasn't hungry. I had just eaten. 
• They were hungry. They had not eaten for five hours. 
• I didn't know who he was. I had never seen him before. 
• "Mary wasn't at home when I arrived." 
"Really? Where had she gone?" 
 
You can sometimes think of the past perfect tense like the present perfect tense, but instead of the time 
being now the time is past. 
 
 
 
TENSES 
 
The 'd contraction is also used for the auxiliary verb would. For example, we'd can mean: 
• We had 
or 
• We would 
But usually the main verb is in a different form, for example: 
• We had arrived (past participle) 
• We would arrive (base) 
 It is always clear from the context 
UNIT 
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Page 156 
 
past perfect tense present perfect tense 
 had have 
 done done 
 → → 
 
 past now future past now future 
 
For example, imagine that you arrive at the station at 9.15am. The stationmaster says to you: 
• "You are too late. The train has left." 
 
Later, you tell your friends: 
• "We were too late. The train had left." 
 
We often use the past perfect tense in reported speech after verbs like said, told, asked, thought, 
wondered: 
 
Look at these examples: 
• He told us that the train had left. 
• I thought I had met her before, but I was wrong. 
• He explained that he had closed the window because of the rain. 
• I wondered if I had been there before. 
• I asked them why they had not finished. 
 
 
Past Perfect Continuous Tense 
I had been singing 
 
How do we make the Past Perfect Continuous Tense? 
The structure of the past perfect continuous tense is: 
subject + auxiliary verb HAVE + auxiliary verb BE + main verb 
 conjugated in simple past tense past participle present participle 
had been base + ing 
 
For negative sentences in the past perfect continuous tense, we insert not after the first auxiliary verb. 
For question sentences, we exchange the subject and first auxiliary verb. Look at these example 
sentences with the past perfect continuous tense: 
TENSES 
 
UNIT 
10 
 
 
 
Page 157 
 
 subject auxiliary verb auxiliary verb main verb 
+ I had been working. 
+ You had been playing tennis. 
- It had not been working well. 
- We had not been expecting her. 
? Had you been drinking? 
? Had they been waiting long? 
 
When speaking with the past perfect continuous tense, we often contract the subject and first auxiliary 
verb: 
I had been I'd been 
you had been you'd been 
he had 
she had been 
he'd been 
she'd been 
it had been it'd been 
we had been we'd been 
they had been they'd been 
 
How do we use the Past Perfect Continuous Tense? 
The past perfect continuous tense is like the past perfect tense, but it expresses longer actions in the past 
before another action in the past. For example: 
• Ram started waiting at 9am. I arrived at 11am. When I arrived, Ram had been waiting 
for two hours. 
 
Ram had been waiting for two hours when I arrived. 
past present future 
Ram starts waiting in past at 9am. 
9 11 
 
I arrive in past at 11am. 
 
 Here are some more examples: 
• John was very tired. He had been running. 
• I could smell cigarettes. Somebody had been smoking. 
• Suddenly, my car broke down. I was not surprised. It had not been running well for a long time. 
• Had the pilot been drinking before the crash? 
TENSES 
 
UNIT 
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Page 158 
You can sometimes think of the past perfect continuous tense like the present perfect continuous tense, 
but instead of the time being now the time is past. 
 past now future past now future 
 
For example, imagine that you meet Ram at 11am. Ram says to you: 
• "I am angry. I have been waiting for two hours." 
Later, you tell your friends: 
• "Ram was angry. He had been waiting for two hours." 
 
 
could have, should have, would have 
These past modal verbs are all used hypothetically, to talk about things that didn't really happen in the 
past. 
Could have + past participle 
1. Could have + past participle means that something was possible in the past, or you had the ability 
to do something in the past, but that you didn't do it. 
✓ I could have stayed up late, but I decided to go to bed early. 
✓ They could have won the race, but they didn't try hard enough. 
✓ Julie could have bought the book, but she borrowed it from the library instead. 
✓ He could have studied harder, but he was too lazy and that's why he failed the exam. 
Couldn’t have + past participle means that something wasn't possible in the past, even if you had 
wanted to do it. 
✓ I couldn't have arrived any earlier. 
✓ There was a terrible traffic jam (= it was impossible for me to have arrived any earlier). 
✓ He couldn't have passed the exam, even if he had studied harder. It's a really, really difficult 
exam. 
2. We use could have + past participle when we want to make a guess about something that happened 
in the past. In this case, we don't know if what we're saying is true or not true. We're just talking 
about our opinion of what maybe happened. 
Why is John late? 
He could have got stuck in traffic. 
He could have forgotten that we were meeting today. 
He could have overslept. 
 
past perfect continuous tense present perfect continuous tense 
 had | | 
 been | | 
 doing | | 
. → | | 
 
 | have | 
 | been | 
 | doing | 
 | → | 
 
TENSES 
 
UNIT 
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Page 159 
We can also choose to use might have + past participle to mean the same thing: 
 He might have got stuck in traffic. 
He might have forgotten that we were meeting today. 
He might have got stuck in traffic. 
 
 Should have + past participle 
1. Should have + past participle can mean something that would have been a good idea, but that you 
didn't do it. It's like giving advice about the past when you say it to someone else, or regretting what 
you did or didn'tdo when you're talking about yourself. 
 
Shouldn't have + past participle means that something wasn't a good idea, but you did it anyway. 
✓ I should have studied harder! (= I didn't study very hard and so I failed the exam. I'm sorry about 
this now.) 
✓ I should have gone to bed early (= I didn't go to bed early and now I'm tired). 
✓ I shouldn't have eaten so much cake! (= I did eat a lot of cake and now I don't feel good.) 
✓ You should have called me when you arrived (= you didn't call me and I was worried. I wish that 
you had called me). 
✓ John should have left early, then he wouldn't have missed the plane (= but he didn't leave early 
and so he did miss the plane). 
 
2. We can also use should have + past participle to talk about something that, if everything is normal 
and okay, we think has already happened. But we're not certain that everything is fine, so we use 
'should have' and not the present perfect or past simple. It's often used with 'by now'. 
✓ His plane should have arrived by now (= if everything is fine, the plane has arrived). 
✓ John should have finished work by now (= if everything is normal, John has finished work). 
We can also use this to talk about something that would have happened if everything was fine, but hasn't 
happened. 
✓ Lucy should have arrived by now, but she hasn't. 
 
Would have + past participle 
1. Part of the third conditional. 
✓ If I had had enough money, I would have bought a car (but I didn't have enough money, so I 
didn't buy a car). 
2. Because 'would' (and will) can also be used to show if you want to do something or not (volition), 
we can also use would have + past participle to talk about something you wanted to do but didn't. 
This is very similar to the third conditional, but we don't need an 'if clause'. 
✓ I would have gone to the party, but I was really busy. (= I wanted to go to the party, but I 
didn't because I was busy. If I hadn't been so busy, I would have gone to the party.) 
✓ I would have called you, but I didn't know your number. (= I wanted to call you but I didn't 
know your number, so I didn't call you.) 
TENSES 
 
UNIT 
10 
 
 
 
Page 160 
 
 
Simple Future Tense 
I will sing 
The simple future tense is often called will, because we make the simple future tense with the modal 
auxiliary will. 
 
How do we make the Simple Future Tense? 
The structure of the simple future tense is: 
subject + auxiliary verb WILL + main verb 
 invariable base 
will V1 
 
For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we insert not between the auxiliary verb and main 
verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example 
sentences with the simple future tense: 
 subject auxiliary verb main verb 
+ I will open the door. 
+ You will finish before me. 
- She will not be at school tomorrow. 
- We will not leave yet. 
? Will you arrive on time? 
? Will they want dinner? 
 
When we use the simple future tense in speaking, we often contract the subject and auxiliary verb: 
I will I'll 
you will you'll 
he will 
she will 
it will 
he'll 
she'll 
it'll 
we will we'll 
they will they'll 
 
 
 
TENSES 
 
FUTURE TENSES 
UNIT 
10 
 
 
 
Page 161 
For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we contract with won't, like this: 
I will not I won't 
you will not you won't 
he will not 
she will not 
it will not 
he won't 
she won't 
it won't 
we will not we won't 
they will not they won't 
 
How do we use the Simple Future Tense? 
No Plan 
We use the simple future tense when there is no plan or decision to do something before we speak. We 
make the decision spontaneously at the time of speaking. Look at these examples: 
• Hold on. I'll get a pen. 
• We will see what we can do to help you. 
• Maybe we'll stay in and watch television tonight. 
In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The decision is made at the time of speaking. 
We often use the simple future tense with the verb to think before it: 
• I think I'll go to the gym tomorrow. 
• I think I will have a holiday next year. 
• I don't think I'll buy that car. 
 
Prediction 
We often use the simple future tense to make a prediction about the future. Again, there is no firm plan. 
We are saying what we think will happen. Here are some examples: 
• It will rain tomorrow. 
• People won't go to Jupiter before the 22nd century. 
• Who do you think will get the job? 
Be 
When the main verb is be, we can use the simple future tense even if we have a firm plan or decision 
before speaking. Examples: 
• I'll be in London tomorrow. 
• I'm going shopping. I won't be very long. 
• Will you be at work tomorrow? 
 
 
 
TENSES 
 
UNIT 
10 
 
 
 
Page 162 
 
 
Future Continuous Tense 
I will be singing 
 
How do we make the Future Continuous Tense? 
The structure of the future continuous tense is: 
subject + auxiliary verb WILL + auxiliary verb BE + main verb 
 invariable invariable present participle 
will be base + ing 
 
For negative sentences in the future continuous tense, we insert not between will and be. For question 
sentences, we exchange the subject and will. Look at these example sentences with the future 
continuous tense: 
 subject auxiliary verb auxiliary verb main verb 
+ I will be working at 10am. 
+ You will be lying on a beach tomorrow. 
- She will not be using the car. 
- We will not be having dinner at home. 
? Will you be playing football? 
? Will they be watching TV? 
 
When we use the future continuous tense in speaking, we often contract the subject and will: 
I will I'll 
you will you'll 
he will 
she will 
it will 
he'll 
she'll 
it'll 
we will we'll 
they will they'll 
 
 
 
 
 
TENSES 
 
Note that when we have a plan or intention to do something in the future, we usually use other tenses 
or expressions, such as the present continuous tense or going to. 
UNIT 
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For spoken negative sentences in the future continuous tense, we contract with won't, like this: 
I will not I won't 
you will not you won't 
he will not 
she will not 
it will not 
he won't 
she won't 
it won't 
we will not we won't 
they will not they won't 
 
 
How do we use the Future Continuous Tense? 
The future continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the future. The action will 
start before that moment but it will not have finished at that moment. For example, tomorrow I will 
start work at 2pm and stop work at 6pm: 
At 4pm tomorrow, I will be working. 
past present future 
 4pm 
 At 4pm, I will be in the middle of working. 
 
When we use the future continuous tense, our listener usually knows or understands what time we are 
talking about. Look at these examples: 
• I will be playing tennis at 10am tomorrow. 
• They won't be watching TV at 9pm tonight. 
• What will you be doing at 10pm tonight? 
• What will you be doing when I arrive? 
• She will not be sleeping when you telephone her. 
• We 'll be having dinner when the film starts. 
• Take your umbrella. It will be raining when you return. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
TENSES 
 
We sometimes use shall instead of will, especially for I and we 
UNIT 
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Page 164 
 
Future Perfect Tense 
I will have sung 
The future perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and use. The future perfect tense talks 
about the past in the future. 
 
How do we make the Future Perfect Tense? 
The structure of the future perfect tense is: 
subject + auxiliary verb WILL + auxiliary verb HAVE + main verb 
 invariable invariable past participlewill have V3 
Look at these example sentences in the future perfect tense: 
 subject auxiliary verb auxiliary verb main verb 
+ I will have finished by 10am. 
+ You will have forgotten me by then. 
- She will not have gone to school. 
- We will not have left. 
? Will you have arrived? 
? Will they have received it? 
 
In speaking with the future perfect tense, we often contract the subject and will. Sometimes, we contract 
the subject, will and have all together: 
I will have I'll have I'll've 
you will have you'll have you'll've 
he will have he'll have he'll've 
she will have it 
will have 
she'll have 
it'll have 
she'll've 
it'll've 
we will have we'll have we'll've 
they will have they'll have they'll've 
 
 
 
 
 
 
TENSES 
 
We sometimes use shall instead of will, especially for I and we 
UNIT 
10 
 
 
 
Page 165 
 
How do we use the Future Perfect Tense? 
The future perfect tense expresses action in the future before another action in the future. This is the 
past in the future. 
For example: 
• The train will leave the station at 9am. You will arrive at the station at 9.15am. When 
you arrive, the train will have left. 
The train will have left when you arrive. 
past present future 
 Train leaves in future at 9am. 
 9 9.15 
 
 
 You arrive in future at 9.15am. 
 
Look at some more examples: 
• You can call me at work at 8am. I will have arrived at the office by 8. 
• They will be tired when they arrive. They will not have slept for a long time. 
• "Mary won't be at home when you arrive." 
"Really? Where will she have gone?" 
You can sometimes think of the future perfect tense like the present perfect tense, but instead of your 
viewpoint being in the present, it is in the future: 
 past now future past now future 
 
 
 
 
 
 
TENSES 
 
present perfect tense future perfect tense 
 
 | 
have| 
done| 
→ | 
will | 
have | 
done | 
→ | 
 
TENSES 
 
UNIT 
10 
UNIT 
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Page 166 
 
Future Perfect Continuous Tense 
I will have been singing 
How do we make the Future Perfect Continuous Tense? 
The structure of the future perfect continuous tense is: 
subject + 
Auxiliary verb 
WILL 
+ 
Auxiliary verb 
HAVE 
+ 
Auxiliary verb 
BE 
+ main verb 
 invariable invariable past participle Present participle 
will have been base + ing 
For negative sentences in the future perfect continuous tense, we insert not between will and have. For 
question sentences, we exchange the subject and will. Look at these example sentences with the future 
perfect continuous tense: 
 subject auxiliary verb auxiliary verb auxiliary verb main verb 
+ I will have been working for four hours. 
+ You will have been travelling for two days. 
- She will not have been using the car. 
- We will not have been waiting long. 
? Will you have been playing football? 
? Will they have been watching TV? 
 
When we use the future perfect continuous tense in speaking, we often contract the subject and auxiliary 
verb: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
For negative sentences in the future perfect continuous tense, we contract with won't, like this: 
I will not I won't 
you will not you won't 
he will not 
she will not 
it will not 
he won't 
she won't 
it won't 
we will not we won't 
they will not they won't 
TENSES 
 
I will I'll 
you will you'll 
he will 
she will 
he'll 
she'll 
it will it'll 
we will we'll 
they will they'll 
UNIT 
10 
 
 
 
Page 167 
 
How do we use the Future Perfect Continuous Tense? 
We use the future perfect continuous tense to talk about a long action before some point in the future. 
Look at these examples: 
• I will have been working here for ten years next week. 
• He will be tired when he arrives. He will have been traveling for 24 hours. 
 
 
 
 Simple Present for Future Events 
Simple Present for Future Events: Form 
See Simple Present section. 
 
Simple Present for Future Events: Function 
The simple present is used to make statements about events at a time later than now, when the 
statements are based on present facts, and when these facts are something fixed like a time-table, 
schedule, calendar. 
Examples 
• The plane arrives at 18.00 tomorrow. 
• She has a yoga class tomorrow morning. 
• The restaurant opens at 19.30 tonight. 
• Next Thursday at 14.00 there is an English exam. 
Note the difference between: 
• The plane leaves in ten minutes (= statement of fact) 
• The plane's going to leave in ten minutes (= prediction based on present situation, meaning "...and 
if you don't hurry up you're going to miss it!") 
 
 
 Future with Going to 
1. Future with Going to - form 
This form is composed of three elements: the appropriate form of the verb 'to be' + going to + the 
infinitive of the main verb: 
Subject 'to be' Going to infinitive 
She is going to leave 
 
TENSES 
 
UNIT 
10 
 
 
 
Page 168 
2. Future with Going to - function 
The use of 'going to' to refer to future events suggests a very strong association with the present. The 
time is not important - it is later than now, but the attitude is that the event depends on a present 
situation, that we know about. So it is used: 
 
to refer to our plans and intentions: 
• We're going to move to London next year. (= the plan is in our minds now.)to make. 
predictions based on present evidence: 
• Look at those clouds - it's going to pour with rain! (= It's clear from what I can see now.) 
 
Note: In everyday speech, 'going to' is often shortened to 'gonna', especially in American English. 
 
Plans and intentions: 
• Is Freddy going to buy a new car soon? 
• Are John and Pam going to visit Milan when they are in Italy? 
• I think Nigel and Mary are going to have a party next week. 
 
Predictions based on present evidence: 
• There's going to be a terrible accident! 
• He's going to be a brilliant politician. 
• I'm going to have terrible indigestion. 
 
NOTE: It is unusual to say 'I'm going to go to...' 
Instead, we use 'going to' + a place or event: 
Examples 
• We are going to the beach tomorrow. 
• She is going to the ballet tonight. 
• Are you going to the party tomorrow night? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
TENSES 
 
UNIT 
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Page 169 
Other ways of talking about the future 
1. BE TO + INFINITIVE 
Form 
This form is composed of two elements: the appropriate form of the verb to be + to (am to, are to, is to), 
and the infinitive of the main verb without 'to'.. 
 
Subject to be to infinitive without to 
We are to leave 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Function 
This form refers to an obligation to do something at a time later than now. It is similar to 'must', but there 
is a suggestion that something has been arranged or organised for us. It is not normally used in spoken 
English, but might be found in spy stories, e.g. 
 
• "You are to leave this room at once, and you are to travel by train to London. In London you 
are to pick up your ticket from Mr Smith, and you are to fly to your destination alone. When 
you arrive, you are to meet our agent, Mr X, who will give you further information. You are to 
destroy this message now." 
 
2. BE + ABOUT TO + INFINITIVE 
Form 
This form is composed of three elements: the appropriate form of the verb to be, present tense, + 'about 
to' + the infinitive of the main verb without 'to': 
Subject be about to infinitive without to 
I am about to leave 
She is about to arrive 
 
 
 
 
 
TENSES 
 
Affirmative 
She is to travel 
Negative 
You are not (aren't) to travel 
Interrogative 
Am I totravel? 
 Interrogative negative 
Aren't they to travel? 
UNIT 
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Page 170 
Function 
This form refers to a time immediately after the moment of speaking, and emphasises that the event or 
action will happen very soon: 
Examples 
• She is about to leave. 
• You are about to see something very unusual. 
• I am about to go to a meeting - can I talk to you later? 
 
It is often used with the word 'just', which emphasises the immediacy of the action: 
• We are just about to go to sleep. 
• Sally is just about to take an exam. 
 
This form can also be used in the simple past tense to refer to an action that was imminent, but was 
interrupted. In such cases it is often followed by a 'when - clause': 
• She was about to leave when he arrived. 
• I was just about to telephone her when she walked into the house. 
 
 
TENSES 
 
UNIT 
10 
 
 
 
Page 171 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
On this unit: 
 Interjections 
 Position of Interjections 
 Interjections in English 
 
 
UNIT 11 
 INTERJECTIONS 
 
 
 
 
Page 172 
 
INTERJECTIONS 
Interjections is a big name for a little word. Interjections are sound sequences, words, typical phrases or 
clauses which can be realized as utterances signalled in speech by being produced with greater intensity, 
stress and pitch, and as sentences in writing by an exclamation mark. 
 
In other words, interjections are short exclamations like: Oh! Um or Ah! They have no real grammatical 
value but we use them quite often, usually more in speaking than in writing. When interjections are 
inserted in a sentence, they have no grammatical connection to the sentence. An interjection is sometimes 
followed by an exclamation mark (!) when written. 
 
Interjections like er and um are known as ‘hesitation devices’ They are extremely common in English. 
People use them when they don’t know what to say, or to indicate that they are thinking what to say. You 
should learn what to recognise them when you hear them and realise that they have no real meaning. 
 
POSITION OF INTERJECTIONS 
According to the meaning of the Latin root and the denotation of the word interjection, the position of 
these linguistic elements is between other structural units of language. And for sure, as it is stated in the 
most authoritative of the English dictionaries, an interjection is: 
So called because, when so used, it is interjected between sentences, clauses, or words, mostly without 
grammatical connexion. But the interjection O is often construed with the vocative or nominative of 
address, and alas, hey, hurrah, woe, etc. with the prep. for or to and an object. 
It is not always very easy, particularly in connected speech, to decide whether a particular interjection 
makes a separate utterance of its own or the initial part of another one, as exemplified below. Greater 
independence of the first interjected utterance can be marked by a longer pause between utterances in 
speech. 
 Oh! I did not realize that. 
 Oh, I did not realize that. 
Nevertheless, we can say that the usual sentential position of interjections is at the beginning of the 
sentence and this position is often said to be independent, which means that they are not grammatically 
or functionally related to any other word classes of the sentence, nor do they have any syntactical relation 
to another clause. They are independent elements of sentences/ utterances, only loosely linked with the 
sentence they appear in, if they are separated from the rest with a comma. An interjection can be a part 
of a simple statement that makes a proposition of sorts, not necessarily ended with an exclamation mark. 
 Oh, you wanted to add something. I am sorry to have interrupted you. 
 
However, interjections can also initiate exclamatory sentences, anticipating the contents and the type of 
utterance. In this case, interjections could be said to be functioning as loose adjuncts or disjoints: 
 Oh, what a nuisance! 
 
J. Sledd (1959:144) treats interjections as sentence adverbials: "...so called 'interjections' - words like 
gosh!, drat! [...] these usually precede or follow the basic nominal verbal sequence, from which they are 
normally set off by terminals, and often they are further marked by a raise in pitch to the fourth and 
highest level and by unusual loudness". 
 Gosh, I've forgotten my wallet. 
INTERJECTIONS 
 
UNIT 
11 
 
 
 
Page 173 
It is also possible to have interjections at the very end of sentences, separated from the central part by a 
comma. This usually holds for the infrequent cases of using the rather obsolete interjection Alas! 
 They have arrived too late, alas! 
 
INTERJECTIONS IN ENGLISH 
The English language abounds in variously shaped and semantically diverse one-word interjections. The 
majority of interjections are originally English, whereas a considerable number have entered the language 
from other languages, or are normally used in English with the same meaning as in the language of origin. 
The languages most borrowed from are French, Spanish, German, Arabic and Hebrew, and it was largely 
American English that served as the springboard for most of those. Around ten percent of approximately 
550 interjections existing and used in English today are from other languages, not counting the specific 
ones used by English language speakers in Ireland and Scotland. These generally belong to the domain 
of social conventions and elements of language typical of certain cultural areas. 
 
The interjections of English can be grouped into several sets based on their pragmatic value. The largest 
group would incorporate more situation-oriented interjections with restricted pragmatic purpose. They 
are uttered on specific, non-frequent occasions such as during definite social activities, playing certain 
games or performing rituals and we can say that they border on the so-called language formulae. Thus, 
these can be recognized as interjections with limited pragmatic range and a considerable number of them 
are borrowed from other languages. 
 
Below is a list of some popular interjections 
 
 
[DELIGHT] 
ah! ach! coo! coo-er! goody! goody goody! whacko! wacko! 
whizzo! wizzo! yippee! yip-ee! 
[DISGUST] 
aargh! bah! faugh! fuck! gad! humph! pah! phew! phooey! 
pish! pshaw! pugh! rot! shit! shoot! ugh! yech! yuck! 
[ENTHUSIASM] hubba-hubba! wahoo! zowie! 
[FEAR] eeeek! oh! oh, no! 
[IMPATIENCE] 
chut! gah! pish! pooh! pshaw! psht! pshut! tcha! tchah! 
tchu! tchuh! tut! tut-tut! why! zut! 
[INDIGNATION] here ! here! why! 
[IRRITATION] 
cor! corks! doggone! hell! hoot! lord! lor'! lor! lors!lordy! 
lord me! merde! sapperment! shit! upon my word! 
INTERJECTIONS 
 
[ANGER] 
damn! damnation! the devil! doggone! fuck! ha! hang it! 
hell! hunh! rats! shit! what! zounds! 
[ANNOYANCE] 
bother ! damn! damnation! deuce! drat! drot! mercy! merde! oof! ouf(f)! ouch! 
rot! son of a bitch! spells! tut! tut-tut! zut! 
[APPROVAL] hear! hear! hubba-hubba! hurrah! keno! olé! so! 
[CONTEMPT] 
bah! boo! booh! faugh! hum! humph! hunh! paff! paf! pah! pfui! pho! phoh! 
phoo! phooey! pish! poof! pouf! pouff! pooh! prut! prute! pshaw! puff! poff! 
quotha! rot! sho! shoo! 
 shuh! shah! soh! tcha! tchah! tchu! tchuh! tuh! tush! tusch! tusche! tuch! 
yech! zut! 
UNIT 
11 
 
 
 
Page 174 
[JOY] heyday! hurrah! ole! whee! whoop! whoopee! yippee! 
[PAIN] ah! oh! ouch! ow! wow! yipe! yow! 
[ PITY] 
alas! dear! dear me! ewhow! lackaday! lackadaisy! las! och! 
oche! wellaway! welladay! welliday! 
[PLEASURE] 
aha! boy! crazy! doggone! good! heigh! ho! wow! yum! yumyum! 
[RELIEF] whew! whoof! 
[SORROW] 
alas! ay! eh! hech! heck! heh! lackaday! lackadaisy! las! mavrone! och! oche! 
wellaway! welladay! welliday! wirra! 
[SURPRISE] 
ah! alack! blimey! boy! caramba! coo! cor! dear! dear me! deuce! the devil! 
doggone! gad! gee! gee-whiz!golly! good! goodness! gracious! gosh! ha! heck! 
heigh! heigh-ho! hey! heyday! ho! hollo! hoo-ha! huh! humph! indeed! jiminy! 
lord! man! mercy! my! nu! od! oh! oho! oh, no! phew! say! shit! so! son of a 
bitch! upon my soul! well! what! whoof! whoosh! why! upon my word! wow! 
yow! zounds! 
[SYMPATHY] now! tsk! 
[TRIUMPH] aha! ha! hurrah! ole! so! 
 
 
 
INTERJECTIONS 
 
UNIT 
11 
 
 
 
Page 175 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
On this unit: 
 Quantifiers 
 Some, any, no, none, one 
 Compound nouns made with some, any, no 
 Much, many, few, little, a lot of 
 Less or fewer 
 Both, all, each, every 
 Most, the most, mostly 
 Using too … to, too/enough 
 Another, other, either, neither, all, whole 
 Enough 
 Cardinal and Ordinal 
 Quantifiers + (un) countable nouns 
 
 
UNIT 12 
 QUANTIFIERS 
 
 
 
 
Page 176 
 Q u a n t i f i e r s 
General information 
Some, any, no, none, one 
Quantifiers are words which show how many things or how much of something we are talking about. 
They are much, many, (a) little, (a) few, a lot (of), some, any, no, none, both, all, either, neither, each, 
every, (the) other(s), another. 
Basic uses of “some” and “any” Some 
1. Affirmatives: There are some people waiting outside. 
2. Questions +”yes”: Would you like some orange juice? 
3. Requests: May I have some tea? 
4. (=certain): Some people believe everything 
5. Some=several: I haven’t phoned my uncle for some years. 
Any 
1. Negatives: I don’t want any sugar. 
2. Uncertain questions: Do you have any money on you? 
3. With “hardly”, etc.: There’s hardly any rain. 
4. With “at all”: I haven’t any idea at all. 
5. After “if”: Buy some apples if you see any. 
6. Any=it doesn’t matter who or which: Any fool knows the right answer. 
General statements 
We always use zero in general statements Beans are 
good for you. 
Not...any, no, none 
1. We can use no when we mean not any. We use an affirmative verb with no. 
There aren’t any buses after midnight. = There are no buses after midnight. 
There aren’t any plates left. = There are no plates. 
2. We can also use no in place of not a/an: I’m not an expert. = I’m no expert. 
3. None stands on its own as a pronoun: We have no bananas. We have none. I’ve seen 
none of them = I’ve seen no one. 
4. We do not use no of. Instead we use none of or none on its own. None of the films that 
are shown in town look very interesting. 
Compound nouns made with SOME, ANY and NO 
SOME, ANY and NO 
Compound nouns made with SOME, ANY and NO 
Some + -thing -body -one where 
Any+ 
No + 
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UNIT 
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Compound nouns with some- and any- are used in the same way as some and any. 
Positive statements: 
 Examples 
• Someone is sleeping in my bed. 
• He saw something in the garden. 
• I left my glasses somewhere in the house. 
 
Questions: 
 Examples 
• Are you looking for someone? (= I'm sure you are) 
• Have you lost something? (= I'm sure you have) 
• Is there anything to eat? (real question) 
• Did you go anywhere last night? 
 
Negative statements: 
 Examples 
• She didn't go anywhere last night. 
• He doesn't know anybody here. 
 
NOTICE that there is a difference in emphasis between nothing, nobody etc. and not ... anything, 
not ... anybody: 
 Examples 
• I don't know anything about it. (= neutral, no emphasis) 
• I know nothing about it (= more emphatic, maybe defensive) 
 
SOMETHING, SOMEBODY, SOMEWHERE 
 Examples 
• I have something to tell you. 
• There is something to drink in the fridge. 
• He knows somebody in New York. 
• Susie has somebody staying with her. 
• They want to go somewhere hot for their holidays. 
• Keith is looking for somewhere to live. 
 
ANYBODY, ANYTHING, ANYWHERE 
 Examples 
• Is there anybody who speaks English here? 
• Does anybody have the time? 
• Is there anything to eat? 
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UNIT 
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• Have you anything to say? 
• He doesn't have anything to stay tonight. 
• I wouldn't eat anything except at Maxim's. 
 
NOBODY, NOTHING, NOWHERE 
 Examples 
• There is nobody in the house at the moment. 
• I have learnt nothing since I began the course. 
• There is nowhere as beautiful as Paris in the Spring. 
• Homeless people have nowhere to go at night. 
 
ANY can also be used in positive statements to mean 'no matter which', 'no matter who', 'no matter what': 
 Examples 
• You can borrow any of my books. 
• They can choose anything from the menu. 
• You may invite anybody to dinner, I don't mind. 
 
 
Much, many, (a) few, (a) little, a lot (of) 
Basic uses of “much” and “many” 
We use much with singular uncountable nouns: much money. We use 
many with plural countable nouns: many trees. 
1. in negative statements: 
There isn’t much space in this flat. 
There aren’t many pandas in China. 
2. in questions: 
Is there much demand for silk stoking? 
Will there be many guests at the party? 
3. in formal statements: 
Much money is spent for shopping. 
Many teachers retire early. 
4. in time references: 
I’ve lived here for many years. 
5. with “as…as” 
Take as much as you like. 
6. not much/not many to begin a sentence: Not many know about this. 
Not much happens around here in winter. 
 
 
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UNIT 
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Page 179 
Basic uses of “a lot of” (lots of) 
We use a lot of with plural countable or singular uncountable nouns: a lot of books. 
1. in the affirmative sentences: 
She spends a lot of money on clothes. 
There were such a lot of people in the shops. 
2. in negative statements for emphasis: 
I haven’t got a lot of time for people like him. 
If we use a quantifier on its own (not in front of a noun or pronoun) we do not use of: 
Did you buy any fruit? – Yes, I bought a lot/lots. (Not a lot of) 
Basic uses of “little/a little” and “few/a few “We use few and a few with plural countable nouns: a few 
friends, few friends. We use little and a little with uncountable nouns: a little time, little time. 
1. A little means “some but not much”, “a small quantity”: 
He knows a little French. 
2. A few – “a small number “We are going away for a few days. 
Compare: I’ve got a little money (=some, but not much) 
 I’ve got little money (= nearly no) 
 I’ve got a few friends (=some, but not many) 
 I’ve got few friends (=nearly no) 
We sometimes use only with a few and a little: I’ve got 
only a little time. 
 
Less or fewer? 
People often don’t know when to use less and when to use fewer in a sentence. Here’s how to get it right. 
 
Less 
Less means ‘a smaller amount of; not as much’. 
Use less when you’re referring to something that can’t be counted or doesn’t have a plural (e.g. money, 
air, time, music, rain). 
 Example 
• It’s a better job but they pay you less money. 
• People want to spend less time in traffic jams. 
• Ironically, when I’m on tour, I listen to less music. 
Less is also used with numbers when they are on their own and with expressions of measurement or time, 
distance, ages, and sums of money:e.g.: 
• His weight fell from 18 stone to less than 12. 
• Their marriage lasted less than two years. 
• Heath Square is less than four miles away from Dublin city centre 
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UNIT 
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In sentences and phrases with ‘than’, you should use less with numbers when they are on their own: 
Example 
✓ His weight fell from 18 stone to less than 12. 
✓ A person with a score of less than 100 will have difficulty obtaining credit. 
 
Fewer: 
 Fewer is the comparative form of few, so if you’re talking about a smaller number of people or things, 
you should use fewer with a plural noun (e.g. houses, newspapers, dogs, students, children). 
 Example 
• People these days are buying fewer newspapers. 
• Fewer students are opting to study science-related subjects. 
• Fewerthan thirty children each year develop the disease. 
 
Note: 
But beware! There are several common English nouns whose plural forms don’t end in ‘s’. Some of the 
main ones are people, children, men, and women. As these are still plurals, you should opt for fewer and 
not less. 
 
Summary 
Another way to remember the main distinction is to think along the following lines: 
not as much = less 
not as many = fewer 
 
 
 Both, all, each, every 
Basic uses of “both” and “all” 
1. We use both and both the in exactly the same way to refer to two particular people or 
things (plural countable nouns): 
Both children /both the children are in bed. 
2. We use all+noun to refer to things in general (=the whole number or amount): 
All children like to play (plural countable). 
 All advice is useless (uncountable nouns). 
3. All the refers to particular people or things: 
All the children in our street like to play (=all the+ plural countable nouns) 
All the advice you gave me was useless (=all the+ uncountable noun) 
 
 
 
 
 
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Three basic positions of “both” and “all” in affirmative sentences 
1. After be when it is the only verb in a sentence: 
The girls are both ready (=Both girls/Both the girls are ready) 
The girls are all ready (=All the girls are ready) 
 
2. After auxiliaries or the first auxiliary when there is more than one: 
The boys can both speak French (=Both boys/Both the boys can speak French) 
The committee should all have resigned (=All the committee should have resigned) 
 
3. Before the main verb when there is only one verb: 
The girls both left early (=Both girls/Both the girls left early) 
The girls all left early (=All the girls left early) 
 
We/you/they both = both of us/you/them 
We/you/they both ready = both of us/you/them are ready 
 
We/they all = All of us/them 
We/they all left early = All of us/them left early 
 
Us both/all = to both/all of us 
He gave us both/all some money = He gave some money to both/all of us 
 
In negative sentences: 
Both → neither 
Both the girls left early = Neither of the girls left early 
 
All → none 
All the girls left early = None of the girls left early 
 
Each, every 
Basic uses of “each” and “every” 
1. We often use each and every to refer to two people or things. When referring to more 
than to we can use both each and every. Each suggests ‘one by one’, ‘separately’; every 
suggests ‘all together’: 
My wife and I each ordered avocado to start with. 
Each child at the party had a piece of cake (Every is possible) Every child in 
the world loves ice-cream 
2. We must use every after nearly and after not: Nearly every shop is shut today. 
3. We cannot use of after every and we cannot use every at the end of a sentence: Each of 
the child received a present. They received a present each. 
QUANTIFIERS 
 
UNIT 
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Page 182 
Most, the most, mostly 
Most 
We use the quantifier most to talk about quantities, amounts and degree. We can use it with a noun (as a 
determiner) or without a noun (as a pronoun). We can also use it with adjectives and adverbs to form the 
superlative. 
 
Most with a noun 
We use most with nouns to mean ‘the majority of’: 
She plays tennis most mornings. 
Most tap water is drinkable. 
 
Warning: 
We don’t use the most with this meaning: 
The sun shines over 800 hours during June, July and August and on most days temperatures rise above 
25 degrees. 
 
Not … and on the most days … 
When we are talking about the majority of something in general, we use most + noun. When we are 
talking about the majority of a specific set of something, we use most of the + noun. 
 
Compare 
Most desserts are sweet. Desserts in general 
The food at the party was delicious. He’d 
made most of the desserts himself. 
A specific set of desserts (at the party) 
 
 
When we use most before articles (a, an, the), demonstratives (this that), possessives (my your) or 
pronouns (him them), we need of: 
Most of the information was useful. Some of it wasn’t relevant. 
Not Most the information … 
They sold most of their apartments quite quickly. 
 
Warning: 
When there is no article, demonstrative or possessive pronoun, we don’t usually use of: 
There hasn’t been much rain. Most rivers are below their normal levels. 
Not Most of rivers are below their normal levels. 
 
We use most of before geographical names: 
Most of England and Wales should be dry throughout the day. 
 
Most without a noun 
We can leave out the noun with most when the noun is obvious: 
Some children brought a packed lunch but most had a cooked meal in the canteen. (most children) 
 
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The most 
The most is the superlative form of many much. We use the most with different classes of words. 
The most with adjectives and adverbs 
 
We use the most to make the superlative forms of longer adjectives and the majority of adverbs: 
They rsquo’re using the most advanced technology in the world. (+ adjective) 
Scafell Pike is the most easily identifiable peak in the Lake District. (+ adverb) 
 
The most with a noun 
We use the most with a noun to mean ‘more/less than all of the others’: 
Ian earns the most money in our family. 
 
We can leave out the noun when it is obvious: 
He didn’t tell the best jokes but he told the most. (the most jokes) 
 
The most with a verb 
We use the most with a verb as an adverb: 
They all cried, but Claire cried the most. 
 
Mostly 
Mostly is an adverb that means ‘mainly’: 
I am mostly interested in the history of the house. (I am interested in other things about the house but my 
main interest is its history.) 
 
We don’t use mostly instead of most or the most. 
 Compare 
 
 
 
QUANTIFIERS 
 
What I liked most were the beautiful beaches. 
 
Not What I liked mostly were the beautiful 
beaches. 
 
Which beaches did you like most? 
 
We mostly stayed on the beach. 
 
I liked the beautiful beaches more than anything 
else. 
 
Which beaches were the ones that you liked 
more than any others? 
 
We stayed on the beach for the majority of the 
time. 
 
UNIT 
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Page 184 
Using too…to, Too / Enough 
 
The words too…to have a negative meaning. It means ‘more than is necessary or desirable’. 
Study the following sentences. 
 
He was very nervous. He could not perform well on the stage. 
He was too nervous to perform well on the stage. 
 
I was very busy. I could not talk to her. 
I was too busy to talk to her. 
 
 
Too / Enough 
Too and enough indicate degree. They are used with adjectives. 
Too means more than what is needed. 
Enough means sufficient. 
 
Examples 
He is too old to play football with the kids. 
Dave is intelligent enough to do the right thing. 
You're not working fast enough 
I don't have enough time. 
He has too many friends. 
She has got too much patience 
 
Use of too and enough 
1.Enough precedes adjectives and adverbs: 
He isn't old enough to watch this program. 
We're not walking quickly enough. 
 
2.Enough may also precede nouns: 
We have enough money. 
I have not got enough money to buy this computer. 
 
3.Too comes before adjectives and adverbs: 
It's too hot to wear that coat. 
I was driving too fast. 
 
4. Too may also come before nouns when it is used with the expressions too much and too many. 
a. Too much is used before uncountable nouns. 
 There is too much salt in this food. 
b. Too many is used before countable nouns 
 There are too many students in this classroom. 
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UNIT 
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Page 185 
 
Another, (the) other(s), either, neither, all, (a/the) whole 
Basic uses 
1. Another doesn't refer to anything in particular. It can mean: 
-'different': Come another day. (= any other day, no particular day) 
-'additional': We need anotherday to finish this. (= one more day, no particular day) 
2. We can contrast some and other(s) when we talk about things in general: Some holidays 
are cheap and other holidays are expensive. 
Some holidays are cheap and others are expensive. (= holidays in general) 
3. We can contrast one with the other or the others when referring to particular things: 
This one is mine and the other one is yours. (Or:... the other is yours) 
This one is mine and the other ones are yours. (Or:... the others are yours) 
4. We can use the other(s ) to refer to people as well: 
John went cycling and the other boy/the other boys went with him. John went cycling 
and the others went with him. 
5. The other day can mean 'a few days ago'; the next day refers to the following day: 
I met your father in the street the other day. (= a few days ago) 
We spent our first night in Cairo and the next day we went to Alexandria. 
'Either' and 'neither' + singular nouns 
Either and neither refer to two people, things, etc. only. 
Either means 'one or the other': 
Which pot will I use? - Either (of them). It doesn't matter which. 
Neither means 'not one and not the other': 
Which pot will I use? - Neither (of them). Use this frying pan. 
 
THE QUANTIFIERS ENOUGH 
Enough + Noun 
Enough is usually placed before nouns, to indicate the quantity required or necessary: 
 
 Examples 
• There is enough bread for lunch. 
• She has enough money. 
• We didn't have enough time to visit London Bridge. 
• Are there enough eggs to make an omelette? 
• Richard has enough talent to become a singing star. 
 
QUANTIFIERS 
 
UNIT 
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Page 186 
Enough is also used with adverbs (come after adverbs). 
 Examples 
• I couldn’t write quickly enough and I ran out of time. 
• I haven’t been to lessons often enough to have really learnt much. 
 
Enough is also used with adjectives, (come after adjectives). 
 Examples 
• She isn’t tall enough to be a ballet dancer. 
• I’m afraid your work just isn’t good enough. 
 
Enough of 
We don’t use enough of unless there is a determiner (an article, this/that, my/your/his etc). 
We use enough of when there is a determiner. 
 Example 
There isn’t enough of bread 
• I’ve had enough of your nonsense! ‘Your’ is a determiner here. 
• I haven’t seen enough of the film to really form an opinion. 
 
Enough can also be used without a noun. 
• That’s enough! Be quiet! 
• Enough is enough. 
 
With adjective and noun 
When ‘enough’ is used with an adjective and a noun, two positions are possible but the meaning changes. 
Look at these two sentences. 
 
✓ We haven’t got big enough nails. None of the nails are as big as we need. 
✓ We haven’t got enough big nails. We have some big nails but we need more. 
 
When enough comes between the adjective and the noun (big enough nails) it qualifies the adjective – it 
tells us that the nails aren’t big enough. When enough comes before the adjective it qualifies the noun 
phrase – it tells us that there aren’t enough nails. 
 
 
 
Cardinal and ordinal numbers, percentages 
The Quantifiers: talking about numbers in English 
 
CARDINAL and ORDINAL NUMBERS 
The cardinal numbers (one, two, three, etc.) are adjectives referring to quantity, and the ordinal numbers 
(first, second, third, etc.) refer to distribution. 
QUANTIFIERS 
 
UNIT 
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Page 187 
Number Cardinal Ordinal Number Cardinal Ordinal 
1 one first 22 Twenty-two Twenty-second 
2 two second 23 Twenty-three Twenty-third 
3 three third 24 Twenty-four Twenty-fourth 
4 four fourth 25 Twenty-five Twenty-fifth 
5 five fifth 26 Twenty-six Twenty-sixth 
6 six sixth 27 Twenty-seven Twenty-seventh 
7 seven seventh 28 Twenty-eight Twenty-eighth 
8 eight eighth 29 Twenty-nine Twenty-ninth 
9 nine ninth 30 thirty thirtieth 
10 ten tenth 31 Thirty-one Thirty-first 
11 eleven eleven 40 forty fortieth 
12 twelve twelfth 50 fifty fiftieth 
13 thirteen thirteenth 60 sixty sixtieth 
14 fourteen fourteenth 70 seventy seventieth 
15 fifteen fifteenth 80 eighty eightieth 
16 sixteen sixteenth 90 ninety ninetieth 
17 seventeen seventeenth 100 One hundred hundredth 
18 eighteen eighteenth 500 Five hundred Five hundredth 
19 nineteen nineteenth 1 000 One thousand thousandth 
20 twenty twentieth 1 000 000 One million millionth 
21 Twenty-one Twenty-first 1 000 000 000 One billion billionth 
 Examples 
• There are twenty-five people in the room. 
• He was the fourteenth person to win the award since 1934. 
• Six hundred thousand people were left homeless after the earthquake. 
• I must have asked you twenty times to be quiet. 
• He went to Israel for the third time this year. 
Fractions and decimals Percentages 
Said Written Said Written Said 
half 0.5 point five 25% Twenty-five percent 
a quarter 0.25 point two five 50% fifty percent 
three quarters 0.75 point seven five 75% Seventy-five percent 
 100% a/one hundred percent 
Units Years 
Written Said 
 
Written Said 
$1,200 one thousand two hundred dollars 1988 Nineteen eighty-eight 
£16,486 sixteen thousand four hundred and eighty-
six pounds 
1864 Eighteen sixty-four 
545kms five hundred and forty-five kilometres 1999 Nineteen ninety-nine 
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UNIT 
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Page 188 
 
How to say '0' 
nought 
 
used in mathematical expressions and decimals: 
 'nought times three equals nought' 
 0.3 = 'nought point three' (or 'point three') 
 0.03 = 'point nought three' 
 
zero 
 
used in scientific expressions, especially temperatures: 
 20°C = minus twenty degrees or 
 twenty degrees below zero 
also used to mean 'the lowest point': 
 'The heavy rain reduced visibility to zero' 
'o' (the letter) used in telephone numbers: 
 0171 390 0062 = 'o one seven one three nine o double o six two' 
nil/nothing used to express the score in games such as football: 
 2 - 0 = 'two nil' or 'two nothing' 
 
All (the), (a/the) whole 
All (the) compared with (a/the) whole 
1. We use the whole and a whole with singular countable nouns: 
 Не ate the whole loaf. He swallowed a whole banana. The whole film was boring. We do not 
use the whole with plurals or uncountable nouns. (Not 'the whole books/bread) 
2. Some nouns combine only with all: 
He spent all the money. She's 90 and she’ s still got all her teeth. 
Some nouns combine only with whole: 
You must tell me the whole truth. I'd like to know the whole history of the whole Some nouns 
combine with all or whole: 
I've waited all my life/ту whole life for such a moment as this. 
3. We also use all and a/the whole with time references: all day, a/the whole night Whole is 
stronger than all' and also combines with words like hour and century a/the whole hour, a/the whole 
century. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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UNIT 
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Page 189 
All compared with everyone/everybody and everything 
1. We rarely use all on its own to mean 'everyone/everybody': 
Everyone/Everybody wanted Marilyn's autograph. (Not *AII wanted*). 
2. All means 'everyone/everybody' when we use other words with it: 
All of us/We all agreed to sign the contract. All those who were present were in favour. (= 
Everyone/Everybody agreed to sign. Everyone/Everybody present was in favour. 
3. We often use all and everything with other words to refer to things: 
All/Everything I have belongs to you. He taught me all/everything I know. But 
note: He gave me everything. 
Quantifiers + countable/uncountable nouns 
Some quantifiers combine with countable nouns; some with uncountable and some with both kinds: 
 
 
 
 
QUANTIFIERS 
 
А 
+ plural countable 
В 
+ uncountable 
Both books 
both 
(a) few 
 fewer 
the fewest 
a/themajority of 
(not) many 
A minority of 
A number of/several 
A (small) amount of 
a great deal of 
a good deal of 
(a)little 
less 
(not)much 
The least 
 
 
С 
+ uncountable 
+ plural countable 
D 
+ singular countable 
some books some ink 
any (of the) 
enough 
a lot of/lots of 
hardly any 
more/most (of the) 
plenty of 
no, none of the 
each book 
all (of) the 
any/some (of the) 
each 
either 
 every 
most of the 
 neither no, 
 none of the 
UNIT 
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Page 190 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
On this unit: 
 Question tags 
 Positive and negative tags 
 Auxiliary verb 
 No auxiliary verb 
 Subject 
 Imperatives 
 Answers in tag questions 
 
 
 
UNIT 13 
 QUESTION TAGS 
 
 
 
 
Page 191 
QUESTION TAGS 
A tag question is a statement followed by a mini-question. The whole sentence is a TAG QUESTION, 
and the mini-question at the end is called a QUESTION TAG. 
 
 TAG QUESTION 
 
We use questions tags at the end of statements to ask for confirmation or to make the other person say 
something in reply and encourage conversation. Question tags are very commonly used in English. 
 
Positive and negative tags 
POSITIVE STATEMENT, →NEGATIVE TAG? Ex: It is hot, isn’t it? 
NEGATIVE STATEMENT, →POSITIVE TAG? Ex: It isn’t warm, is it? 
 
Pay attention: never, nothing, none, neither, nobody and no one are negative constructions. 
Ex: Nobody is coming tomorrow, are they? 
He never says that, does he? 
 A negative question tag is always contracted. 
 
 
Auxiliary verb 
If an auxiliary verb is used in the statement, the same auxiliary is used in the question tag 
Ex: 
• She is married, isn’t she? 
• You can stay, can’t you? 
• He might come, mightn’t he? 
• I ought to go, oughtn’t I? 
• We shan’t be late, shall we? 
• You didn’t want it, did you? 
• They haven’t paid, have they? 
• You don’t like chocolate, do you? 
 
No auxiliary 
If there is no auxiliary in the sentence (= affirmative sentence in the present simple tense), the correct 
form of do/did is introduced in the question tag. 
 
Ex: He comes every Friday, doesn’t he? 
You went to the supermarket, didn’t you? 
 
QUESTION TAGS 
 
You are English, ? 
QUESTION TAG 
aren’t you 
UNIT 
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Page 192 
Subject 
After the auxiliary verb we introduce the subject, always in the form of a personal pronoun: 
Ex: Mary is your friend, isn’t she? 
Mary is your friend, isn’t Mary? 
 
 Imperatives 
Invitation → won’t 
Ex: Take a seat, won’t you? 
 
Order →can, can’t, would, will 
Ex: Help me, can’t you? 
 Close the door, would you? 
 Go away, will you? 
With negative imperatives only will is possible! 
 
 
 Be careful: 
Subject Subject in question tag Example 
anybody/anyone they Anyone could have done it, couldn’t they? 
somebody/someone they Somebody has come, haven’t they? 
everybody/everyone they Everybody has understood, haven’t they? 
that it/he/she That is a strange book, isn’t it? 
That woman is very intelligent, isn’t she? 
That man is so handsome, isn’t he? 
this it/he/she This is the best film we’ve ever seen, isn’t it? 
these they These are apples, aren’t they? 
those they Those books aren’t boring, are they? 
 
Verb Verb in question tag Example 
I’m aren’t I I’m optimistic, aren’t I? 
have (no possession) don’t You have breakfast every morning, don’t you? 
used to did We used to go to bed early, didn’t we? 
 
 
QUESTION TAGS 
 
UNIT 
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Page 193 
 Answers in tag question 
Ex: The moon is bigger than the sun, isn’t it? No, it isn’t! 
Chinese people don’t eat rice, do they? Yes, they do! 
Zebras live in Europe, don’t they? No, they don’t! 
 
Fix it! 
Some verbs / expressions have different question tags. 
For example: 
1. I am - I am attractive, aren't I? 
 
2. Positive imperative - Stop daydreaming, will / won't you? 
 
3. Negative imperative - Don't stop singing, will you? 
 
4. Let's - Let's go to the beach, shall we? 
 
5. Have got (possession) - He has got a car, hasn't he? 
 
6. There is / are - There aren't any spiders in the bedroom, are there? 
 
7. This / that is - This is Paul's pen, isn't it? 
 
8. When the subject of the main part of the sentence is anyone anybody, no one, nobody, none, neither, 
everyone, somebody, someone, everybody, etc., we use the Personal Pronoun “they” as the subject of 
the ‘tag’ part. 
e.g. 
Neither of them explained, did they? 
I don’t suppose anyone will help us, will they? 
Everybody has left, haven’t they? 
 
9. The statement sentences with words such as neither no, none, no one, no body, nothing, scarcely, 
barely, hardly, hardly ever, seldom, etc. which are, strictly speaking, treated as negative, are followed 
by an ordinary positive ‘tag’. 
e.g. 
No salt is allowed, is it? 
Nothing was lost, was it? 
Lee hardly worked, did he? 
Sarah seldom visits us, does she? 
 
10. We use won't with a polite request. 
Open the window, won't you? 
QUESTION TAGS 
 
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On this unit: 
 Conditionals 
 Zero Conditional 
 First Conditional 
 Second Conditional 
 Third Conditional 
 Mixed Conditional 
 Using ‘unless’ in conditionals 
 Uses of the unreal past tense 
 Conjunction: time 
 As if/ As though 
 Clause after wish 
 
 
UNIT 14 
 CONDITIONALS (IF) 
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CONDITIONALS 
Conditional sentences are formed by a main clause containing a proposition and a subordinate clause (the 
if-clause) specifying the condition on which the main proposition is true. The if-clause generally comes 
first – and it is often separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma – but the order of the two parts 
can be reversed. 
There are three main kinds of conditional sentences, usually called first, second, and third conditional 
(or Type 1, Type 2, and Type 3 conditionals). Commonly, the if-clause is in the present simple, the past 
simple and the past perfect for first, second and third conditional respectively, while in the main clause 
the future simple, would + bare infinitive and would + perfect infinitive are used: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
However, as we shall see below, conditional sentences display a rather large combinations of verb forms 
in both the simple and progressive aspects. 
 
In Type 1 conditional, after first-person pronouns, singular and plural, both shall and will can be used. 
Shall is more formal, rare in American English and becoming less and less common in British English; 
will, therefore, is the unmarked choice for all persons. The same applies to should and would in Type 2 
conditional sentences, but remember that should is normally used, in all persons, as an epistemic and 
obligation modal. 
Sometimes if … then is used in order to emphasize that the action mentioned in the apodosis (the apodosis 
is the main, consequent, clause in a conditional sentence) depends on the protasis (the clause expressing 
the condition in a conditional sentence): 
 If you can’t finish the job within a week, then we’ll have to ask somebody else 
 
THE 'ZERO' CONDITIONAL 
1. Form 
In 'zero' conditional sentences, the tense in both parts of the sentence is the simple present: 
IF' CLAUSE (CONDITION) MAIN CLAUSE (RESULT 
If + simple present 
If you heat ice 
If it rains 
simple present 
it melts. 
you get wet 
 
 
 
CONDITIONALS (IF) 
 
 
I. 
If you take an aspirin, present 
simple 
 you’ll feel better 
future simple 
 
II. 
If you took an aspirin, 
past simple 
You would feel better 
would + bare infinitive 
 
III. 
If you had taken an aspirin, 
past perfect 
You would have felt betterwould + perfect infinitive 
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NOTE: The order of the clauses is not fixed - the 'if' clause can be first or second: 
Examples 
✓ Ice melts if you heat it. 
✓ You get wet if it rains. 
 
2. Function 
In these sentences, the time is now or always and the situation is real and possible. They are used to 
make statements about the real world, and often refer to general truths, such as scientific facts. 
Examples 
✓ If you freeze water, it becomes a solid. 
✓ Plants die if they don't get enough water. 
✓ If my husband has a cold, I usually catch it. 
✓ If public transport is efficient, people stop using their cars. 
✓ If you mix red and blue, you get purple. 
This structure is often used to give instructions, using the imperative in the main clause: 
Examples 
✓ If Bill phones, tell him to meet me at the cinema. 
✓ Ask Pete if you're not sure what to do. 
 
FIRST CONDITIONAL 
Type 1 conditional is used to talk about something that may well happen in the future. The condition, 
that is to say, is considered “real”, possible or even quite likely to be fulfilled: 
 If you don’t work hard, you will be fired 
 I’ll get in touch with you if I receive any news 
Type 1 conditional can be used in offers and suggestions as well as to give warnings and make threats: 
If you need a lift, I can give you one 
If you behave like this, I’ll have to take you back home 
 
Tense variations: 
 As we have stated above, the if-clause is usually in the present simple. Yet the present continuous, 
present perfect simple and present perfect continuous – as well as various modal forms, as will be seen 
below – are also to be found: 
 If it’s been snowing all night, I won’t go to school 
 If she has received your message, she will certainly reply 
 Well, if he’s still working I’ll call the office 
The main clause usually has a verb in the future simple but the imperative, “be going to” future, future 
continuous and future perfect can also be employed, as well as modal verbs: 
 If you see John, please give him my message 
 If everything goes right, in two weeks I’ll be moving to San Francisco 
 If I pass the English test, I’ll have passed all the exams of this semester 
 
CONDITIONALS (IF) 
 
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Sometimes the present simple is used in both the if- and the main clauses, indicating that what is said in 
the main proposition follows from what is stated in the if-clause. In this kind of sentences, often called 
zero conditional sentences, if means the same as when/whenever. Actually, so-called zero conditional 
sentences are not conditional sentences at all, since the if-clause does not pose a real condition that must 
exist for something else to take place: 
 If I don’t sleep at least eight hours I feel tired all day 
 
Though they are mostly used in the present tense, zero conditional sentences can also refer to past events 
and circumstances: 
 If I went jogging in the evening, I always asked a friend to join me 
 
 Modal verbs: 
In the subordinate clause “temporal” will cannot be used (the present simple being employed instead, as 
we have seen), but “volitional” will (meaning “be willing to”) can: 
 If we don’t win the next match, we’ll be out of the tournament (temporal) 
 If you will come with me, I’ll show you the entrance (volitional) 
 If they won’t negotiate, we’ll have to go on strike again (volitional) 
 
Would instead of will renders requests more polite. It is also possible to use would, with present reference, 
in both the main and the if-clause: 
If you would just wait a moment, I’ll be right back 
 We would appreciate it if you would take care of this matter 
 as soon as possible 
 
Will after if can also express the idea of insistence: 
 If you will treat her like that she will leave you soon (if you insist on 
treating her like that …) 
 
In the if-clause should is used to express a tentative conditional, to suggest that something is unlikely or 
not very likely to happen. This construction is rather formal. Even more formal is the construction 
fronting should: 
 If they should cancel the meeting, we’ll have to rearrange our plans 
 Should they cancel the meeting, we’ll have to rearrange our plans 
 
If…happen to has a similar meaning: 
If you happen to see William, tell him I need his help 
 
Finally, in the if-clause it is also possible to use can and must: 
 I’ll lend you a hand if I can 
 
CONDITIONALS (IF) 
 
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In addition to will, in the main clause it is also possible to use can, could, may, might, should/ought to, 
must, and semi-modals such as be going to and have to. 
 If you need any help, you should ask him 
 If you can program a computer, you can have the job 
 If you send them your CV, they might call you for an interview 
 
SECOND CONDITIONAL 
Type 2 conditional is used to talk about “unreal”, hypothetical situations. It can have both present and 
future reference: 
If I had a lot of money I would be travelling around the world 
If you cut down on fats for the next couple of months you would 
certainly lose some weight 
Type 2 conditional can be used in offers, suggestions, warnings and threats, making them less direct/more 
polite than they would be if Type 1 conditional were used: 
 If you needed some help, I would be glad to give it to you 
If you misbehaved, I would take you back home 
 
If … was/were: were is used for all persons; yet was is acceptable, especially in informal contexts, for the 
first and third person singular except for the fixed expression If I were you, which is often used to give 
advice: 
If I were you, I wouldn’t stand this kind of behaviour 
 If your brother was/were nicer, we would invite him to the party 
 
In polite requests, would be is normally used: 
If you would be so kind as to wait a few minutes … (not: If you were so kind 
…) 
Tense variations: 
As we have seen, in Type 2 conditionals the if-clause is normally in the past simple; yet it is also possible 
to use the past continuous as well as modal verbs could, should, and would: 
If they were trying harder, nobody would complain 
If we could try once more, we would certainly find a solution 
 
As is the case with will in Type 1 conditionals, would can be used in hypothetical if-clauses (as well as 
in the main clause) expressing volitional meaning: 
 If the management wouldn’t negotiate we would refuse to end the strike 
 
If … should is used, in more formal style, to talk about unreal or imaginary situations. If … was/were to 
can be used in the same way, but only with dynamic verbs: 
 What would he do if she should leave him? 
 If she was/were to leave him, he would fall into depression 
CONDITIONALS (IF) 
 
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In formal and literary styles if can be dropped and an auxiliary verb put in initial position. This is the case 
with should, were to (was to is not used in this structure) and had: 
 Should you decide to come … (= If you should decide …) 
 Were he to become President, how would he try to stimulate the economy? 
(= If he were to become …) 
Had he more authority, he would impose his decisions (= If he had more 
authority …)7 
 
The main clause usually has would + bare infinitive. Could and might are also used meaning, respectively, 
“would be able” and “would perhaps” or “would possibly”, which can of course also be found: 
If we had more money, we could go on holiday abroad 
 If she knew, she might behave differently 
 
Notice that should is not used in the main clause expressing obligation or necessity: 
If they didn’t win the case, they would have to mortgage their house to pay 
the legal costs (not:*they should have …) 
 
 
THIRD CONDITIONAL 
It is used to talk about unfulfilled conditions in the past, events which did not take place. While in Type 
1 conditional conditions are real and in Type 2 hypothetical, in Type 3 they are impossible, contrary to 
fact: 
 If I had had more time (but I didn’t), I would have done a better job 
 If we hadn’t spent all our money on advertising (but we did), we would have 
been able to invest on new activities 
 
Type 3 conditional is sometimes used to criticize people or pointing out their faults: 
 If you had told us you were coming, we would have reserved two more seats 
 
Tense variations: 
In addition to the past perfect, in the subordinate clause it is possible to use the past perfect continuous 
or could + perfect infinitive: 
If he had been playing throughout the season, he wouldn’t have been so brilliant during 
the World Cup 
If I could have talked to him, I’m sure I would have convinced him to sponsor the project 
 
 
 
7 As we shall see, had can also be fronted in Type 3 conditionals: Had they conducted better negotiations, the hostages would not 
have been killed (= If they had conducted better negotiations …). 
CONDITIONALS (IF) 
 
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The progressive aspect can also be found in the main clause: 
 If we had made the wrong decision, we would have been wasting our time on 
a dead-end project 
In the main clause could or might + perfect infinitive can also be used: 
 If the police had arrived sooner, the robbers might have been caught 
 If I had known about their financial difficulties, I could have helped them 
 
Inversion of the subject and verb operator can occur in formal style: 
 Had we been told about the risks, we would not have invested our money 
 
MIXED CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 
It is possible for the two parts of a conditional sentence to refer to different times, and the resulting 
sentence is a "mixed conditional" sentence. There are two types of mixed conditional sentence: 
 
A. Present result of past condition: (Type 2) 
1. Form 
The tense in the 'if' clause is the past perfect, and the tense in the main clause is the present conditional: 
IF' CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE 
If + past perfect 
If I had worked harder at school 
If we had looked at the map 
Present conditional 
I would have a better job now. 
we wouldn't be lost. 
 
2. Function 
In these sentences, the time is past in the 'if' clause, and present in the main clause. They refer to an 
unreal past condition and its probable result in the present. They express a situation which is contrary 
to reality both in the past and in the present: 
Examples 
✓ If I had worked harder at school is contrary to past fact - I didn't work hard at school, 
✓ If we had looked at the map (we didn't), we wouldn't be lost (we are lost). 
✓ I would be a millionaire now if I had taken that job. 
✓ If you'd caught that plane you'd be dead now. 
✓ If you hadn't spent all your money on CDs, you wouldn't be broke. 
 
B. Past result of present or continuing condition. (Type 3) 
1. Form 
The tense in the If-clause is the simple past, and the tense in the main clause is the perfect conditional: 
IF' CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE 
If + simple past 
If I wasn't afraid of spiders 
If we didn't trust him 
Perfect conditional 
I would have picked it up. 
we would have sacked him months ago. 
 
CONDITIONALS (IF) 
 
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2. Function 
In these sentences the time in the If-clause is now or always, and the time in the main clause is before 
now. They refer to an unreal present situation and its probable (but unreal) past result: 
Examples 
✓ 'If I wasn't afraid of spiders' is contrary to present reality - I am afraid of spiders, and 'I would 
have picked it up' is contrary to past reality - I didn't pick it up. 
✓ 'If we didn't trust him' is contrary to present reality - we do trust him, and 'we would have sacked 
him' is contrary to past reality - we haven't sacked him. 
✓ If she wasn't afraid of flying she wouldn't have travelled by boat. 
✓ I'd have been able to translate the letter if my Italian was better. 
✓ If I was a good cook, I'd have invited them to lunch. 
✓ If the elephant wasn't in love with the mouse, she'd have trodden on him by now. 
 
Using UNLESS in conditional sentences 
UNLESS 
Unless means the same as if...not. Like if, it is followed by a present tense, a past tense or a past perfect 
(never by 'would'). It is used instead of if + not in conditional sentences of all types: 
 
Type 1: (Unless + present) 
• You'll be sick unless you stop eating. (= You will be sick if you don't stop eating) 
• I won't pay unless you provide the goods immediately. (= If you don't provide them I won't pay) 
• You'll never understand English unless you study this grammar carefully. (= You'll never 
understand if you don't study...) 
 
Type 2: (Unless + past) 
• Unless he was very ill, he would be at work. 
• I wouldn't eat that food unless I was really hungry. 
• She would be here by now unless she was stuck in the traffic. 
 
Type 3: (Unless + past perfect) 
• Our marketing director would not have signed the contract unless she'd had the company legal 
expert present. 
• I wouldn't have phoned him unless you'd suggested it. 
• They would have shot her unless she'd given them the money. 
 
Uses of the unreal past tense 
Conditional: Unreal Past 
The past tense is sometimes used in English to refer to an 'unreal' situation. So, although the tense is the 
past, we are usually talking about the present, e.g. in a Type 2 conditional sentence: 
✓ If an elephant and a mouse fell in love, they would have many problems. 
CONDITIONALS (IF) 
 
UNIT 
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Although fell is in the past tense, we are talking about a hypothetical situation that might exist now or at 
any time, but we are not referring to the past. We call this use the unreal past. 
 
Other situations where this occurs are: 
after other words and expressions like 'if' (supposing, if only, what if); 
after the verb 'to wish’; 
 after the expression 'I'd rather.' 
 
Expressions like 'if' 
The following expressions can be used to introduce hypothetical situations: 
- supposing, if only, what if. They are followed by a past tense to indicate that the condition they 
introduce is unreal: 
• Supposing an elephant and a mouse fell in love? (= but we know this is unlikely or impossible) 
• What if we painted the room purple? (= that would be very surprising) 
• If only I had more money. (= but I haven't). 
 
These expressions can also introduce hypothetical situations in the past and then they are followed by 
the past perfect. 
Examples 
• If only I hadn't kissed the frog (= I did and it was a mistake because he turned into a horrible 
prince, but I can't change it now.) 
• What if the elephant had trodden on the mouse? (She didn't, but we can imagine the result!) 
• Supposing I had given that man my money! (I didn't, so I've still got my money now.) 
 
The verb to wish 
The verb to wish is followed by an 'unreal' past tense when we want to talk about situations in the present 
that we are not happy about but cannot change: 
• I wish I had more money (=but I haven't) 
• She wishes she was beautiful (= but she's not) 
• We wish we could come to your party (but we can't) 
 
When we want to talk about situations in the past that we are not happy about or actions that we regret, 
we use the verb to wish followed by the past perfect: 
• I wish I hadn't said that (= but I did) 
• He wishes he hadn't bought the car (= but he did buy it.) 
• I wish I had taken that job in New York (= but I didn't, so I'm stuck in Bristol) 
 
 
 
CONDITIONALS (IF) 
 
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NOTE: When we want to talk about situations we are not happy about and where we want someoneelse 
to change them, we use to wish followed by would + infinitive: 
• I wish he would stop smoking. (= I don't like it; I want him to change it) 
• I wish you would go away. (= I don't want you here, I want you to take some action) 
• I wish you wouldn't squeeze the toothpaste from the middle! (= I want you to change your 
habits.) 
 
I'd rather and it's time... 
These two expressions are also followed by an unreal past. The verb is in the past tense, but the situation 
is in the present. 
When we want to talk about a course of action we would prefer someone else to take, we use I'd rather 
+ past tense: 
• I'd rather you went 
• He'd rather you called the police 
• I'd rather you didn't hunt elephants. 
NOTE: the stress can be important in these sentences; to show what our preference is: 
• I'd rather you went = not me, 
• I'd rather you went = don't stay 
• He'd rather you called the police = he doesn't want to 
• He'd rather you called the police = not the ambulance service 
 
Similarly, when we want to say that now is a suitable moment to do something, either for ourselves or 
for someone else, we use it's time + past tense: 
• It's (high) time I went. 
• It's time you paid that bill. 
• Don't you think it's time you had a haircut? 
 
Conjunctions: time 
When, after, before, until, since, while, once, as and as soon as are subordinating conjunctions which 
can be used to connect an action or an event to a point in time. 
action/event conjunction time 
She was in a bad car accident when she was young. 
We can’t play loud music after everyone has gone to bed. 
Brush your teeth before you go to bed! 
I’ll wait with you until the bus comes. 
I’ve been very busy since I started my new job. 
No one left the cinema while the movie was on. 
I’ll call you once I arrive. 
We always have an ice cream as soon as we get to the beach. 
I bumped into her as I came out of the bank. 
CONDITIONALS (IF) 
 
UNIT 
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Many of these time conjunctions can be followed by -ing or -ed forms instead of subject + verb. 
Warning: 
We don’t use will after conjunctions referring to future time: 
• When people walk into the room, they will feel something special. 
• Not: When people will walk into the room… 
• I will call you as soon as I get to the office. 
• Not: … as soon as I will get to the office. 
 
When, once, as soon as 
We can use when, once, as and as soon as to talk about a specific point in time when something happened 
or will happen: 
• When we were in Greece, we went to as many islands as possible. 
• They always close their curtains once they get home in the evening. 
• As soon as we hear any news, we’ll call you. 
 
 
 
Before, after and until 
We use before and after to talk about the order of events in the past or future. With before and after, 
either the main clause or the subordinate clause can come first: 
• [event 1] She’ll pick you up before [event 2] she comes here. 
• After [event 1] she comes here, [event 2] she’ll pick you up. 
 
Until as a time conjunction means up to a time in the past or future. In the case of until, the main clause 
usually comes first: 
• I’m going to wait until the January sales start to buy a new jacket. 
• Until he mentioned his name was Doug, I thought he was called Damien! (less common order) 
• We spell until with one l. (Not: until) 
 
While 
We use while to show that actions or events happen at the same time in the past, present or future: 
• Can you wait in the car while I run into the shop? 
• They were talking while the teacher was explaining the activity. 
 
Warning: 
We don’t use during instead of while. During is a preposition, not a conjunction, and it must be followed 
by a noun or a pronoun: 
• I like to have the radio on while I study. 
• Not: I like to have the radio on during I study. 
 
 
CONDITIONALS (IF) 
 
UNIT 
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As if/ As though 
Clauses that start with as if / as though describe an unreal or improbable situation if they are followed by 
an unreal tense (the past subjunctive or the past perfect subjunctive). Otherwise, they express that the 
statement is true. 
The past subjunctive after as if / as though indicates an unreal situation in the present. However, if the 
situation is true, we use a real tense to express present time: 
He looks as if he knew the answer. (he gives the impression that he knows the answer, but he (probably) 
doesn't know or we don't know whether he knows or not) 
He looks as if he knows the answer. (he knows the answer) 
 
If we put the verb preceding as if / as though into the past tense, the present simple knows changes into 
past simple, whereas the past subjunctive knew stays the same. Therefore, both sentences will read as 
follows: 
• He looked as if he knew the answer. 
 
Consequently, the meaning of this sentence (whether he knew the answer or not) can only be deduced 
from the context. 
 
The past perfect subjunctive after as if / as though is used to refer to an unreal past situation. If the 
situation is true, we use a real tense to express past time: 
• He seems as if he hadn't slept for days. (it seems that he hasn't slept for days, but he (probably) 
has or we don't know whether he has or not) 
• He seems as if he hasn't slept for days. (he hasn't slept for days) 
 
If the preceding verb is put into the past tense, the present perfect hasn't slept changes into past perfect, 
while the past perfect subjunctive hadn't slept stays the same: 
He seemed as if he hadn't slept for days. 
 
clause after wish 
Wish + (that) + past simple: 
We can use 'wish' to talk about something that we would like to be different in the present or the future. 
It's used for things which are impossible or very unlikely. 
• I wish that I had a big house (I don't have a big house, but it's a nice idea!). 
• I wish that we didn't need to work today (we do need to work today, unfortunately). 
• I wish that you lived close by (you don't live close by). 
• I wish that John wasn't busy tomorrow* (he is busy, unfortunately). 
 
(In formal writing, you will see 'were' instead of 'was' after wish. This is correct, but it's also fine to use 
'was', in the same way as with the second conditional. 
• 'I wish I were rich' or 'I wish I was rich'.) 
CONDITIONALS (IF) 
 
UNIT 
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We also use 'wish' with 'could' to talk about things in the present or future that we would like to be 
different. In this situation, 'could' is the past simple of 'can'. 
 
Of course, we use 'can' to talk about ability - if we know how to do something or not. For example, 'I can 
speak Spanish' or 'I can't drive'. We also use 'can' to talk about possibility - if things are possible or not 
possible. For example, 'we can't come to the party tonight' or 'John can help you clean up'. We use 'could' 
with 'wish' to talk about ability and to talk about possibility. 
• I wish that I could speak Spanish (but, unfortunately, I can't speak Spanish). 
• I wish that I could drive (I can't drive). 
• I wish that we could go to the party tonight (unfortunately, we're busy so we can't go). 
• I wish that John could help you clean up (John is at work, so he can't help). 
 
We don't usually use 'wish' in this way for things that are really possible in the future. Instead, we use 
'hope'. 
• I hope that you pass your exam (NOT: I wish that you passed the exam). 
• I hope that it's sunny tomorrow (NOT: I wish that it was sunny tomorrow). 
• I hope that Julie has a lovely holiday (NOT: I wish that Julie had a lovely holiday). 
 
Wish + (that) + would: 
On the other hand, we use 'would' with 'wish' in a little bit of a special way. It's generally used about 
other people who are doing (or not doing) something that we don't like and we want that person to change. 
It's not usually used about ourselves, or about something which nobody can changethough, 
exceptionally, we do use it about the weather. 
✓ I wish that John wouldn't eat all the chocolate. (John does usually eat all the chocolate and I don't 
like it. I want him to change his behaviour!) 
✓ I wish that the neighbours would be quiet! (They are not quiet and I don't like the noise.) 
✓ I wish that you wouldn't smoke so much! (You do smoke a lot and I don't like it. I want you to 
change this.) 
✓ I wish that you wouldn't work late so often. 
✓ I wish that it would stop raining! 
 
We don't usually use 'would' when there's no feeling that we want somebody to change their behaviour. 
✓ NOT: I wish that tomorrow would be a holiday. (Instead: I wish that tomorrow was a holiday.) 
✓ NOT: I wish that I would work harder. (It's strange to use 'wish' + 'would' about yourself, as you 
can change your behaviour if you don't like it!) 
 
 
 
 
 
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Wishes about the past Wish + (that) + past perfect: 
We can use 'wish' with the past perfect to talk about regrets from the past. These are things that have 
already happened but we wish they'd happened in a different way. This use of 'wish' is very similar to 
the third conditional. 
• I wish that I had studied harder at school. (I didn't study hard at school, and now I'm sorry about 
it.) 
• I wish that I hadn't eaten so much yesterday! (But I did eat a lot yesterday. Now I think it wasn't 
a good idea.) 
• I wish that the train had been on time. (But unfortunately the train was late, and so I missed my 
interview.) 
 
Instead of the past perfect subjunctive, we can use could + perfect infinitive: 
• If only I could have been there. I'm sure it was a great concert. (I'm sorry that I couldn't be there) 
 
Other uses of 'wish' 
Wish + to + infinitive: 
We can use 'wish' with the infinitive to mean 'would like'. This is very formal. We don't usually use a 
continuous tense with 'wish' in this case. 
• I wish to speak to the headmaster. (This means the same as 'I would like to speak to the 
headmaster'.) 
• I wish to go now. 
 
Wish + object + to + infinitive: 
In the same way, we can use 'wish' with an object and an infinitive. 
I do not wish you to publish this article. 
I wish these people to leave. 
 
Wish + somebody + something: 
This is used mostly in set phrases. 
• I wished him a happy birthday. 
• They wished us Merry Christmas. 
 
 
 
CONDITIONALS (IF) 
 
UNIT 
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On this unit: 
 Passive voice 
 How to form 
 How to use 
 Passive voice with GET-HAVE SOMETHING DONE 
 Passive tenses and active equivalence 
 Personal and impersonal passive 
 
 
UNIT 15 
 PASSIVE VOICE 
(I 
 
 
 
Page 209 
 
THE PASSIVE VOICE 
HOW TO FORM THE PASSIVE? 
The passive voice in English is composed of two elements: the appropriate form of the verb 'to be' + the 
past participle of the verb in question: 
Subject verb 'to be' past participle 
The house was built ... 
 
Examples 
to clean 
Subject verb 'to be' past participle Subject verb 'to be' past participle 
Simple present: Present continuous: 
The house is cleaned every day The house is being cleaned at the moment. 
 
Simple past: Past continuous: 
The house was cleaned yesterday. The house was being cleaned last week. 
 
Past perfect: Present perfect: 
The house had been cleaned before their 
arrival. 
The house has been cleaned since you left. 
 
Future: Future continuous: 
The house will be cleaned next week. The house will be 
being 
cleaned tomorrow. 
 
Present conditional: Past conditional: 
The house would be cleaned if they had 
visitors. 
The house would 
have been 
cleaned if it had been 
dirty. 
 
NOTE: 'to be born' is a passive form and is most commonly used in the past tense: 
 
I was born in 1976. When were you born? 
BUT: Around 100 babies are born in this hospital every week. 
 
Infinitive form: infinitive of 'to be' + past participle: (to) be cleaned 
This form is used after modal verbs and other verbs normally followed by an infinitive, e.g. 
You have to be tested on your English grammar. 
John might be promoted next year. 
She wants to be invited to the party. 
 
PASSIVE VOICE 
 
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Gerund or -ing form: being + past participle: being cleaned 
This form is used after prepositions and verbs normally followed by a gerund 
Examples 
Most film stars hate being interviewed. 
I remember being taught to drive. 
The children are excited about being taken to the zoo. 
 
NOTE: Sometimes the passive is formed using the verb to get instead of the verb to be: 
He got arrested for dangerous driving. 
They're getting married later this year. 
I'm not sure how the window got broken. 
 
HOW TO USE THE PASSIVE VOICE? 
The passive voice is used to show interest in the person or object that experiences an action rather than 
the person or object that performs the action, e.g. 
✓ The passive is used ...: 
 We are interested in the passive, not who uses it. 
 
✓ The house was built in 1654: 
 We are interested in the house, not the builder. 
 
✓ The road is being repaired: 
 We are interested in the road, not the people repairing it. 
 
In other words, the most important thing or person becomes the subject of the sentence. 
Sometimes we use the passive voice because we don't know or cannot express who or what performed 
the action: 
• I noticed that a window had been left open. 
• Every year people are killed on our roads. 
 
If we want to say who or what performs the action, we use the preposition by: 
• "A Hard Day's Night" was written by the Beatles. 
• ET was directed by Spielberg 
 
The passive voice is often used in formal or scientific texts: 
• A great deal of meaning is conveyed by a few well-chosen words. 
• Our planet is wrapped in a mass of gases. 
• Waste materials are disposed of in a variety of ways. 
 
 
 
PASSIVE VOICE 
 
UNIT 
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GET / HAVE SOMETHING DONE (Passive Voice) 
This construction is passive in meaning. It may describe situations where we want someone else to do 
something for us. 
 Examples 
• I must get / have my hair cut. 
• When are you going to get that window mended? 
• We're having the house painted. 
If the verb refers to something negative or unwanted, it has the same meaning as a passive sentence: 
• Jim had his car stolen last night. (= Jim's car was stolen) 
• They had their roof blown off in the storm. (= Their roof was blown off in the storm) 
The construction can refer to the completion of an activity, especially if a time expression is used: 
• We'll get the work done as soon as possible. 
• I'll get those letters typed before lunchtime. 
In all these sentences, we are more interested in the result of the activity than in the person or object 
that performs the activity. 
 
'X' NEEDS DOING 
In the same way, this construction has a passive meaning. The important thing in our minds is the person 
or thing that will experience the action, e.g. 
• The ceiling needs painting (= the ceiling needs to be painted) 
• My hair needs cutting (= my hair needs to be cut) 
 
PASSIVE TENSES AND ACTIVE EQUIVALENTS 
Notice that the tense of the verb to be in the passive voice is the same as the tense of the main verb in the 
active voice. 
to keep 
TENSE / VERB FORM ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE 
Simple present keeps is kept 
Present continuous is keeping is being kept 
Simple past kept was kept 
Past continuous was keeping was being kept 
Present perfect have kept have been kept 
Past perfect had kept had been kept 
Future will keep will be kept 
Conditional Present would keep would be kept 
Conditional Past would have kept would have been kept 
Present Infinitive to keep to be kept 
Perfect Infinitive to have kept to have been kept 
Present Participle/Gerundkeeping being kept 
Perfect Participle having kept having been kept 
 
PASSIVE VOICE 
 
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Example sentences: 
Active: I keep the butter in the fridge. 
Passive: The butter is kept in the fridge. 
 
Active: They stole the painting. 
Passive: The painting was stolen. 
 
Active: They are repairing the road. 
Passive: The road is being repaired. 
 
Active: Shakespeare wrote Hamlet. 
Passive: Hamlet was written by Shakespeare. 
 
Active: A dog bit him. 
Passive: He was bitten by a dog. 
 
PERSONAL AND IMPERSONAL PASSIVE 
Personal Passive simply means that the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive 
sentence. So every verb that needs an object (transitive verb) can form a personal passive. 
Example: They build houses. – Houses are built. 
 
Verbs without an object (intransitive verb) normally cannot form a personal passive sentence (as there is 
no object that can become the subject of the passive sentence). If you want to use an intransitive verb in 
passive voice, you need an impersonal construction – therefore this passive is called Impersonal Passive. 
Example: he says – it is said 
 
Impersonal Passive is not as common in English as in some other languages (e.g. German, Latin). In 
English, Impersonal Passive is only possible with verbs of perception (e. g. say, think, know). 
Example: They say that women live longer than men. – It is said that women live longer than men. 
 
Although Impersonal Passive is possible here, Personal Passive is more common. 
Example: They say that women live longer than men. – Women are said to live longer than men. 
 
The subject of the subordinate clause (women) goes to the beginning of the sentence; the verb of 
perception is put into passive voice. The rest of the sentence is added using an infinitive construction 
with 'to' (certain auxiliary verbs and that are dropped). 
 
Sometimes the term Personal Passive is used in English lessons if the indirect object of an active sentence 
is to become the subject of the passive sentence. 
 
PASSIVE VOICE 
 
UNIT 
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On this unit: 
 Direct and Indirect speech 
 Tense changes 
 Changing time and space references 
 Question forms 
 Reporting verbs 
 Reporting orders, requests, and suggestions 
 Reporting intentions, hopes and promises 
 
 
UNIT 16 
 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH 
 
 
 
Page 214 
 
DIRECT AND REPORTED SPEECH 
 
You can answer the question What did he/she say? in two ways: 
✓ by repeating the words spoken (direct speech) 
✓ by reporting the words spoken (indirect or reported speech). 
Direct Speech 
Direct speech repeats, or quotes, the exact words spoken. When we use direct speech in writing, we place 
the words spoken between inverted commas (....) and there is no change in these words. We may be 
reporting something that's being said NOW (for example a telephone conversation), or telling someone 
later about a previous conversation 
 Examples 
• She says "What time will you be home?" 
• She said "What time will you be home?" and I said "I don't know! " 
• "There's a fly in my soup!" screamed Simone. 
• John said, "There's an elephant outside the window." 
Reported Speech 
Reported speech is usually used to talk about the past, so we normally change the tense of the words 
spoken. We use reporting verbs like 'say', 'tell', 'ask', and we may use the word 'that' to introduce the 
reported words. Inverted commas are not used. 
She said, "I saw him." → She said that she had seen him. 
 
'That' may be omitted: 
• She told him that she was happy. 
• She told him she was happy. 
 
'Say' and 'tell': 
Use 'say' when there is no indirect object: 
He said that he was tired. 
Always use 'tell' when you say who was being spoken to (i.e. with an indirect object): 
He told me that he was tired. 
 
'Talk' and 'speak' are used: 
- to describe the action of communicating: 
He talked to us. 
She was speaking on the telephone. 
 
- with 'about' to refer to what was said: 
He talked (to us) about his parents. 
DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH 
 
UNIT 
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TENSE CHANGES WHEN REPORTING SPEECH 
 
REPORTED SPEECH 
Tense Changes When Using Reported Speech 
 
Normally, the tense in reported speech is one tense back in time from the tense in direct speech: 
She said, "I am tired." → She said that she was tired. 
 
The changes are shown below: 
Simple Present  Simple past 
"I always drink coffee", she said She said that she always drank coffee. 
Present continuous  Past continuous 
"I am reading a book", he explained. He explained that he was reading a book 
Simple Past  Past Perfect 
"Bill arrived on Saturday", he said. He said that Bill had arrived on Saturday 
Past Perfect  Past Perfect 
"I have been to Spain", he told me. 
"I had just turned out the light," he explained. 
 He told me that he had been to Spain 
He explained that he had just turned out the light. 
Present perfect continuous  Past perfect continuous 
They complained, "We have been waiting for 
hours". 
 They complained that they had been waiting for 
hours. 
Past continuous  Past perfect continuous 
"We were living in Paris", they told me. They told me that they had been living in Paris. 
Future  Present conditional 
"I will be in Geneva on Monday", he said He said that he would be in Geneva on Monday. 
Future continuous  Conditional continuous 
She said that she would be using the car next 
Friday. 
 She said, "I'll be using the car next Friday". 
 
NOTE: 
1. You do not need to change the tense if the reporting verb is in the present, or if the original statement 
was about something that is still true, e.g. 
• He says he has missed the train but he'll catch the next one. 
• We explained that it is very difficult to find our house. 
 
2. These modal verbs do not change in reported speech: 
might, could, would, should, ought to, e.g. 
 
• We explained that it could be difficult to find our house. 
• She said that she might bring a friend to the party. 
 
DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH 
 
UNIT 
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CHANGING TIME AND PLACE REFERENCES 
 
Time/place references change when using reported speech 
Example 
"I will see you here tomorrow", she said. → She said that she would see me there the next day. 
 
The most common of these changes are shown below: 
Today  that day 
"I saw him today", she said. She said that she had seen him that day. 
Yesterday  the day before 
"I saw him yesterday", she said. She said that she had seen him the day before. 
The day before yesterday  two days before 
"I met her the day before yesterday", he said. He said that he had met her two days before. 
Tomorrow  the next/following day 
"I'll see you tomorrow", he said He said that he would see me the next day. 
The day after tomorrow  in two days time/ two days later 
"We'll come the day after tomorrow", they 
said. 
 They said that they would come in two days time/ 
two days later. 
Next week/month/year  the following week/month/year 
"I have an appointment next week", she said. She said that she had an appointment the following 
week. 
Last week/month/year  the previous/week/month/year 
"I was on holiday last week", he told us. He told us that he had been on holiday the previous 
week. 
ago  before 
"I saw her a week ago," he said. He said he had seen her a week before. 
this (for time)  that 
"I'm getting a new car this week", she said. She said she was getting a new car that week. 
this/that (adjectives)  the 
"Do you like this shirt?" he asked He asked if I liked the shirt. 
here  there 
He said, "I live here". He told me he lived there. 
 
Other changes: 
In general, personal pronouns change to the third person singular or plural, except when the speaker 
reports hisown words: 
✓ I/me/my/mine, you/your/yours  him/his/her/hers 
✓ we/us/our/ours, you/your/yours  they/their/theirs: 
 
• He said: "I like your new car."  He told her that he liked her new car. 
• I said: "I'm going to my friend's house."  I said that I was going to my friend's house. 
DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH 
 
UNIT 
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QUESTION FORMS AND REPORTED SPEECH 
 
1. Normal word order is used in reported questions, that is, the subject comes before the verb, and it 
is not necessary to use 'do' or 'did': 
• "Where does Peter live?"  She asked him where Peter lived. 
 
2. Yes / no questions: This type of question is reported by using 'ask' + 'if / whether + clause: 
• "Do you speak English?"  He asked me if I spoke English. 
• "Are you British or American?"  He asked me whether I was British or American. 
• "Is it raining?"  She asked if it was raining. 
• "Have you got a computer?"  He wanted to know whether I had a computer. 
• "Can you type?"  She asked if I could type. 
• "Did you come by train?"  He enquired whether I had come by train. 
• "Have you been to Bristol before?"  She asked if I had been to Bristol before. 
 
Question words: This type of question is reported by using 'ask' (or another verb like 'ask') + question 
word + clause. The clause contains the question, in normal word order and with the necessary tense 
change. 
• "What is your name?" he asked me.  He asked me what my name was. 
• "How old is your mother?", he asked. He asked how old her mother was. 
• The policeman said to the boy, "Where do you live?"  The policeman asked the boy where he 
lived. 
• "What time does the train arrive?" she asked.  She asked what time the train arrived. 
• "When can we have dinner?" she asked. She asked when they could have dinner. 
• Peter said to John, "Why are you so late?"  Peter asked the John why he was so late. 
Note: See also Summary of Reporting Verbs 
 
 
REPORTING VERBS 
 
Summary of reporting verbs 
Note that some reporting verbs may appear in more than one of the following groups. 
 
1. Verbs followed by 'if' or 'whether' + clause: 
ask 
know 
remember 
Say 
 see 
 
 
 
DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH 
 
UNIT 
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2. Verbs followed by a that-clause: 
Add 
admit 
agree 
announce 
answer 
argue 
boast 
claim 
comment 
complain 
 
confirm 
consider 
deny 
doubt 
estimate 
explain 
fear 
feel 
insist 
mention 
 
observe 
persuade 
propose 
remark 
remember 
repeat 
reply 
report 
reveal 
 
say 
state 
suggest 
suppose 
tell 
think 
understand 
warn 
 
3. Verbs followed by either a that-clause or a to-infinitive: 
decide 
expect 
guarantee 
hope 
promise 
swear 
threaten 
 
 
4. Verbs followed by a that-clause containing should 
(but note that it may be omitted, leaving a subject + zero-infinitive): 
advise 
beg 
demand 
 
insist 
prefer 
propose 
 
recommend 
request 
suggest 
 
 
5. Verbs followed by a clause starting with a question word: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
6. Verbs followed by object + to-infinitive 
Advise 
ask 
beg 
command 
forbid 
instruct 
invite 
 
teach 
tell 
warn 
 
 
DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH 
 
decide 
describe 
discover 
discuss 
explain 
forget 
guess 
imagine 
know 
learn 
realise 
 
remember 
reveal 
say 
see 
suggest 
 
teach 
tell 
think 
understand 
wonder 
 
UNIT 
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REPORTING ORDERS, REQUESTS, AND SUGGESTIONS 
ORDERS, REQUESTS, SUGGESTIONS 
1. When we want to report an order or request, we can use a verb like 'tell' with a to-clause. 
Example 
• He told me to go away. 
 
The pattern is verb + indirect object + to-clause. 
(The indirect object is the person spoken to.) 
Other verbs used to report orders and requests in this way are: command, order, warn, ask, advise, invite, 
beg, teach, forbid. 
Examples 
• The doctor said to me, "Stop smoking!". The doctor told me to stop smoking. 
• "Get out of the car!" said the policeman. The policeman ordered him to get out of the car. 
• "Could you please be quiet," she said. She asked me to be quiet. 
• The man with the gun said to us, "Don't move!" The man with the gun warned us not to 
move. 
(See also section on Verbs followed by infinitive and Verbs followed by gerund) 
 
2. Requests for objects are reported using the pattern ask + for + object: 
Examples 
• "Can I have an apple?", she asked. She asked for an apple 
• "Can I have the newspaper, please?" He asked for the newspaper. 
• "May I have a glass of water?" he said. He asked for a glass of water. 
• "Sugar, please." She asked for the sugar. 
• "Could I have three kilos of onions?" He asked for three kilos of onions. 
 
3. Suggestions are usually reported with a that-clause. 'That' and 'should' are optional in these clauses: 
• She said: "Why don't you get a mechanic to look at the car?" She suggested that I should get 
a mechanic to look at the car. OR She suggested I get a mechanic to look at the car. 
 
Other reporting verbs used in this way are: insist, recommend, demand, request, propose. 
Examples 
• "It would be a good idea to see the dentist", said my mother. My mother suggested I see the 
dentist. 
• The dentist said, "I think you should use a different toothbrush". The dentist recommended 
that I should use a different toothbrush. 
• My manager said, "I think we should examine the budget carefully at this meeting." My 
manager proposed that we examine the budget carefully at the meeting. 
• "Why don't you sleep overnight at my house?" she said. She suggested that I sleep overnight 
at her house. 
Notes: Suggest can also be followed by a gerund: I suggested postponing the visit to the dentist. 
 
DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH 
 
UNIT 
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REPORTING INTENTIONS, HOPES, AND PROMISES 
 
HOPES, INTENTIONS & PROMISES 
When we report an intention, hope or promise, we use an appropriate reporting verb followed by a that-
clause or a to-infinitive: 
"I'll pay you the money tomorrow." 
He promised to pay me the money the next day. 
He promised that he would pay me the money the next day. 
 
Other verbs used in this pattern include: hope, propose, threaten, guarantee, swear. 
Examples 
• "I'll be back by lunchtime. 
✓ "He promised to be back by lunchtime. 
✓ He promised that he would be back by lunchtime. 
 
• "We should arrive in London before nightfall. 
✓ "They hoped to arrive in London before nightfall. 
✓ They hoped they would arrive in London before nightfall. 
 
• "Give me the keys to the safe or I'll shoot you!" 
✓ He threatened to shoot me if I didn't give him the keys to the safe. 
✓ He threatened that he would shoot me if I didn't give him the keys to the safe. 
 
Note: see also Summary of Reporting Verbs. 
 
 
DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH 
 
UNIT 
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On this unit: 
 Gerund and Present Participle 
 Present participle 
 Gerund 
 Verbs followed by the gerund 
 Gerund or Infinitive 
 
 
UNIT 17 
 GERUND AND PRESENT PARTICIPLE 
 
 
 
Page 222 
PRESENT PARTICIPLES AND GERUNDS 
The Gerund and the Present Participle: 'ING' Form 
 
INTRODUCTION 
The '-ing' form of the verb may be a present participle or a gerund. 
The form is identical, the difference is in the function, or the job the word does in the sentence. 
 
THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE 
The present participle of most verbs has the form base+ing and is used in the following ways: 
 
a. as part of the continuous form of a verb 
(See continuous tenses in VERB TENSES) 
 Examples 
• I am working 
• he was singing 
• they have been walking 
 
b. after verbs of movement/position in the pattern: verb + present participle 
 Examples 
• She went shopping 
• He lay looking up at the clouds 
• She came running towards meThis construction is particularly useful with the verb 'to go', as in these common expressions: 
to go shopping 
to go skiing 
to go fishing 
 
to go walking 
to go swimming 
to go running 
to go dancing 
 
c. after verbs of perception in the pattern: verb + object + present participle 
 Examples 
• I heard someone singing. 
• He saw his friend walking along the road. 
• I can smell something burning! 
 
NOTE: There is a difference in meaning when such a sentence contains a zero-infinitive rather than a 
participle. The infinitive refers to a complete action, or part of an action.: 
Compare: 
✓ I heard Joanna singing (= she had started before I heard her, and probably went on afterwards) 
✓ I heard Joanna sing (= I heard her complete performance) 
GERUND AND PRESENT PARTICIPLE 
 
UNIT 
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d. as an adjective 
 Examples 
amazing, worrying, exciting, boring 
 
It was an amazing film. 
It's a bit worrying when the police stop you 
Dark billowing clouds often precede a storm. 
Racing cars can go as fast as 400kph.He was trapped inside the burning house. 
Many of his paintings depict the setting sun. 
 
 
e. with the verbs spend and waste, in the pattern: verb + time/money expression + present participle 
 Examples 
• My boss spends two hours a day travelling to work. 
• Don't waste time playing computer games! 
• They've spent the whole day shopping. 
 
f. with the verbs catch and find, in the pattern: verb + object + present participle: 
With catch, the participle always refers to an action which causes annoyance or anger: 
• If I catch you stealing my apples again, there'll be trouble! 
• Don't let him catch you reading his letters. 
 
This is not the case with find, which is unemotional: 
• We found some money lying on the ground. 
• They found their mother sitting in the garden. 
 
g. to replace a sentence or part of a sentence: 
When two actions occur at the same time, and are done by the same person or thing, we can use a present 
participle to describe one of them: 
• They went out into the snow. They laughed as they went. They went laughing out into the snow. 
• He whistled to himself. He walked down the road. Whistling to himself, he walked down the 
road. 
 
When one action follows very quickly after another done by the same person or thing, we can express 
the first action with a present participle: 
• He put on his coat and left the house. Putting on his coat, he left the house. 
• She dropped the gun and put her hands in the air. Dropping the gun, she put her hands in the air. 
 
 
GERUND AND PRESENT PARTICIPLE 
 
UNIT 
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Page 224 
The present participle can be used instead of a phrase starting as, since, because, and it explains the cause 
or reason for an action: 
• Feeling hungry, he went into the kitchen and opened the fridge. 
 (= because he felt hungry...) 
• Being poor, he didn't spend much on clothes. 
• Knowing that his mother was coming, he cleaned the flat. 
 
THE GERUND 
This looks exactly the same as a present participle, and for this reason it is now common to call both 
forms 'the -ing form'. However, it is useful to understand the difference between the two. The gerund 
always has the same function as a noun (although it looks like a verb), so it can be used: 
 
a. as the subject of the sentence: 
• Eating people is wrong. 
• Hunting tigers is dangerous. 
• Flying makes me nervous. 
 
b. as the complement of the verb 'to be': 
• One of his duties is attending meetings. 
• The hardest thing about learning English is understanding the gerund. 
• One of life's pleasures is having breakfast in bed. 
 
c. after prepositions. The gerund must be used when a verb comes after a preposition: 
• Can you sneeze without opening your mouth? 
• She is good at painting. 
• They're keen on windsurfing. 
• She avoided him by walking on the opposite side of the road. 
• We arrived in Madrid after driving all night. 
• My father decided against postponing his trip to Hungary. 
 
This is also true of certain expressions ending in a preposition, e.g. in spite of, there's no point in.: 
• There's no point in waiting. 
• In spite of missing the train, we arrived on time. 
 
d. after a number of 'phrasal verbs' which are composed of a verb + preposition/adverb 
 Example: 
to look forward to, to give up, to be for/against, to take to, to put off, to keep on: 
• I look forward to hearing from you soon. (at the end of a letter) 
• When are you going to give up smoking? 
• She always puts off going to the dentist. 
GERUND AND PRESENT PARTICIPLE 
 
UNIT 
17 
 
 
 
Page 225 
 
NOTE: There are some phrasal verbs and other expressions that include the word 'to' as a preposition, 
not as part of a to-infinitive: - to look forward to, to take to, to be accustomed to, to be used to. It is 
important to recognise that 'to' is a preposition in these cases, as it must be followed by a gerund: 
• We are looking forward to seeing you. 
• I am used to waiting for buses. 
• She didn't really take to studying English. 
 
It is possible to check whether 'to’ is a preposition or part of a to-infinitive: if you can put a noun or the 
pronoun 'it' after it, then it is a preposition and must be followed by a gerund: 
• I am accustomed to it (the cold). 
• I am accustomed to being cold. 
 
e. in compound nouns 
 Examples 
a driving lesson, a swimming pool, bird-watching, train-spotting 
 
It is clear that the meaning is that of a noun, not of a continuous verb. 
 Examples 
• the pool is not swimming; it is a pool for swimming in. 
 
f. after the expressions: 
can't help, can't stand, it's no use/good, and the adjective worth: 
• She couldn't help falling in love with him. 
• I can't stand being stuck in traffic jams. 
• It's no use/good trying to escape. 
• It might be worth phoning the station to check the time of the train. 
 
 
VERBS FOLLOWED BY THE GERUND 
The gerund is used after certain verbs. 
 Examples 
miss: I miss living in England. 
 
The most important of these verbs are shown below. 
Those marked * can also be followed by a that-clause 
 Example: 
 
 
 
 
GERUND AND PRESENT PARTICIPLE 
 
VERB GERUND 
She admitted... breaking the window 
 THAT-CLAUSE 
She admitted... that she had broken the window. 
UNIT 
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Page 226 
 
 
Notes: 
Appreciate is followed by a possessive adjective and the gerund when the gerund does not refer to the 
subject. 
Compare: 
• I appreciate having some time off work. (I'm having the time...) 
• I appreciate your giving me some time off work. (You're giving me the time...) 
 
Excuse, forgive, pardon can be followed by an object and the gerund or for + object and the gerund (both 
common in spoken English), or a possessive adjective + gerund (more formal and less likely to be said): 
 
• Excuse me interrupting. 
• Excuse me for interrupting. 
• Excuse my interrupting. 
 
Suggest can be used in a number of ways, but BE CAREFUL. 
It is important not to confuse these patterns: 
 
suggest/suggested (+ possessive adjective) + gerund: 
• He suggests going to Glastonbury 
• He suggested going to Glastonbury 
• He suggested/suggests my going to Glastonbury 
 
suggest/suggested + that-clause (where both that and should may be omitted): 
• He suggests that I should go to New York 
• He suggested that I should go to New York 
• He suggested/suggests I should go to New York 
• He suggested/suggests I go to New York 
• He suggested I went to New York. 
acknowledge, * 
admit, * 
anticipate, * 
appreciate, * 
avoid, 
celebrate, 
consider, contemplate, 
defer, 
delay, 
deny, * 
detest, 
dislike, 
dread, 
enjoy, 
entail, 
escape, 
excuse, 
fancy (=imagine) *, 
finish, 
forgive, 
imagine, * 
involve 
loathe, 
mean, (=have as 
result) * 
mention, * 
mind, 
miss, 
pardon, 
postpone,prevent, 
propose, * 
recall, * 
recollect, * 
remember, 
report, * 
resent, 
resist, 
risk, 
save (=prevent the 
wasted effort) 
stop, 
suggest, * 
understand, * 
GERUND AND PRESENT PARTICIPLE 
 
UNIT 
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Page 227 
 
suggest/suggested + question word + infinitive: 
• He suggested where to go. 
 
Propose is followed by the gerund when it means 'suggest': 
• John proposed going to the debate 
• but by the infinitive when it means 'intend': 
 The Government proposes bringing in new laws. 
 
Stop can be followed by a gerund or infinitive, but there is a change of meaning - see GERUND / 
INFINITIVE? section. 
 
Dread is followed by the infinitive when used with 'think', in the expression 'I dread to think': 
• I dread to think what she'll do next. 
 
Prevent is followed 
EITHER by a possessive adjective + gerund: 
• You can't prevent my leaving. 
OR by an object + from + gerund: 
• You can't prevent me from leaving. 
 
 Examples 
• Normally, a girl wouldn't think of marrying a man she did not love. 
• Most people don't like receiving bad news. 
• We can't risk getting wet - we haven't got any dry clothes. 
• If you take that job it will mean getting home late every night. 
• I can't imagine living in that big house. 
• If you buy some petrol now, it will save you stopping on the way to London. 
• She couldn't resist eating the plum she found in the fridge. 
• They decided to postpone painting the house until the weather improved. 
 
GERUND OR INFINITIVE? 
The two groups of verbs below can be followed either by the gerund or by the infinitive. Usually this has 
no effect on the meaning, but with some verbs there is a clear difference in meaning. Verbs marked * 
can also be followed by a that-clause. 
 
 Example: to prefer 
I prefer to live in an apartment. 
I prefer living in an apartment. 
 
 
GERUND AND PRESENT PARTICIPLE 
 
UNIT 
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A. Verbs where there is little or no difference in meaning: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Notes: 
1. Allow is used in these two patterns: 
a. Allow + object + to-infinitive: 
✓ Her parents allowed her to go to the party. 
 
b. Allow + gerund: 
✓ Her parents don't allow smoking in the house. 
 
2. Deserve + gerund is not very common, but is mainly used with passive constructions or where there 
is a passive meaning: 
• Your proposals deserve being considered in detail. 
• These ideas deserve discussing. (= to be discussed). 
 
3. The verbs hate, love, like, prefer are usually followed by a gerund when the meaning is general, and 
by a to-infinitive when they refer to a particular time or situation. You must always use the to-infinitive 
with the expressions 'would love to', 'would hate to', etc. 
 
Compare: 
I hate to tell you, but Uncle Jim is coming this weekend. 
I hate looking after elderly relatives! 
I love dancing. 
I would love to dance with you. 
 
 
B. Verbs where there is a clear difference in meaning: 
Verbs marked with an asterisk* can also be followed by a that-clause. 
come 
forget* 
go on 
 mean* 
regret* 
 remember* 
stop 
try 
Come: 
Come + gerund is like other verbs of movement followed by the gerund, and means that the subject is 
doing something as they move: 
• She came running across the field. 
 
GERUND AND PRESENT PARTICIPLE 
 
allow 
attempt 
begin 
bother 
cease 
continue 
deserve 
fear* 
hate* 
intend* 
like 
love 
neglect 
omit 
permit 
prefer* 
recommend* 
start 
UNIT 
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Page 229 
 
Come + to-infinitive means that something happens or develops, perhaps outside the subject's control: 
• At first I thought he was crazy, but I've come to appreciate his sense of humour. 
• How did you come to be outside the wrong house? 
• This word has come to mean something quite different 
Forget, regret and remember: 
When these verbs are followed by a gerund, the gerund refers to an action that happened earlier: 
• I remember locking the door (= I remember now, I locked the door earlier) 
• He regretted speaking so rudely. (= he regretted at some time in the past, he had spoken rudely 
at some earlier time in the past.) 
Forget is frequently used with 'never' in the simple future form: 
• I'll never forget meeting my boss for the first time 
When these verbs are followed by a to-infinitive, the infinitive refers to an action happening at the same 
time, or later: 
• I remembered to lock the door (= I thought about it, then I did it.) 
• Don't forget to buy some eggs! (= Please think about it and then do it.) 
• We regret to announce the late arrival of the 12.45 from Paddington. (= We feel sorry before 
we tell you this bad news.) 
Go on: 
Go on + gerund means to continue with an action: 
• He went on speaking for two hours. 
• I can't go on working like this - I'm exhausted 
Go on + to-infinitive means to do the next action, which is often the next stage in a process: 
• After introducing her proposal, she went on to explain the benefits for the company. 
• John Smith worked in local government for five years, then went on to become a Member of 
Parliament. 
Mean: 
Mean + gerund expresses what the result of an action will be, or what will be necessary: 
• If you take that job in London it will mean travelling for two hours every day. 
• We could take the ferry to France, but that will mean spending a night in a hotel. 
Mean + to-infinitive expresses an intention or a plan: 
• Did you mean to dial this number? 
• I mean to finish this job by the end of the week! 
• Sorry - I didn't mean to hurt you. 
Stop 
Stop + gerund means to finish an action in progress 
• I stopped working for them because the wages were so low. 
• Stop tickling me! 
 
GERUND AND PRESENT PARTICIPLE 
 
UNIT 
17 
 
 
 
Page 230 
 
Stop + to-infinitive means to interrupt an activity in order to do something else, so the infinitive is 
used to express a purpose: 
• I stopped to have lunch. (= I was working, or travelling, and I interrupted what I was doing in 
order to eat.) 
• It's difficult to concentrate on what you are doing if you have to stop to answer the phone every 
five minutes. 
Try: 
Try + gerund means to experiment with an action that might be a solution to your problem. 
• If you have problems sleeping, you could try doing some yoga before you go to bed, or you 
could try drinking some warm milk. 
• 'I can't get in touch with Carl.' 'Have you tried e-mailing him?' 
Try + to-infinitive means to make an effort to do something. It may be something very difficult or 
even impossible: 
• The surgeons tried to save his life but he died on the operating table. 
• We'll try to phone at 6 o'clock, but it might be hard to find a public telephone. 
• People have to try to live together in harmony 
 
 
 
GERUND AND PRESENT PARTICIPLE 
 
UNIT 
17 
 
 
 
Page 231 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
On this unit: 
 Infinitive 
 The Zero Infinitive 
 The negative infinitive 
 The infinitive after question words 
 How and when to use the infinitive 
 Other infinitive forms 
 Verbs Usually followed by the Infinitive 
 
 
UNIT 18 
 INFINITIVE 
 
 
 
Page 232 
 
THE INFINITIVE 
1. Form 
The infinitive is the base form of a verb. It may be preceded by 'to' (the to-infinitive) or stand-alone (the 
base or zero infinitive). 
 
2. Infinitive with or without 'to' 
The to-infinitive is used: 
After certain verbs. e.g. want, wish, agree, fail, mean, decide, learn 
After the auxiliaries to be to, to have to, & ought to 
In the pattern 'it is + adjective + to-infinitive' 
 
FUNCTIONS OF THE ZERO INFINITIVE 
THE ZERO INFINITIVE AFTER AUXILIARIES 
 
 Examples 
✓ She can't speak to you. 
✓ He should give her some money. 
✓ Shall I talk to him? 
✓ Would you like a cup of coffee? 
✓ I might stay another night in the hotel. 
✓ They must leave before 10.00 a.m. 
 
THE ZERO INFINITIVE