1 - Fonetica e Fonologia - Resumo

Prévia do material em texto

1 – FONÉTICA E FONOLOGIA INGLÊS
Tutor: Sarah Alem Barbieri Rodrigues Vieira 
 Turma - 9004
1.1 – Tema: English phonetics and phonology
DESCRIPTION
Phonetic and phonological aspects of the English language.
PURPOSE
Knowing the main principles of English Phonetics and Phonology and their application to the language study is very important for its good oral communication and teaching.
GOOLS
SECTION 1 To recognize the concepts of phone, phoneme, and grapheme
- PHONETICS X PHONOLOGY (som e estudo do som)
Let us begin our discussion by defining two concepts that we wish to deepen:
- What is Phonetics and what is Phonology?
Phonetics has a more descriptive nature and is the area in Linguistics that presents the methods for description, classification, and transcription of sounds of human speech, that is, of any language. 
Phonetics is dedicated to the description of the phones: the actual speech sounds that speakers produce, and listeners hear, resulting from the performance of a complex articulatory/phonatory apparatus
Fonetics são os sons da fala humana
Phonology, in turn, has a more explanatory and interpretative nature and is traditionally understood as the area that studies phonemes: the functional sounds of speech from the point of view of the language system. Phonology studies the sounds that are in opposition in a particular language: their functions in the system.
Phonology is dedicated to the description of phonemes: the mental representations of a specific speech sound, our phonological knowledge, that emerge cognitively despite the possible various actual phonetic realizations related to a same phoneme.
Phonology é o estudo dos sons
Phonetics is responsible for observing aspects related to the way such information is transmitted from physical properties (Acoustic Phonetics), the way they are perceived (Auditory Phonetics), and the way they are produced (articulatory Phonetics).
The picture below shows the body parts activated in speech sound formation:
From the interaction of the parts of the complex articulatory/phonatory apparatus, a limited number of segments is formed. These segments are the minimal units of speech, objects of study in Phonetics. These segments are consonants or vowels.
- Consonants are formed from the interaction of three aspects: passagem do ar no pulmão e garganta
1) Manner of articulation - Different ways airstream flows from the lungs out of the oral or nasal cavities.
2) Point of articulation - Different Articulatory locations in the course of sound production.
3) Voicing - The role played by the vocal folds (glottis) in the production of voiceless or voiced sounds.
- Vowels are formed with no constriction. They are voiced sounds from the interaction of the three following processes: o som formado pela língua e lábios
1) Vowel height - The greater or lesser verticality of the tongue height.
2) Vowel location - The greater or lesser horizontality of a certain section of the tongue.
3) Lip rounding - The roundness of the lips that can be more or less rounded at the time of production.
Manner and point of articulation, voicing, lip rounding, vowel height and vowel location are the most commonly used features in structuralist phonetic descriptions in general. In this perspective, a segment can be transcribed from the identification of its set of features. For example, the sound [p] can be identified as the plosive, bilabial, voiceless consonant, and the sound [i] as the high, front, unrounded vowel.
Comment
The charts of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), the consonants are described and organized based on the interaction of the voicing, manner, and point of articulation features, while vowels are described and organized based on the height, location, and lip rounding ones.
.
- PHONEMES
The first phonological concept we need to highlight is the phoneme. Not every phone is present or has the function of a phoneme in a language. Phones only have the role of phonemes in a language when they have a contrastive function, which means that they cause changes in lexical meaning. Nem todos os fonemas tem sentido na língua.
A fonologia é a ciência que estuda as funções dos fonemas na língua
If Phonetics is concentrated in the description of speech sounds, Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the internal relations shared by the phonemes of a same linguistic system. In opposition to the more concrete nature of the phone, the notion of phoneme points to its role and function of determining differences in meanings between words within a same linguistic system. The phoneme becomes the smallest phonological unit of the language. But, being constituted by the distinctive features that simultaneously define it, not only the phonemes themselves, but mainly the properties that constitute them, would be the primitives of the phonological studies of any language.
Phonemes are therefore opposing sounds within the same linguistic system, so that the change of one phoneme to another implies a change in the meaning of words, as we see in the minimal pairs think/sink and sin/sing presented as follows: diferença dos fonemas e diferentes significados
/θɪŋk/ - /sɪŋk/
/sɪn/ - /sɪŋ/
We see that the phonemes /θ/ e /s/ as well as /n/ and /ŋ/ establish meaning relations between lexical items, due to differences between the features that constitute them. In both the first and the second pair of phonemes, the only difference regarding the sounds is related to the point of articulation, with the other features being preserved with no differences. Such phones function as elements that guarantee the word distinction in English and are therefore classified as phonemes.
The identification of minimal pairs results from a minimal pair test. Whether a phone has phonemic status in a language or not, the minimal pair test must be carried out.
But, wait – what is the minimal pair test? Substituição de um fonema e identifica a mudança de sentido
Basically, we replace one phone by another in the same phonetic context and see if different lexical items are then identified. Minimal pairs are the structural evidence that identifies the distinctive elements of a given language, that is, its phonemes.
Phonology deals with the relationship between realization and perception of segments and shows how information is cognitively stored. In this sense, phonemes are cognitively stored as distinctive units of words and, although we pronounce a phoneme with slightly different phonetic characteristics in certain contexts, we do not fail to identify it as a same abstract unit.
Learn more Alguns fonemas não são pronunciados, mas são escrritos, e podem mudar o sentido
In English, for example, in the initial phonetic context, as in <pin>, the phoneme /p/ is aspirated, which no longer occurs in the non-initial phonetic context, as in <spin>, in which it is pronounced in its full form. Still, in the end of a syllable, as in <stamp>, /p/ may not even be pronounced, articulated, which does not mean that it will not be cognitively accessed, which is evidenced by its graphic representation in the written language, for example.
- GRAPHEMES AND PHONOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE
Spelling register does not always reflect spoken language, and the mistaken association between phonemes and letters may create important difficulties for those beginning to delve into the writing world both in the first or the second language. For educational purposes, it is worth observing that spelling mistakes may be strongly motivated and explainable, if we take L1/L2 phonological knowledge interference into account. Erros de fala e escrita podem não refletir a língua falada e dificulta para quem estiver aprendendo a segunda língua.
The nature of the grapheme differs from that of the phoneme and this is extremely important to be taken into consideration when it comes to teaching and to L1/L2 literacy development.
If phonemes are the sounds that differentiate words in a language, graphemes can be defined as the graphic signs used forthe representation of the sound system of a language in the writing. Phonemes and graphemes are distinct linguistic realities: the former stands for the psychological reality of the minimal units of a language and the latter stands for the graphic representation of the sounds or, at least, for an attempt of this representation, since writing will not always be able to reflect the abstract and cognitively stored sound.
The writing process can be affected at different levels due to the greater or lesser degree of impact of phonological knowledge of the oral L1 or L2. Both writing in L1 and L2 can be hindered, for example, by the differences between the number of phonemes in a word and the number of letters that make up its orthographic representation. It is important for the professional who comes to work with learners of a written language to understand these issues, because some degree of phonological knowledge may always make writing development even harder.
A good example on this issue is the differentiation between the phonological knowledge regarding the words <strength força> and <length comprimento> and their orthographic representations. The following tables deal with this point. In the top line, we have the orthographic representation of the word and its number of letters. In the next line, we have the possibilities of phonetic representation of these words in English, and in the last line, the phonological representation, which cognitively encompasses all the possibilities of varied uses of these words by the speakers of that language:
	Orthographic representation
	<strength> (7 letters)
	Phonetic representation
	[st̠͡ɹ̠ɛŋkθ], [st̠͡ɹ̠ɛn̪θ] (7 or 6 phonemes)
	Phonological representation
	/stɹɛŋkθ/
	Orthographic representation
	<length> (6 letters)
	Phonetic representation
	[lɛŋθ], [lɛnθ],[lɛŋkθ], [lɛntθ] (4 or 5 phonemes)
	Phonological representation
	/leŋθ/
The examples show the difference in distribution of letters and phonemes as a possible difficulty factor for the learning of writing due to linguistic transfer/linguistic variation. Also, it is worth noticing that for both words more than one form of pronunciation is found, produce such words in different ways. This fact illustrates how the teaching-learning writing process may be even more complex.
Sounds and graphemes do not always match in a systematic way. One sound can be represented by different letters, the same spelling may refer to different sounds or there may be ‘’silent’’ letters that are not pronounced at all. As we will see in section 3, a separate spelling system, a phonetic alphabet in which each symbol corresponds to one and only one phoneme, is necessary to universally describe the pronunciation of words of any language in a precise manner.
Let’s review the main points concerning Phonetics and Phonology:
CHECKING LEARNING – 28/2/23
1. Consonants present some sort of constriction during the airstream release and are formed from the interaction of three aspects:
A – (D) Manner of articulation, point of articulation and voicing
Consonants are formed from the interaction of manner of articulation, point of articulation and voicing. While vowels are formed by the interaction of vowel height, vowel location, and lip rounding.
2. Spelling register does not always reflect spoken language and the mistaken association between phonemes and letters may create important difficulties for those beginning to delve into the writing world both in the first or the second language.
For educational purposes, it is worth observing that spelling mistakes may be strongly motivated and explainable by the students:
A – (B) Phonological knowledge
Phonological knowledge regarding the spoken L1 may affect writing in both the first or second language.
SECTION 2 - To identify principles of linguistic variation
- LINGUISTIC VARIATION
In the early 1960’s, William Labov conducted a major investigation into English spoken on the island of Marthaʼs Vineyard in Massachusetts, United States. Later, Labov develops a study of the same nature, with the dialect spoken in New York City. In both studies, the researcher had a single and important objective: to show the crucial role of social factors in explaining linguistic variation. This is where Variationist Sociolinguistics emerges as an area of investigation and research in Linguistics. Estudos sobre as variações lingüísticas entre Massachusetts e NY city
The author realizes that the variation in linguistic uses of similar functions and meanings was in fact highly controlled and organized by factors associated to the social profiles of speakers and by internal linguistic factors. Nowadays, studies on linguistic variation are extended to the different contexts of language use, whether spoken or written, seeking to identify factors implicit in the options of one or another way of saying/writing something.
Based on Labov's studies, the idea that linguistic variation is random and not systemic is overcome.
The idea that language variation would be ordered becomes a counterpoint to the thought that language is structurally organized in spite of its speakers and its diverse uses. Linguistic variation comes to be understood as a non-random object that could be well explained by the existing correlation between linguistic and nonlinguistic social factors. Baseado nos estudos de Labov, a variação lingüística é a correlação entre os fatores sociais
Sociolinguistic variationist practice shows that the supposed linguistic homogeneity, predicted by Saussure's structuralist perspective, could be questioned by the idea of systematized heterogeneity: a fact verifiable in any natural language which shows that variation is controlled and strongly conditioned by factors inherent to the language and by external social ones. There is therefore a probabilistic dimension in language variation: a tendency for certain uses to occur in certain communicative contexts thanks to the action of this set of factors.
Phonological linguistic variation is thus important for the description of languages. 
The following examples show at least more than one way of saying the same word in English. In each case there may be a set of internal and external factors controlling each choice:
Body [ˈbɑːdi] ~ [ˈbɑːɾi]		Hold on hol[d] on ~ hol[Ø] on		Saturday [ˈsætədeɪ] ~ [ˈˈsætɚdeɪ] ~ [sæɾəɾeɪ]
The different ways of pronouncing the words <body>, <hold on> and <saturday> can be explained by internal factors linked to the linguistic context in which they are used in interaction with external social factors, such as the region where the language is spoken, the social group, the register etc. In the end of the day, what we observe is that a single phoneme may be realized differently according to these intrinsic and extrinsic factors with no cognitive jeopardy.
Summing-up
In other words, a phoneme can be realized as different phones. The English /p/ sound can be produced as the aspirated [ph], in its full form with no aspiration [p] or without audible release [p']. In all of the cases the sound is interpreted as a unique phoneme: the English /p/ sound.
Os fonemas são representados em um nível abstrato, subjacente, no qual integram as formas das palavras da língua. Os alofones integram o nível de superfície, que contém as formas fonéticas, as quais incluem um conjunto maior de segmentos do que o inventário fonológico da língua. 28/2
- ALLOPHONES
The phones that are realizations of the same phoneme are called allophones. Thus [p], [ph] and [p'] are allophones of the phoneme /p/ in English. The distribution of the allophones of a phoneme in speech is usually complementary. This means that each allophone occurs exclusively in one specific phonetic context. This is the case for the phoneme /p/ allophones in English. The complementary distribution of /p/ allophones can be described by phonological rules:
· aspirated [ph] occurs when it is the only consonant at the beginning of a stressed syllable, as in the word picture.
· [p'] occursbefore other plosives, as in the word captain, or at the end of an utterance.
· [p] occurs in other positions, as in the word spin.
In English, the regular verbs in the simple past end in “ed”, but they will be differently pronounced depending on the linguistic context surrounding it. There are three different ways to pronounce the /ed/ ending of regular verbs: [id], [t] or [d]. The different pronunciation depends on the preceding sound, the one at the end of the infinitive form of the main verb. If the preceding sound is /t/ or //d/ the /ed/ phoneme will be /id/. If the preceding sound is a voiced sound, it will be pronounced /d/ and if it is a voiceless sound it will be pronounced /t/.
The following chart illustrates that: Vai depender de como se pronuncia o som
	/id/
	/d/
	/t/
	needed
	lived
	shopped
	hated
	tried
	picked
The English -ed endings may be considered to be a case of allophony in this language, however it is also considered a case of allomorphy, but that is not of our interest in this class. The same holds true regarding the plural forms in English. If English -ed endings for phonological reasons change into /id/, /d/ and /t/, something similar occurs with 
the plural /S/ which changes into /z/, /s/ or /ez/ depending on the preceding sound.
Group of phonemes or phonemic - Allophonic variation of some consonants
 
- VARIATION FACTORS – 2/3
Linguistic variation phenomena can also be observed in Phonology.
The following chart presents some examples of phonological reductions in English that may be possible cases of future linguistic change, especially due to their current incorporation to (informal) written language:
	ain’t ~ am/is/are /have/has + not.
	She ain’t got to do anything about it.
	gonna ~ going to
	Are they gonna visit her?
	wanna ~ want to
	We wanna play soccer.
	sorta ~ sort of
	What sorta person is that?
	lemme ~ let me
	Lemme show you this.
	gimme ~ give me
	Gimme the book!
	doncha ~ don’t you
	You do have a car, doncha?
	dunno ~ I don’t know
	If they are gonna get married: dunno!
	shoulda ~ should have
	They shoulda stayed quiet.
	lotta ~ lot of ~ lots of
	We still have a lotta do.
	gotta ~ (have) got to/a
	We gotta go.
Quando os sons [t] e [d] ocorrem como a única consoante no início de uma sílaba átona e têm uma vogal ou uma consoante sonora precedendo-os, eles são percebidos como uma batida alveolar /ɾ/, um som produzido por breves batendo no rebordo alveolar com a língua.
When the sounds [t] and [d] occur as the only consonant at the beginning of an unstressed syllable and have either a vowel or a sonorant consonant preceding them, they are realized as an alveolar tap /ɾ/, a sound produced by briefly tapping the alveolar ridge with the tongue. This is an allophonic rule concerning the phonemes /t/ and /d/ that is present in American English and is referred to as flapping or tapping and observed in words such as letter and writing. 
Respectively, these words will be pronounced:
/ˈlɛɾɚ/ ~ /ˈlɛtɚ/				/ˈraɪɾɪŋ/ ~ /ˈraɪtɪŋ/
Three groups of factors that are associated with three types of linguistic variations:
· SOCIAL FACTORS – DIASTRATIC VARIATION – Varia de acordo com grupos de idades, sexo e educação
Diastratic variations are phenomena with no specific linguistic constraints, but of social orientation. The distribution of specific uses in subgroups of macro social groups is identified. It is possible to locate and explain, for example, differences in usage and choice of linguistic forms with same meaning in the speeches of people of different sex/gender, children and the elderly, people with different degrees of education and so on.
· REGIONAL FACTORS – DIATOPIC VARIATION – Varia de acordo com a região em que as pessoas vivem
Diatopic variations, in turn, are those in which we find differences in linguistic usage related to regional groups that are part of a larger group. It is possible to find differences in use among speakers that are explainable due to the location in which these people live.
· STYLISTIC/REGISTER FACTORS – DIAPHASIC VARIATION – Varia do informal ao formal de acordo com a posição social, histórica e cultural
The grouping of diaphasic variations reflects how the use of language is sensitive to the context of communication, to the register, to the interlocutors. These factors lead us to unconsciously choose formal or informal language register. Social, historical and cultural characteristics of these groups are thus reflected in the language, which emerges as a mirror of their larger social context but that also functions as an identity factor at the individual level.
The following chart is a sample of data related to language variation controlled by social factors constrained by register:
	gonna ~ going to wanna ~ want to sorta ~ sort of
	
	
If linguistic heterogeneity is controlled by specific conditioning factors, these same factors can help explain the reasons that lead a particular competing form to be implemented in the system as the only possibility of use, which implies linguistic change.
Such groupings are identified in any natural language, and variation phenomena happen at any level of language usage:
· Phonological level		Pronunciation
· Semantic / lexical level		Words
· Morphosyntactic level		Sentences
· Discursive-pragmatic level	How the speech in general is constructed
At all levels, these phenomena will be subject to pressure from both linguistic and social factors and can be observed in the spoken and written modalities.
- LINGUISTIC VARIATION AND LINGUISTIC CHANGE – as variações lingüísticas não significam mudanças constantes
It should be noted that linguistic variation does not necessarily mean ongoing linguistic change. The dynamism of the language is reflected in variation and change, but it does not mean that any variation phenomenon necessarily points to ongoing process of linguistic change. 
The variable pronunciation of the English -ing gerund form – [ɪŋ] ~ [ɪŋg] – exemplifies this. Although it´s been a phenomenon of variation for years in that language, it does not seem to be a case of linguistic change in progress. The possible pronunciations of the word <going> in which the final [ɡ] sound may be deleted exemplifies so:
[ˈɡoʊɪŋ], [ˈɡɔɪŋ] ~ [ˈɡoʊɪŋɡ], [ˈɡɔɪŋɡ]
Linguistic change, however, is predicted as a result of some type of variation phenomenon that precedes 
Linguistic diversity provides for dialectal diversity, the coexistence of variants, such as the standard language, popular and regional speech etc. The judgment of values regarding linguistic usage is independent of their linguistic nature. These are socially-oriented judgments generally associated with the role of power that the standard language plays and that is reflected in the social stratification of a given society.
Attention
The possibility that a particular linguistic form, object to social prejudice in other times, may gradually become the cultured pattern of new times is just another evidence of the lack of superiority among linguistic forms, idiolects, dialects, in short, among languages.
- ORALITY AND LITERACY – o uso da língua escrita e oral, envolve a prática social e cultural de cada região
Sociolinguistics is a field of theoretical and practical reflections that greatly contribute to educational thinking with respect to linguistic reality and diversity for the teaching of L1 writing or of additional languages. In this sense all the issues concerning linguistic diversity turn to be mandatory for the educational ground.
The written modality is in no way superior to the spoken one nor there are superior oral or written ways to express ourselves. Language is expression and social representation, and in this extend it should be treated accordingly at school.
The variation depicts linguistic usage adapted to specific communicative contexts and to specific individuals. 
Cada comunidade tem seu próprio sistem lingüístico, com erros de gramáticas ou não
Educational sociolinguisticshighlights the need to rethink the teaching of grammar in schools. The notion of "linguistic error" mirrors the tendency to use the standard norm as the ideal form of the language, disregarding the fact of language variation and change. Mistaken educational approaches emerge in the school context, neglecting the sociolinguistically oriented view that the language is diverse, and that each linguistic community has its own system, legitimate in itself, and in the social functions it plays for the lives of its users.
The linguistic correction at school can point to the mistaken understanding of what would be the unique and ideal way of using the language, whether in written or oral modalities. Such an attitude shows the lack of recognition of popular variants, for example, as legitimate ways of using the language. Such an attitude also reflects wrong positions and thoughts about what and how students need to learn about language.
The speaker of a language should be able to know how to linguistically behave in the different social spaces in which the language is predicted to be used in one way or another. Educational sociolinguistics points to the understanding of the notions of linguistic adequacy and acceptability as more appropriate to the teaching of L1s and L2s than the notion of error that is based on the parameters of traditional grammar.
The student's ability to perceive and be able to use the most conventionally envisaged forms of linguistic use in specific contexts and genres is thus developed. Such skills are objects to be considered in teaching both for the development of written and oral linguistic practices. We refer hereby to such written and oral linguistic practices as orality and literacy.
Orality and Literacy practices are seen as complementary areas of social and cultural practices:
Oral and written linguistic practices are on a range with multiple possibilities of textual productions that can prototypically represent the formal register of written texts or the informal register of conversation, which means that, at the end of the day, written texts may have characteristics of the oral ones and vice versa.
Diastratic, Diatopic and Diaphasic variations, Allophones, Linguistic Variation, Linguistic Change, Linguistic Diversity... Check out the explanations with Professor Roberto de Freitas Junior: influência do meio onde vive e idade de como você se expressa oral e na escrita
CHECKING LEARNING – 31/3/23
1. Educational sociolinguistics highlights the need to rethink the teaching of grammar in schools. Regarding educational sociolinguistics, it is important to say that:
A - D - The notion of "linguistic error" mirrors the idea of an ideal perfect language.
Educational sociolinguistics highlights the idea that there is no ideal and perfect language, since language variation is the rule.
2. The following chart is a sample of data that exemplify language variation that may be constrained by:
	dunno ~ I don’t know
	shoulda ~ should have
	lotta ~ lot of ~ lots of
	gotta ~ (have) got to/a
A - A - The linguistic context.
The data reflect how the use of language is sensitive to the context of communication, to the register, to the interlocutors. These factors lead us to unconsciously choose formal or informal language register.
SECTION 3 - To describe functions and classifications of the International Phonetic Alphabet
- CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANTS AND VOWELS
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
Speech sounds are basically divided into vowels and consonants, and, as we studied in section 1, they can be specified by the description of the:
Airstream mechanism			Vocal fold action		Position of the velum
Place of articulation			Manner of articulation
Vowels are classified according to three characteristics that also defines the description and classification of a combination of these three factors:
The following table describes types of vowels with examples and how they are produced:
	Type of vowel
	Examples
	Production
	High
	[i] in bee
	The tongue is close to the roof of the mouth.
	Low
	[a] in car
	Considerable gap between the tongue and the roof of the mouth.
	Mid
	[e] in bed
	Articulated with the tongue in mid position between high and low.
	Front
	[i]
	The front of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate.
	Back
	[u] in moon
	The back of the tongue is raised towards the velum.
	Central
	[3] in her
	Produced with a raised centre part of the tongue.
	Rounded / unrounded
	[u]
[i]
	The lips are either rounded or unrounded.
The description and classification of a vowel is thus a combination of these three factors: vowel height, vowel location, and lip rounding. The IPA transcription symbols for vowels are the following:
It is a quadrilateral vowel chart that illustrates the shape of the oral cavity. The vertical axis represents the vertical position of the tongue and lower jaw. The horizontal axis represents the part of the tongue that is active during articulation.
 - ACTIVITY
Try to find the vowel [i] , as in beat, on the chart and describe it:
Answer - The chart shows that the vowel [i] is produced with the tongue in a high position and with the front of the tongue raised in the front of the mouth.
- This example illustrates that:
1 - Vowel height is a concept related to the verticality of the tongue height.
2 - Vowel location is a factor related to the horizontality of a certain section of the tongue.
3 - Voicing is a factor related to the role played by the vocal folds vibration in the production of voiceless or voiced sounds.
Consoantes = voz, modo e local da articulação
Voicing describes the Articulatory process in which the vocal folds vibrate, producing voiced or voiceless sounds. Manner of articulation is the configuration and interaction of the articulators in making a speech sound, and point of articulation is the place of contact where an obstruction occurs in the vocal tract.
Difference between these two sounds – [t] and [d] – relies on the voicing trace, indicating that vocal cords vibrate in the production of the latter sound.
The sounds of the consonants may be:
Plosive		Fricative		Affricate		Trill		Tap		Lateral
Approximant		Nasal
The manner of articulation features together with the voicing and point of articulation ones will determine the final description of these phones. 
Consonants are also characterized by their point of articulation. 
Classification, a consonant - sounds: 
Bilabial 		labiodenta	 interdental	alveolar	postalveolar	Retroflex	palatal	
alvelar		uvular		 pharyngeal	 glottal 		 labiovelar 
Places of articulation:
- INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) presents written representations of phones, i.e., transcription symbols for all distinctive speech sounds occurring in any language of the world. Phonetic transcription guarantees that a certain linguistic expression in a certain language be produced the way it is actually used in real life situations by native people of that language, which does not happen when it comes to regular writing, as we saw in section 1.
The association of written and oral modalities, as we discussed, is not perfect in any language. We do not write exactly what we say. This makes the need of a pattern that would allow the reading of words and expressions of any language possible.
For example, the English sentence ‘A tiger and a mouse were walking in a field’ will probably be produced differently according to the speaker´s social profile and communicative constraints in which the sentence is performed. Such information which may be of extreme importance under some circumstances will not be captured by the regular written representation.
In 1886, the International Phonetic Association was founded in Paris and distributed the first phonetic alphabet. The original symbols should be as simple as possible for language learners in Western Europe and thus most of them were taken from the Roman alphabet. In the past centuries, the IPA has undergone several revisions(the last one was completed in 2005) as we seen in the following chart:
The International Phonetic Alphabet (2005)
Attention
The IPA chart can be read in the following way: each row represents a different manner of articulation and each column refers to a different place of articulation. When two symbols appear in one cell, the one on the left is the voiceless consonant and the one on the right is the voiced counterpart. Empty cells hold possible combinations of place and manner of articulation, that haven't been so far identified in any language.
- PHONETIC AND PHONEMIC TRANSCRIPTION
Phonetic transcriptions do not refer to speakers' mental representations but to actual realizations and are therefore carried out for real speech. As transcrições fonéticas são para expressar as realizações reais dos falantes
Besides the IPA symbols for the phonemes, a really descriptive phonetic transcription includes diacritics to indicate specific phonetic realizations. Diacritics are fine phonetic details and prosodic features that may arise during the emergence of a certain phoneme (like the aspiration in [ph] that is represented by the diacritic(h)).
Diacríticos são pequenos detalhes fonéticos e características prosódicas que podem surgir durante o surgimento de um determinado fonema
As transcrições fonêmicas descrevem as supostas representações subjacentes dos sons, o conhecimento cognitivo do falante sobre a fonologia de uma língua.
Phonemic transcriptions describe the presumed underlying representations of sounds, the speaker's cognitive knowledge about the Phonology of a language. It represents the linguistically relevant information about articulation and is the kind of transcription we find in dictionaries. Phonemic transcriptions can also be made for real speech.
There are several differences between phonetic and phonemic transcriptions
A possible phonetic and phonemic transcriptions of the utterance “A tiger and a mouse were walking in a field” 
the convention is to use: 
Square brackets ([ ]) to refer to phones, the actual sounds, or to make a phonetic transcription.
Slashes (/ /) to refer to phonemes, the mental representation of the sound, or make a phonemic transcription.
 
Comment
A simple analysis on the differences in the transcriptions above points to the different interest of Phonetics and Phonology. For example, while in the first phonetic transcription for the sentence “A tiger and a mouse were walking in a field” the register of diacritics is observed, the same does not happen for the phonological transcription that actually aims at making sure to keep phonemic representation despite possible allophones associated to certain sounds.
Language teachers and language students may be directly benefited by being able to interpret or even produce phonetic and phonological transcriptions. 
Professores de línguas e estudantes de línguas podem ser beneficiados diretamente por serem capazes de interpretar ou mesmo produzir transcrições fonéticas e fonológicas.
It is still important for the L2 speaker to make sure to use proper pronunciation and intonation at least aiming to prevent miscommunication problems.
The management of phonetic and phonological transcription may contribute to the learning process with focus on what is actually important for successful worldwide communication. The general knowledge about the ways sounds are materialized in use and how they are cognitively represented as linguistic knowledge is particularly important for those interested in language learning.
Let’s understand a little bit more about transcription of vowels and consonants sounds: explicação das pronuncias de vogais e consoantes
CHECKING LEARNING – 31/3/23
1. The following chart refers to:
C ) The IPA transcription symbols for vowels.
The chart refers to the IPA transcription symbols for vowels, considering the tongue and the lower jaw.
2. Phonemic transcriptions describe:
B) The IPA transcription symbols for vowels.
 Phonemic transcriptions refer to mental representation, they describe the presumed underlying cognitive representation about sounds. If one is interested in articulatory details of an utterance or specific sound, s/he will need to carry out a phonetic transcription. Phonetic transcriptions, on the other hand, refers to actual realizations and are therefore carried out for real speech.
CONCLUSION
FINAL ISSUES
We have presented the main points related to Phonetics and Phonology as general areas of linguistic studies. We initially discussed the concepts of phoneme and grapheme (letter), and the problems related to possible mismatches between written representation and oral productions in the written production in the first or second language (L1 and L2) that could be possible challenges for language learning. In Section 2, we discussed sociolinguistics and linguistic variation. We brought up a discussion on how these issues are important, when it comes to L1/L2 teaching/learning processes both for the teaching of oral and written modalities.
When dealing with the aspects inherent to the variation and change of languages, the sociolinguistic approach shows one of the several characteristics of natural languages, both in oral and in written form: linguistic variation. When dealing with the linguistic and social aspects involved in the process of interactional language construction, the educational sociolinguistic approach reflects the ideological and social behavior of a linguistic community, revealing important aspects about its internal management.
A great contribution of sociolinguistics is the role it plays in the construction of an educational practice suitable for language teaching. Studies focused on the language/society interface dispel prejudices about the nature and function of language, contributing with more consistent principles for its teaching.
Finally, we have presented the International Phonetic Alphabet, the IPA, showing how it represents the speech sounds of any language, allowing for a more accurate phonetic/phonological description which may contribute to the learning process of any language aiming at successful worldwide communication.
- PODCAST - Professor Roberto de Freitas Junior talks about linguistic variation, accents, also summarizing what we have seen so far: 0:00 18:02
- REFERENCES
BORTONI-RICARDO, S. M. Manual de sociolinguística. São Paulo: Contexto, 2014.
BRASIL. Orientações Curriculares para o Ensino Médio: linguagens, códigos e suas tecnologias. Brasília: SEB/MEC, 2006.
BRASIL. Parâmetros Curriculares Nacionais: terceiro e quarto ciclos do ensino fundamental: língua portuguesa. Brasília: MEC/SEF, 1998.
GUT, U. Introduction to English Phonetics and Phonology. In: Textbooks in English Language and Linguistics (TELL). Peter Lang Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften: Frankfurt am Main, 2009.
MARCUSCHI, L. A. Da fala para a escrita: atividades de retextualização. 10. ed., São Paulo: Cortez, 2010.
MOLLICA, M. C.; BRAGA, M. L. (Orgs.) Introdução à sociolinguística: o tratamento da variação. São Paulo: Contexto, 2003.
CONTENT AUTHOR - Roberto de Freitas Junior
1.2 – TEMA - Os Fonemas Consonantais em Língua Inglesa 
DESCRIPTION
Introduction to the articulatory phonetics of English consonants.
PURPOSE
By means of studying places and manner of articulation of consonant phonemes, one will be better equipped to reproduce them more clearly, become a more articulate English speaker and consequently more skilled to teach the language.
GOALS
Section 1 - To identify fricative consonants: labiodental, dental, alveolar, palato-alveolar, and glottal fricatives
- INTRODUCTION
Even though the same organs (that is, the ones that compose the respiratory, the phonatory and the articulatory systems) are activated during speech production both in Portuguese and in English, patterns of muscular activities may differ depending on the sounds involved.
This happens when English learners, instead of placing the tongue between the teeth, resort to a more common phoneme suchas /s/, and the word think becomes:
THINK (pensar) – SINK (afundar)
The problem, therefore, does not lie in the physiology of pronunciation, but rather in the fact that the set of sounds we acquire may vary. Learning a new language would, this way, mean learning how to use our speech organs in new ways so that the sounds learnt in English could be intelligibly reproduced. Learning how and where sounds are articulated may help students reproduce sounds more clearly and become more articulate speakers.
- MANNER OF ARTICULATION, PLACE OF ARTICULATION AND VOICING
Sounds within a language are called phonemes, which means that vowels are phonemes and so are consonants. Vowels and consonants are phonemic categories, related to sounds and not letters.
Letters and phonemes do not always coincide as the same letter (or cluster) may refer to different phonemes. 
Even though th refers to the phoneme /θ/, in a different word such as they, the phoneme /ð/ is used.
The phoneme /ð/ in the word they
Both phonemes are produced by placing the tongue between the teeth, in other terms, they are both dental consonants. To produce both phonemes, the airstream is not interrupted, meaning they are both fricative consonants.
The only difference resides in the vibration of the vocal cords. Whereas in the phoneme /θ/ (as in think) the vocal cords do not vibrate, to produce the phoneme /ð/ (as in they) the cords need to vibrate. There is thus no difference either in the way the phonemes are articulated or in the articulators involved in producing them. While /ð/ is a voiced phoneme, /θ/ is voiceless.
Attention
A voiced phoneme happens when the vocal cords vibrate.
By placing your hand on your Adam’s apple while producing the /ð/ phoneme (as in they) you feel your cords vibrate.
On the other hand, when doing the same while pronouncing the /θ/ sound (as in think), no vibration is observed. /θ/ is then a voiceless consonant.
· By comparing both phonemes /θ/ and /ð/, we realize that consonants are categorized based on three factors:
On how the sounds are articulated	Where they are articulated	On the presence or absence of vibration
· In more academic terms, consonants differ in:
Manner of articulation		Place of articulation		Voicing
Since speech sounds are basically produced by obstructing or constricting airstream, that is, by means of modifying airstream, those categories relate to how and where the airflow is modified. For instance, when articulators are brought together, e.g., the upper teeth and the lower lip, such as in the phoneme /f/, the air finds its way through a small passage and the hissing sound, which derives from it, can be continued until your lungs run out of air. These are called:
· Continuant consonants
Consonants produced without any interruption to the airstream.
How is, then, the sound produced in the phoneme /f/?
By not blocking the airstream, by allowing the sound to be continuous. Since /f/ is a continuant consonant, it falls under the category of what is called:
· Fricative consonants As pronuncias ‘fricatives’ são as que usam o ar que passa entre os dentes
Consonants whose sounds are continuous and do not end up in an explosion.
The term fricative refers to how the sound is produced but it says nothing about which articulators are activated during sound production. In the production of the phoneme /f/ both the upper teeth (dental) and the lower lip (labio) are mobilized, and that is why it is called labiodental consonant.
How is then the sound produced?
With the upper teeth against the lower lip (labiodental), allowing for a continuous airstream (fricative).
According to where the sound is articulated, fricative consonants are split into smaller categories such as:
Labiodental	Dental		Alveolar		Palato-alveolar		Glottal
Except for the glottal one, each category is composed of a pair of consonants that only differ in voicing (one is voiced and the other voiceless).
- LABIODENTAL FRICATIVES – o ar passa pelos lábios
Labiodental consonants are produced when the upper teeth touch the lower lip. Two sounds derive from this encounter: /f/ and /v/. Both consonants are labiodental fricatives.
safe instead of save
In the production of the phoneme /v/ the vocal cords vibrate whereas the same does not apply to /f/. In other words, /v/ is voiced and /f/ is voiceless.
 EX: Very / Vest / Voice / Above
If you feel a vibration in your vocal cords, then, you are producing the /v/ phoneme.
 EX: Fat / Fine / Food / Thief
If not, you are producing its voiceless counterpart, that is, /f/.
- DENTAL FRICATIVES – /th/ - a língua posiciona atrás dos dentes de cima e o ar sai devagar por entre os dentes 
The tongue and the teeth produce a gap through which the air escapes. This type of consonant poses a great challenge to most Portuguese speakers since it is inexistent in the Portuguese language. To make students’ lives easier, teachers and even pronunciation guides tend to explain that dental consonants are produced by placing the tongue between the teeth. Actually, the tongue is normally placed inside the teeth and not between the teeth. The tip of the tongue would then touch the inside of the lower teeth and the blade of the tongue the inside of the lower teeth.
To understand how to pronounce this phoneme, do the following: place the front of your tongue against the back of your front teeth. Let the air out as you breathe out. Produce a continuant sound. Once again, these fricatives can be voiced and voiceless consonants.
They are voiceless /θ/ in the following words:
 	
EX: Month / Teeth / Anything / Birthday / Thin / Thief 			EX: Leather / Gather / They / Then / Smooth / Bathe
Notice that the phoneme /θ/ can occur in the beginning, middle or end of words.
	
Attention
Touch your Adam’s apple while producing this sound. If you feel a vibration, you are producing the right sound.
So far, we have seen cases in which the lip, the tongue, and the teeth are involved in sound production. However, many other articulators can be activated when speaking a language. The main ones are:
Pharynx		Velum or soft palate		Hard palate or “roof of the mouth”	Alveolar ridge
Tongue			Teeth				Lips
In the following sections you will see fricative consonants that are produced by bringing other articulators together, such as in the word sin.
The phoneme /s/ is produced when the airstream is modified by bringing the tip of the tongue closer to the alveolar ridge (the hard, bony ridge behind the teeth) and a sharp hiss is produced. Since the alveolar ridge is involved, this type of consonant falls under the category of an alveolar consonant.
- ALVEOLAR FRICATIVES – /s/ and /z/ - o ar passa entre a língua arredondada, fazendo um assobio
When the tip or blade of the tongue is brought closer to the alveolar ridge, the air flows through a deep groove in the tongue, producing a sharp hiss. 
The phonemes /s/ and /z/ are the two alveolar fricatives that only differ in the buzzing sound the phoneme /z/ produces. While /s/ is voiceless, /z/ is its voiced counterpart.
/s/ is a pretty common sound in most languages and it normally does not pose a great challenge for English learners, just remember the hissing sound a snake makes!
Attention
Note that throughout this section phonemes are being discussed, that is, sounds and not letters. Just remember that many times in English letters and phonemes do not coincide, meaning that the same phoneme can be produced by different letters or combination of letters.
While it is true that /s/ in many cases is just a phonemic representation of the letter s, bear in mind that the rule does not apply to all cases. Notice the following words, for example:
Click to listen.
Phonemic representation of the letter s 		Phonemic exceptions
Sky / Skip / Snake / Fast / Castle 			Cell / Cent / Kiss / Scent
Even though different letters and combination of letters are being used in the words, they all refer to the same phoneme, namely, /s/. When the letter c is followed by e, i or y, it is usuallypronounced as /s/, like in the words cell, ice, cent and society. Also, the letter x, represented by the combination /ks
Six
The only difference between /s/ and /z/ is that your vocal cords vibrate while pronouncing words such as:
 Zoo / Zest
The letter s is pronounced as /z/ when between vowels in a stressed syllable, such as in the word because. Also, the letter s in certain plural nouns, when following a vowel or most voiced consonants is pronounced as /z/ as well.
 	EX: Shoes / Cars
- PALATO-ALVEOLAR FRICATIVES – o ar passa n céu da boca e sai entre os dentes e os lábios arredondados
Before delving a little bit deeper into the sound production of the palato-alveolar fricatives, picture the following scene:
 Think about the sound you make when you try to do it: shhhhhhh!
Did you notice that the tongue was in contact with an area further back than when you produce the phonemes /s/ and /z/? This sound production is partly palatal and partly alveolar, since it happens in the area in between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate.
ship!
You may realize that the air flows through a passage along the tongue as in the word sip, but your tongue moves backwards to produce de /ʃ/ in ship, making the air passage wider. The air flows through a shallower groove in the tongue than in /s/, which makes the hissing sound graver.
As with most fricatives, the palato-alveolar consonants also have voiced and voiceless counterparts. Whereas /ʃ/ is voiceless, that is, it is produced without any vibration in the vocal cords; /ʒ/ is its voiced counterpart.
The phoneme /ʃ/ has different spellings such: sh, ch, ci, ti, ss. 
 	
EX: Issue / Ship / Special / Chef / Option 			EX: Vision / Closure / Regime / Massage
When pronouncing these words just make sure not to let your tongue touch either your teeth or the gum ridge.
The phoneme /ʒ/ has similarly different spellings. These include: si, su, gi, ge as in the words:
Attention
This phoneme is mainly found in the middle or end of words. Just don’t forget to make your vocal cords vibrate!
So far, the fricatives described have been produced by combining articulators present in the mouth (tongue, lip, palate, alveolar ridge) and have been described in contrast with their counterparts (e.g., voiced or voiceless). The remaining fricative, nonetheless, has no voiced counterpart and has, additionally, a place of articulation that cannot be placed in the mouth.
- GLOTTAL FRICATIVE – o ar vem da garganta e faz quase o som do ‘R’
A glottal consonant is neither produced in the palate nor in the alveolar ridge; the airflow is modified instead in the glottis (the space between the vocal cords).
/h/ is produced by narrowing the space between the vocal folds. The air flows through a narrower passage between the vocal folds, producing, then, a friction noise.
 EX: Ahead / Behind / He / How
Just make sure you pronounce the /h/ phoneme, otherwise you may produce a completely different word and your message may be compromised. If /h/ is not pronounced, you may, for instance, say:
at instead of hat
Fricative consonants are categorized based on their places of articulation. According to the articulators involved in making the stricture, fricatives may be labiodental, dental, alveolar, palato-alveolar and glottal consonants. Apart from the glottal fricative, all the other consonants were studied in pairs: as voiced and voiceless counterparts.
The following chart summarizes what was discussed in the section:
	Fricatives
	Labiodental
	Dental
	Alveolar
	Palato-alveolar
	Glottal
	Voiced
	/v/
	/ð/
	/z/
	/ʒ/
	/h/
	Voiceless
	/f/
	/θ/
	/s/
	/ʃ/
	
In the following video, Professor Fábio Simas presents us with some practical examples of fricative consonants. Let's watch! – Explica pronuncia utilizando o ar pasando na boca
LEARNING CHECK 31/3/23
1. We have studied different fricative consonants that differ in terms of their places of articulation and voicing. Based on that, answer the following: why would a non-native English speaker say /f/ink instead of /ɵ/ink when trying to pronounce the word think? Which mistakes did this person make?
A – C) The person produced a labiodental consonant instead of a dental one. That is, wrong place of articulation.
The /ɵ/ is a voiceless dental consonant, produced by the constriction of the airflow when the tongue is placed inside the teeth, whereas /f/ is a labiodental fricative. Both consonants differ in places of articulation.
2. Many times, in English, the spelling of a word does not coincide with its pronunciation. That means that letters and phonemes may be different. Having that in mind, choose the alternative that exemplify this phenomenon:
A – B) Has, because, legs, shoes
The letter s in all the words in the list is pronounced as its voiced counterpart /z/. The spelling and the phoneme are not the same then.
Section 2 - To identify plosive consonants: bilabial, alveolar, and velar plosive
 Puff of air is released, after a moment of blockage, and a small explosion seems to happen in your mouth.
Try saying the following sentence:
 (
The 
cat
 is in the 
house
.
)
- PLOSIVE CONSONANTS - /k/ and /t/
CAT - What have you noticed about the two phonemes /k/ and /t/?
If you try to continuously make these sounds until your lungs run out of air, you will realize that you will not be able to. To make the same sound again you will have to obstruct the airstream, to completely block the air from flowing. They are, therefore, non-continuants, as their sounds cannot be prolonged. And the reason why lies in the way (manner) they are articulated. Both consonants /k/ and /t/ depend on a three-step mechanism to be pronounced:
· The closure phase - O ar fica bloqueado
It happens when articulators are brought together to completely block the airstream and the air is trapped behind the closure. 
· The closure phase - O ar fica bloqueado
It entails maintaining the vocal tract completely closed. This is when a continuous pressure is felt as the air is trying to be released. The duration of the hold phase may be shorter or longer, depending on the consonant involved. It is usually longer for /p/, /t/, and /k/ than it is for /b/, /d/, and /g/.
· The release phase - quando o ar é solto e a liberação produz um som que se assemelha ao de uma explosão
It happens when the articulators are released, and the air is let out. Because of the difference in pressure (the pressure is higher behind the closure) the release produces a sound which resembles that of an explosion – this is called the plosive burst.
To produce both consonants, /k/ and /t/, we need to completely stop the air from flowing, at least for some time. 
Diferença
Fricative consonants
When there is a constriction of the airstream caused by articulators brought together, the airstream remains continuous and the sound is continuant, like in the word house.
Plosive consonants
They occur when there is a complete obstruction to the airstream. Articulators are brought together to create a stricture that allows no air to escape. The air is trapped temporarily in the vocal tract. These non-continuant consonants are, then, called plosive (or stop) consonants, like in the case of /k/ and /t/.
 (
As you may have realized, by changing the place of articulation, by using both lips to form the stricture, the 
word
 which was initially cat became the word bat. A change in the place of articulation and the presence of vibration created a totally new phoneme that changed the meaning of the 
word
.
)
- BILABIAL PLOSIVES - /b/ and /p/
The phoneme /b/, however, is formed by a closure made at the lips. And that is why it is called a bilabial (two lips) consonant.
Both /b/ and /p/ are bilabial plosives, so they both converge in manner and place of articulation; their only difference resides in the presence or absence of vibration. While /p/ is voiceless, /b/ is its voiced counterpart.
Cab may become cap		Robe may sound like rope
/b/ is not always pronounced and in some words, it is silent (this happens when bcomes after m in the same syllable)
Climb / plumber / comb
Initial voiceless plosives like the phoneme /p/ are aspirated, whereas /b/, as a voiced plosive, is unaspirated. 
Aspiration is perceptible when there is a delay between the plosive burst and the beginning of voicing, which is often equated with a puff of air – Pit
When /p/ follows /s/ it is, though, not aspirated, like in the word: Spit
The lack of aspiration in an initial /p/ may cause misunderstandings. 
Bat instead of Pat		Bear instead of pear
 
- ALVEOLAR POLSIVES - /t/ /d/
 (
Ted is sad
 - 
You may have noticed that both Ted and sad are formed in the same area (the alveolar ridge). To produce both sounds the tip/blade of the tongue is brought closer to the alveolar ridge
)
Alveolar plosives are formed when a closure is made with the tongue tip against the alveolar ridge (that is, the hard, bony ridge behind the teeth).	
For the /s/ phoneme, though, the air passage is not completely blocked and a hissing sound results from it.
To pronounce /t/, on the other hand, the airflow is blocked and after its release there is a puff of air.
Both /s/ and /t/ are alveolar consoants. In other terms, one is a fricative consonant and the other, a plosive one. What’s more, /s/ and /t/ are voiceless, produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.
/t/ and /p/ are voiceless plosive consonant and aspirated whenever it is an initial phoneme in a stressed syllable.
 If pronounced with no aspiration it may resemble its voiced counterpart, that is, /d/. /t/ is aspirated in words 
Two / top / ten / time / terrific
It occurs between vowels and follows a stressed syllable it is not aspirated
Water / city / butter
While it is true that the letter t is usually pronounced /t/, it is not the only letter or combination of letters that is pronounced as such. Think of the past tense of the verb stop, that is, the word stopped.
This happens whenever -ed follows a voiceless consonant
Stopped / kissed / cooked
The /d/ at the end of words, such as bed or card, for example, as the lack of vibration may give the listener the impression that you are saying bet and cart instead.
Another pronunciation problem may result from placing your tongue tip at the wrong place. Your tongue tip should touch your alveolar ridge and not the back of your teeth (inside the teeth) or between your teeth, otherwise:
Ladder may sound like lather.
 
- VELAR PLOSIVES - k/ and /g/ - ch
 (
By pronouncing the 
word
 cat, you may notice that the back of your tongue touches the soft palate (that spot that may trigger the “gag reflex”) to produce the phoneme /k/..
/t/ is an alveolar plosive, meaning that the closure is made with the tongue tip against the alveolar ridge.
) 
Velar plosives are, then, formed when the back of the tongue and the soft palate make a closure, preventing the air from escaping 
The soft palate, however, has other functions as well, and in our case, it functions as the place of articulation for our remaining plosives: /k/ and /g/.
/k/ is not a hard phoneme to produce, especially when compared to /θ/, a dental fricative consonant. However, attention should be given to aspiration.
/k/ is a very explosive phoneme in English and whenever it is an initial phoneme in a stressed syllable, such as in cat, it should be said with strong aspiration and a puff of air.
 Cat / Cut / Become
Just remember that the letter k does not always coincide with the phoneme /k/. In words such as knit and know, the letter k is silent, which is usually the case when k precedes the letter n. Moreover, different spellings refer to the phoneme /k/: k being the most frequent one, and ch, a less frequent spelling. The words mechanics, chrome, Christmas exemplify the former. The letter c, whenever it precedes a, o or u, is also pronounced as /k/, as in the words:
When the velar closure produces vibration of the vocal cords and less aspiration, the sound /g/ is being pronounced. Back instead of bag!
While it is true that the letter g is usually pronounced as /g/, words containing the letter x may also be pronounced as a combination of /g/ and /z/, such as the word:
Exact (/gz/)
 Cigar / Agree / Dog
We have studied three pairs of plosives that differ in terms of places of articulation. When it comes to the articulators involved, plosives in English can be alveolar, velar or bilabial consonants.
In the study of the plosives, aside from voicing, that is, categorizing the consonants in terms of absence of presence of vibration; another element was added, namely: aspiration. Even though the vibration of the vocal cords may play a major role in determining different consonants, in the case of the plosives, aspiration becomes a much more relevant aspect, especially to a native ear.
Voiceless consonants are aspirated whenever they are the initial consonants in a stressed syllable. That means that while /t/ is:
Aspirated in the word top			Not aspirated in word water
The following chart summarizes what was discussed in this section:
	Plosive Consonants
	Bilabial
	Alveolar
	Velar
	Voiced (unaspirated)
	/b/
	/d/
	/g/
	Voiceless (aspirated)
	/p/
	/t/
	/k/
- vídeo - Professor Fábio Simas presents us with some practical examples of plosive consonants. Let's watch!
LEARNING CHECK
1. A change in one phoneme completely changes an entire word. What makes you say cat, instead of bat or Pat is the change in one phoneme. Having that in mind, explain the difference between the consonants /k/, /b/, and /p/.
C - They are all plosives that differ in places of articulation and voicing. Whereas /p/ and /b/ are bilabial consonants, /k/ velar. What’s more, /b/ is the only voiced consonant.
/p/ and /b/ are bilabial plosives, that is, they have the same place and manner of articulation. Their only difference resides in voicing: /p/ is voiceless and, this way, aspirated and /b/ is voiced and unaspirated. The phoneme /k/ is a velar plosive and voiceless.
2. One of the greatest problems students face when trying to understand English pronunciation comes from the fact that, in English, many times spelling and pronunciation don’t converge. Let’s take a look at the ch, for example. What can be said about this combination of letters in the following words: chef and chemistry?
E) The letters ch refer to different phonemes: palato-alveolar and velar consonants, respectively.
The letters refer to two different phonemes. In the word chef, the phoneme /ʃ/ is being produced. Therefore, in the first word, the letters ch refer to a palato-alveolar fricative. The second word, however, falls under the category of a velar plosive, since the phoneme /k/ is being produced.
Section 3 - To classify consonants based on the degree of constriction
- AIRFLOW AND CONSTRICTION – passagem do ar na produção da fala
Speech production involves modifying the airstream. Different phonemes are produced by different degrees of constriction. While the plosive burst is produced by a complete closure at some point in the vocal tract, fricatives such as /f/ and /v/ result from a friction sound. Fricatives, therefore, are produced when the degree of constriction is such that a friction noise is heard.
Both fricatives and plosives are categorized under the umbrella term:
Obstruents: In phonetics, obstruent is a sound that is produced by obstructing the airflow, whether by a complete closure (such as is the case with the plosives) or by a narrowing in the vocal tract (as with the fricatives).
Although all obstruents are consonants, not all consonants are obstruents, as you may see in the following sections. There are three types of obstruents in English, namely:
Plosives		Fricatives		Affricates
- AFFRICATES - /tʃ/
The first phoneme in the word tip is a plosive consonant, meaning that we bring the tip/blade of the tongue close to the alveolar ridge, and the airflow is momentarily blocked. By releasing the air, due to the pressure difference, we can hear an explosive sound called plosive burst.
Tip		Chip
Notice that to pronounce chip,we must completely obstruct the air from flowing and produce a friction sound. The resultant phoneme seems to be a combination of a plosive and a fricative.
Then, the palato-alveolar closure is released slowly, producing a friction at the same place of articulation.
The phoneme /tʃ/ is a combination of the:
Plosive /t/		Fricative /ʃ/
The phoneme /tʃ/, in the word chip, is an affricate. There are two affricates in English, formed at the same place of articulation: they are both palato-alveolar affricates. /tʃ/ is produced without vibration of the vocal cords, that is, it is a voiceless consonant.
Since this phoneme involves a plosive/fricative combination, attention should be paid to its initial closure, otherwise the phoneme /ʃ/ may be pronounced instead. If you don’t press the tongue tip against the gum ridge behind your upper teeth
Wish instead of which		Share instead of chair
The phoneme may be found in the beginning, middle, and end of words. The affricate may have the following spellings: ch, tu, tch and less frequently t and ti.
Cheap / Rich / Mature / Picture / Catch / Kitchen / Question / Digestion
Its voiced counterpart also derives from a complete closure followed by a fricative release. The phoneme /dʒ/ is the one found in words 
Jury		Joy
If you forget to press your tongue against the upper gum ridge, you will say:
Lesion instead of legion
Alternatively, if your vocal cords do not vibrate:
Badge will resemble batch
/dʒ/ may be spelled as: j, g, and dg.
Just / Gentle / Fudge
The letters di and du may be pronounced as /dʒ/ as well as in words such as:
Cordial / Graduate
The letter g at the end of words and before a silent e is usually pronounced as /dʒ/. This is what happens in words such as age, college, collage.
- APPROXIMANTS
The degree of constriction may vary depending on the consonants involved:
· Plosives entail the highest degree of constriction: complete closure.
· Fricatives depend on a stricture capable of hindering the airstream in such a way that friction is caused.
· Affricates are a combination of plosives and fricatives, therefore both degrees are at play.
Since articulators are brought into closer contact (approximation), these consonants, formed without friction, are known as approximants.
Approximants, together with the vowels, fall under the category of:
- Sonorants
Sonorants are speech sounds produced by a degree of constriction that is less radical than those that produce obstruents. There is, then, no obstruction to the airflow and the air can escape without any audible turbulence or friction. Nasals and approximants, as well as vowels, are sonorants.
There are four approximants in English, and they are split into two categories:
Lateral approximants		Central approximants
Attention
The terms liquids and glides may also be used. These terms are not synonymous and, even though some of their phonemes overlap, there are also differences. 
 
- LIQUIDS
Liquid consonants are formed when the tongue approaches a place of articulation in the mouth. This approximation, however, does not hinder the airflow by causing an obstruction so the air can escape through the mouth without any turbulence. The position and movement of the tongue directs the airflow. Liquid consonants are approximants since we bring the articulators into close contact, but we hear no friction. They may also be classed as lateral and central approximants.
Lap		Rap
When you say the first one, you notice that the tip of your tongue is raised and touches the upper teeth or the roof of the mouth (as it does for the phonemes /t/ and /d/). You also notice that this approximation does not involve a closure in the vocal tract and the air can flow toward the sides of the mouth.
Frictionless airflow is possible since the sides of the tongue are kept down.
The air is, then, pushed to the sides of the tongue and able to escape laterally.
/l/ is a lateral approximant. It is also an alveolar consonant, as there is a central closure with the alveolar ridge. The term lateral refers to how the air escapes (laterally) and the word alveolar refers to its place of articulation. In terms of its manner of articulation, /l/ may be classed as a lateral approximant. Notice that the airstream is blocked centrally, but lateral escape is allowed.
the word rap!
When you say this word, the tip of the tongue approaches the same area it does for /t/ and /d/, but it never really touches this area , produce the /r/ phoneme.. It is, in fact, curled upward toward the roof of the mouth.
This curling process usually makes the tip of the tongue move to a position further back in the mouth than that for /t/ and /d/. 
Some books refer to /r/ as being an alveolar consonant, others prefer the term post-alveolar but here we will be calling it a palatal liquid, in clear contrast with /l/, the alveolar liquid. Since the tongue is elevated towards the roof of the mouth (the hard palate), it is a palatal consonant.
Moreover, the consonant r in English is very difficult to describe as native speakers may produce it differently (it is one of the most variable sounds in English), and that’s also why authors don’t seem to agree when it comes to its place of articulation.
Nonetheless, one thing is for sure: it involves the tip of the tongue approaching the alveolar ridge area, but not touching it. The tongue is also curled backwards.
To produce /r/ the air does not escape laterally as it does for /l/; it flows, on the contrary, centrally. /r/ is a central approximant, since the air can flow centrally without any audible friction. The airflow is altered but still directed forward.
/l/ is a lateral approximant, and an alveolar liquid consonant
/r/ is a central approximant, and a palatal liquid consonant
· Alveolar liquid
One simple way of describing the pronunciation of /l/ is to say that the tongue tip is pressed against the gum ridge behind the upper front teeth. The air escapes through the sides of the tongue and the vocal cords vibrate. 
The position of the body of the tongue. Two distinct pronunciations.
1. “CLEAR L”	 Let
Whenever L comes initially in a syllable, the body of the tongue is bunched upwards and forwards towards the hard palate, giving a light quality to the sound, as in a word like:
This is called: “clear L” and the front of the tongue is raised. “Clear L” will occur before vowels in words such as:
Lemonade / Lake
2. “DARK L”	Kill
This is not what happens in words when L comes at the end.
In this case, the back of the tongue is raised and “dark L” is pronounced instead. Occur before consonants and at the end of syllables, in words such as:
Eel / Bill
· Palatal liquid
The English language is split into two types of accents:
1 - Rhotic accents
When the letter r is pronounced regardless of its context, then, it means we are dealing with a rhotic variation.
Rhotic accents encompass most American varieties, Scottish, Irish, and the regional accents of the West Country of England.
2 - Non-rhotic accents
In non-rhotic accents, r is only pronounced before a vowel. This accent is characteristic of most of England and Wales, American English spoken in the southern and eastern states, some Caribbean, all Australian, all South African, and most New Zealand varieties of English.
 In non-rhotic accents, the letter r is not pronounced and the word sounds as follows:
/kɑː/ For example, in a word such as car!
To produce the /r/ phoneme the tongue tip is curled upward toward the roof of the mouth:
If you touch the roof of your mouth with your tongue, you will produce /l/ instead of /r/. Just make sure your tongue approaches the hard palate, but never touches it. Also, /r/ is a voiced consonant, and your vocal cords should vibrate while you make this phoneme. The production of /r/, differently from what happens to /l/, involves lip movement. The lips are rounded.
A different sound, however, is heard when the letter is at the beginning of a syllable and comes after p, t or k. For example:
Press / Trees
In this case, the phoneme is voicelessand a bit fricative.
In the other cases, both liquid consonants are voiced, and both also involve the tongue approaching a place of articulation in the mouth, be it the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.
To produce the alveolar liquid, the air escapes laterally.
To produce the palatal liquid, the air escapes centrally instead.
- NASALS
Approximants produce a frictionless sound since the stricture, formed by bringing articulators into closer contact, is wide enough not to cause any friction. Nasal consonants are also frictionless sounds, but these phonemes are produced differently.
Even though nasals are sonorants, like approximants and vowels, their production involve a closure in the vocal tract. Unlike the plosives, though, the air is not held behind the closure but allowed to escape through the nasal cavity.
First, the velum is lowered. Then, a closure in the vocal tract stops the airflow through the oral cavity.
Finally, the airflow continues through the nasal cavity.
· Alveolar nasal
To produce this phoneme, there is a complete closure between the blade of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. The air escapes through the nasal cavity. 
It is the initial phoneme in the word:
Not
Just make sure you press your tongue tip against the gum ridge behind your upper front teeth. The airstream is continuous through the nose and your vocal cords vibrate as /n/ is a voiced consonant.
The letter n is usually pronounced. 
The exception to the rule is when it is preceded by m. When n follows m, it is not pronounced, it is silent.
Column / Solemn
· Bilabial nasal
Nasal consonants, especially when they come at the end of words, are often confused. If /n/ entails a closure between the tongue and the alveolar ridge, /m/, being a bilabial nasal, entails the lips coming together. There is, then, a complete closure between the lips and the air escapes through the nasal cavity. And the vocal cords vibrate!
Remember the phoneme’s place of articulation to avoid possible misunderstandings. If you form a closure between the alveolar ridge and the tongue, instead of closing your lips, you will say:
Sun instead of some
· Velar nasal
If you say the word sing, you will realize that the closure is formed at a different point in the vocal tract. The back of the tongue and the velum form a complete closure and the air flows through the nasal cavity. This phoneme may pose some problems as students may be unfamiliar with it and try to resort to a more common sound, namely, /n/. Just remember to raise the back of your tongue, not the tip.
The consonant /ŋ/ is only found in the middle and end of words. The letters ng and ngue, whenever they come at the end of words, are pronounced as /ŋ/.
Sing / Walking / Tongue
The letter n, when it precedes g or k, is usually pronounced as /ŋ/. This is the case in words such as:
Single / Drink / Hungry
We have studied so far different types of sonorants and obstruents. The obstruents are formed when there is an obstruction to the airflow. There are three types of obstruents: plosives, fricatives and affricates. The remaining phonemes are called sonorants, which are formed when the airstream can flow without any audible friction. Vowels, approximants and nasals are sonorants.
In the following video, Professor Tatiana Massuno presents us consonants produced with continuous and non-turbulent airflow. Let's watch it!
Africates = Fricatives+plosives			Sonorants = liquids and approximants.
Nasals 
LEARNING CHECK
1. Even though fricatives and affricates are both obstruents, there is a great difference between their manners of articulation. Having this difference in mind, choose the alternative that best describes the difference between the words sheep and cheap
While the initial phoneme in sheep is a fricative, the initial phoneme in cheap is an affricate.
The initial phoneme in the word sheep refers to the fricative /ʃ/. The initial phoneme in the word cheap, on the other hand, refers to the phoneme /tʃ/, which is a plosive- fricative combination. Even though there is an initial closure to produce this phoneme, the air is slowly released with some friction noise. The phoneme /tʃ/ is an affricate.
2. Nasals and liquids are both sonorants, meaning that there is no obstruction to the airflow. The air escapes differently, however, in each case. Choose the alternative that contains a true statement about nasals and liquids:
. An alveolar nasal is a phoneme formed by a closure between the tongue and the alveolar ridge. The air, then, escapes through the nasal cavity.
The term alveolar determines the place of articulation, that is, the point in the vocal tract where there is a closure or stricture. For nasals, it determines where the closure occurs so that the air can escape through the nasal cavity.
SECTION 4 - To recognize the context in which syllabic consonants can occur
- VOWELS X CONSONANTS
Even though vowels and consonants are concepts used on a daily basis by the majority of the population around the world, pinpointing their differences can be a bit tricky in English.
Firstly, since consonants and vowels are phonemes, certain letters, depending on their context, may act as consonants or vowels.
- CONSONANTS AND VOWELS
The last time you went to the doctor she or he probably asked you to say:
“ahh!”
When you produce this sound (ahh) the air flows through an unobstructed passage from the larynx to the lips. And it is an unobstructed view. It wouldn’t be the same if you were asked to say /k/ or /d/ instead.
Simply put, vowels are phonemes produced with minimal obstruction to the airflow.
All vowels are approximants since they involve open approximations. For vowels, the tongue shape and its movement, as well as the movement of the lips are much more relevant.
However, this simple distinction fails to account for some phonemes such as:
/w/ in wet 	/j/ in yes
The obstruction to the airflow in these phonemes resembles what happens in vowel production. /w/ and /j/ may adapt to the adjacent vowel. The same does not apply to vowels, though (as they typically do not adapt to adjacent consonants).
- GLIDES
Glides, together with the phoneme /r/, are grouped under the central approximant category. That means that they are formed by a stricture of open approximation and the stricture is wide enough not to cause any turbulence to the airflow. What’s more, the air escapes centrally, without any audible friction.
When you say the word wet you realize that your lips are rounded in the same position as for the vowel /u/.
Phonetically, /w/ is like a vowel since it is place of articulation is basically the same as for /u/. It does not function as a vowel, though.
Wet 		Get/ Vet/ Pet/ Let – (all Consonants)
/w/ also occupies the place of a consonant
 The indefinite article may also hint /w/ is a consonant.
A wet car
Notice that before /w/ an "a" is used, meaning that it sounds like a consonant.
Phonetically, /w/ is like a vowel.
Phonologically, /w/ is a consonant.
You may refer to /w/ as being a central approximant, a semi-vowel.
A glide
The term glide refers to the fact that it glides into the syllable nucleus. As it occurs in prevocalic positions, it cannot form the nucleus of the syllable. And when a glide, conversely, follows a vowel, it is, then, considered a diphthong.
· Labiovelar glide
/w/ is considered to be a doubly articulated sound. It involves an open approximation at the lips and the tongue back at the velum and that is why it is often called a labiovelar approximant. This labiovelar approximant shares its articulatory characteristics with the vowel /u/, as mentioned before:
The velum is raised so the air does not escape through the nose. The airflow, however, is altered by having it glide over the tongue before it escapes through the mouth.
The labiovelar approximant is considered to be a very short version of /u/.
This consonant sound occurs at the beginning and middle of words. It does not occur at the end of words in English, though. At the end of words, it is usually silent, as in wordslike:
How / Know
The letter w is always pronounced as /w/ in prevocalic position, for instance, in words such as:
Wood / We / Away
And a less frequent spelling for the phoneme are the letters o and u, in words such as:
One / Quiet
Whenever they say words spelled with wh-, like what or where, use aspiration and sound, resembling what happens to the phoneme /h/. The resultant phoneme is a combination of /h/ and /w/ and sounds like /hw/. 
Both pronunciations (/hw/ and /w/) are acceptable, though. 
What		/wät/ → [hwät]
Where		/wər/ → [hwər]
· PALATAL GLIDE
If instead of the word wet, you say the word yet, you will notice that the latter resembles the articulatory production of another vowel /i/.
Wet		Yet
If you prolong the pronunciation of /j/ it will sound like /i/, meaning that /j/ sounds like a very short /i/. 
The consonant /j/ is usually spelled as the letter y, in words such as:
York / You / Yet
Some words containing the letter u may also refer to the palatal glide, in words such as:
Use / Computer / Cue
Liquids and glides are both approximants, their difference resides, however, in the fact that:
To produce the glides the body of the tongue is used.
To produce the liquids the tip of the tongue is raised.
- SYLLABIC CONSONANTS
A syllable, phonetically speaking, consists of a center that has no or minimal obstruction to the airflow. Before and after the center there is more obstruction, though.
In other terms, a syllable consists of a nucleus that is usually a vowel. Before and after the nucleus there are other segments, which are typically consonants. If there is no vowel, certain consonants may function as the nucleus, filling the nucleus slot in the syllable. These are called syllabic consonants. Nasals and liquids can occur as syllabic consonants. Syllabic consonants are longer and more prominent than usual.
Sonority plays a great role here. More sonorous sounds are more apt to fill the nucleus slot. Vowels are more sonorous than plosives or fricatives, for instance.
Fricatives entail a friction noise		Plosives entail a plosive burst
It is easy to notice that these consonants depend acoustically on noise elements to be produced. That is not the case with vowels, since they are approximants:
· Vowels typically form the nucleus.
· Obstruents, on the other hand, occur at the margins of the syllable (they precede or follow the nucleus).
· Sonorant consonants (approximants and nasals) may function as the nucleus, when there is no vowel in the syllable.
The greater the constriction, the less sonorous a phoneme is.
Philipp Carr (2013) proposes the following sonority scale:
Low vowels	High vowels	Approximants		Nasals		Voiced fricatives	Voiceless fricatives
Voiced stops		Voiceless stops		
- The schwa sound
The schwa sound is one of the most frequent vowels sounds in English. It is associated with weak, unstressed syllables and, differently from other vowels, is not articulated with much energy.
Man	Postman
You will realize that the letter a has two distinct pronunciations. In the first word, a is pronounced as /æ/.
In the second word, however, since a is in an unstressed syllable, it is pronounced as /ə/.
As you can notice, /ə/ is the symbol for the schwa sound.
Any vowel letter may be pronounced as a schwa sound, as long as it is unstressed. The schwa vowel is a very short, quick sound, pronounced in a relaxed way with barely any lip movement.
Syllabic consonants are not exclusive , they are more perceptible as the rate of the speech increases
Button		/ˈbʌtən/ → [ˈbʌtn̩].
The second syllable, unstressed one, may have a syllabic nasal, depending on how the speaker pronounces it. If the schwa sound /ə/ is lost during speech production, /n/ may fill the nucleus slot. 
The omission of the neutral vowel /ə/ leads to a syllabic /n/.
- Syllabic nasals
The most frequently found syllabic nasal is the syllabic n. It is most common after alveolar plosives and fricatives, for instance
Eaten / Frighten / Button
Since the second syllable is unstressed, the vowel before the nasal sound is not pronounced and n functions as the nucleus of the syllable. After certain phonemes, however, syllabic n does not occur.
That is the case of the following phonemes: /l/, /tʃ/, and /dʒ/. The schwa sound is not lost, and n is not syllabic. In.
Sullen / Christian
After bilabial consonants, both /n/ and syllabic n are possible 
Ribbon / Happen
The same happens after velar consonants, both pronunciations are possible, in words such as:
Waken		/ˈweɪkən/ → [ˈweɪkn̩]
After /f/ and /v/, syllabic n is also common, as:
Seven		/ˈsɛvən/ → [ˈsevn̩]
Heaven		/ˈhɛvən/ → [ˈhɛvn̩]
In words such as button, syllabic n occurs as a product of the join between the plosive and the nasal parts of the word. The word has an alveolar plosive and an alveolar nasal. There is, then, a complete closure formed by the tongue against the alveolar ridge. There is, this way, no possibility for the unobstructed airflow needed for a vowel.
Attention
Notice that the plosive and the nasal portions are homorganic, that is, they share the same place of articulation. This is a clear case of syllabic consonant.
Syllabic m occurs in similar environments, in words such as:
Rhythm / Bottom / Blossom
After velar consonants syllabic n may occur. However, there is another possibility:
The occurrence of a velar plosive (/k/) close to a nasal (/n/) may lead to the nasal assimilating a characteristic of the plosive.
broken
The nasal may assimilate the place of articulation of the velar plosive
Instead of producing a syllabic n, another phoneme may occur: syllabic ŋ. The same can happen in a word such as:
Happen		/ˈhæpən/ → [hæpn̩] repn
A ocorrência de uma plosiva bilabial próxima a uma nasal também pode levar à assimilação de uma característica da plosiva bilabial, ou seja, seu local de articulação. Isso pode levar à produção do m silábico, em vez de um n silábico.
- Syllabic liquids
For many speakers, /l/ in the word bottle may be syllabic.
That means that the schwa sound in the second syllable, which is unstressed, may be lost. When this happens, we have a syllabic l instead of /l/. 
Bottle / Handle / Bagel
Acentos róticos, a letra r é sempre pronunciada - como car, large, park
Quando a letra r segue uma vogal, em acentos não róticos, ela é descartada, ou seja, não é pronunciada
Só é pronunciado quando precede uma vogal em palavras como rat, crop ou drop
In rhotic accents syllabic r is also common. In the word particular, for instance, the last /r/ could be syllabic.
Notice that in non-rhotic accents, however, some British varieties, for instance, since the letter r is not pronounced after vowels, the process does not occur.
Recalling
The difference between rhotic and non-rhotic accents lies in whether the letter r is pronounced in certain contexts. In rhotic accents, the letter r is always pronounced. In this variety of English, you will always hear the letter r in words such as car, large, park. This is not true for non-rhotic accents, though. When the letter r follows a vowel, in non-rhotic accents, it is dropped, that is, it is not pronounced. It is only pronounced when it precedes a vowel in words such as rat, crop or drop. American English is usually rhotic, whereas British English is usually non-rhotic.
To sum up, even though vowels typically occupy the nucleus slot in a syllable, whenever they are absent, a consonant may function as the nucleus. Given the sonority scale, approximants and nasals are fitter to occupy that slot.
Nasals and liquids, therefore, may be syllabic, whenever they occur in an unstressed syllable without vowels.
The neutral vowel, the schwa sound, is lost, and a syllabic consonant is, then, heard. In many cases, more than one pronunciation is acceptable: the syllabic and the non-syllabic consonants. Nasals may suffer assimilation and a syllabic velar, or a syllabic bilabial may be heard instead. The occurrence of syllabic r is less frequent in non-rhotic accents.
Syllabic consonants may also be combined. We may find words in which morethan one syllabic consonant is possible.
Syllabic n and syllabic l are adjacent in the word and its phonemic transcription may read as follows: /næʃn̩l̩/. 
National
Peter Roach (2004) also provides more examples for this phenomenon:
Literal /lɪtr̩l̩/		Visionary /vɪʒn̩r̩ɪ/
To perceive the use of the syllabic consonant or its non-syllabic counterpart may not be so easy in a conversation, however. This tendency, thus, may be harder to pinpoint in real life than its phonetic study may imply.
We have studied consonants that do not thoroughly abide by what is expected from a consonant. Glides, for instance, function phonetically as vowels since their articulatory production resembles that of two vowels: /u/ and /i/.
Phonetically, then, they are like short vowels.	
Phonologically, however, they function as consonants.
/w/ and /j/ are also called semi-vowels. Liquids and nasals, given their sonority, may function as the nucleus of a syllable. Even though the nucleus is typically a vowel, these consonants may occupy the nucleus slot when a vowel is absent.
Syllabic consonants and glides, therefore, articulatory-wise or in terms of their functionality in the syllable, exhibit vowel-like qualities.
In the following video, Professor Tatiana Massuno presents us more information on glides e syllabic consonants. 
LEARNING CHECK
Parte superior do formulário
1. Semi-vowels in English may also be called glides. Glides are central approximants, like the phoneme /r/. Choose the alternative that contains a true statement about the glides.
If you prolong the pronunciation of /j/ it will sound like /i/.
: /w/ and /j/ are like short vowels. While /w/ sounds like a short version of /u/ and /j/ sounds like a short /i/. If both sounds are prolonged, they will sound like the corresponding vowel.
2. A consonant is said to be syllabic when it can function as the nucleus of a syllable. Which consonants are apt to fill the nucleus slot?
Liquids and nasals can be syllabic.
The more sonorous a consonant is, the best candidate it is for the nucleus slot. Having said that, liquids and nasals (since they are sonorants) may occupy the nucleus slot and become syllabic consonants.
CONCLUSION
FINAL ISSUES
We have learned how consonants are formed in English. Consonants differ in terms of how they are articulated, and which articulators are involved in sound production. They may also be produced by vibrating the vocal cords or not. Each of these aspects: place of articulation, manner of articulation, and voicing help us identify the sound being produced.
Consonants are, then, produced by a combination of these three aspects; which means that a change in one of them leads to the production of a different sound. The phonemes /b/ and /p/, for example, only differ in voicing. Even though their manner and place of articulation coincide, differing in voicing (one being a voiced consonant and the other a voiceless one) is more than enough to produce two distinct phonemes.
We also have learned that consonants in English can be classed as obstruents or sonorants. While obstruent consonants involve obstruction to the airflow, sonorant consonants entail a not-so-narrow constriction. Certain sonorants – glides – may resemble very short vowels. Moreover, other sonorants, such as liquids and nasals, may occupy the nucleus slot in a syllable, whenever a vowel is absent.
By now you will have become familiarized with the categories under which consonants are classified and with how such understanding may influence positively your own speech production. Besides that, you are now able to identify how consonants are produced in English, and you can identify the contexts in which a consonant may exhibit vowel-like qualities.
- PODCAST: Tatiana Massuno, commenting on consonant phonemes in English!
- REFERENCES
- CONTENT AUTHOR: Tatiana de Freitas Massuno
1.2 – TEMA –VOWELS AND PHONEMES IN ENGLISH
DESCRIPTION: Introduction to the phonetics of English vowels.
PURPOSE: To understand how vowel phonemes are produced in English. By means of studying different vowel phonemes, you will be better equipped to reproduce them more clearly and become a more articulate English speaker. What’s more, you will be able to identify different vowel sounds and avoid misunderstandings in the future.
PREPARATION: Before beginning this unit, just make sure you have the IPA (International Phonemic Alphabet) chart at hand so that you can easily identify the phonemes being discussed. You may also want to keep a good dictionary at hand.
GOALS
INTRODUCTION
How to identify and classify vowels according to different tongue heights, duration and articulatory positions.
Section 1 - To identify different vowel phonemes: short and long vowels
- TWENTY VOWEL SOUNDS 
Who hasn’t heard of a, e, i, o, u? More astute English learners will probably add another one to the list: y.
The same spelling may be reproduced by different sounds, meaning that there may be two or three sounds associated with the same spelling.
In the word about the first phoneme is actually called schwa, which is one the most common phonemes in English, and is represented as /ə/.
In the word calm, the phoneme represented by the letter a is, in fact, another one, the phoneme /ɑ˸/, a long vowel.
Long and short vowels, stressed and unstressed phonemes, monophthongs and diphthongs may be spelled as the letter a.
It is only confusing when we assume that phonemes and graphemes are one and the same. You will be surprised to know that seven different phonemes are represented as the letter a.
Jack, yacht, about, football, cable, share, private
Vowels play a central role in the English language. They are syllabic phonemes, that is, they are able to form syllables on their own.
There are other differences, though, that refer to how these phonemes are described.
 
.
· to produce vowels the air escapes through the mouth with little or no obstruction. And since considerable space between articulators is involved, all vowels are approximants.
· Places and manner of articulation (categories used to classify consonants) seem quite irrelevant when it comes to describing vowel sounds.
· since vowels are usually voiced, that is, they are produced with vibration of the vocal cords, voicing is also an insufficient criterion to contrast phonemes.
· All categories used to describe consonant phonemes, namely manner and places of articulation and voicing are of little relevance to vowel description.
The tongue, for instance, is the main organ responsible for producing the differences among vowel phonemes.
Therefore, vowels may be described in terms of tongue shape.
Tongue height, that is, whether the tongue is close to the roof of the mouth or not, plays a great role in vowel production and description. In words such as trap and palm, the tongue is far away from the roof of the mouth, which allows for an open mouth cavity. These are, then, called open vowels.
When, conversely, the tongue position is higher, being closer to the roof of the mouth, as in the word fleece, a close vowel is being produced. Vowels are also described according to which part of the tongue is the highest while producing the vowel in question.
To produce front vowels the front of the tongue is the highest point.
The back of the tongue, on the other hand, is higher when we produce back vowels.
 (
British phonetician Daniel Jones (COLLINS & MEES, 2013) devised a system that describes where the tongue is positioned during vowel production regardless of language and accent. This reference system, since it is theoretical, describes the vowel possibilities in any language
)
.
· There are eight cardinal vowels, or reference vowels, that together form a trapezium which is aimed at describing the vowel possibilities in any language.
· Front vowels are on the left, whereas back vowels are on the right. In the upper area, two vowels are placed at opposite ends: the phonemes /i/ and /u/. These are extreme vowel sounds, and other phonemes are described inreference to them. /i/ and /u/, then, establish the upper vowel limit.
· In the lower area, two more vowels - /a/ and /ɑ/, also represent extreme possibilities for open vowels (remember that the tongue is at its lowest, allowing for an open mouth cavity). They establish thus a lower vowel limit.
 (
By analyzing the trapezium, then, we come to the following classification for cardinal vowels: /i/: front close, /u/: back close, /e/: front close-mid, /o/: back close-mid /ɛ/: front open-mid /ʌ/: back open-mid /
a/:
 front open /ɑ/: back
 open.
) 
Tongue shape, however, is not the only relevant factor here. Vowels are also described in terms of:
Lip shape - Position of the soft palate
Duration - Tongue and lip shape
rounded or unrounded - nasal or non-nasal
long and short vowels - held constant or undergo change
- Duration
Duration here, is a relative length of sounds. The duration of a phoneme is thus considered in relation to the duration of another one. The phoneme /i/ in ship is relatively shorter than /i˸/ in sheep, and this single difference – duration – is responsible for identifying two different nouns. /i/ is a short vowel, whereas /i˸/ is a long one. 
- Short vowels
They are composed of short vowels
These words exemplify the seven different short monophthongs we have in English, namely /i/, /e/, /æ/, /ʌ/, /ɒ/, /ʊ/ and /ə/.
/i/, as in sit;		/e/, as in bet;		/æ/, as in mat;		/ʌ/, as in shut;		/ɒ/, as in plot;
/ʊ/, as in foot;		/ə/, as in about.
- Vídeo= Short and long vowels – HAT/HOT (short – e e o) – HATE/HOME (long – som da letra = ei e ou) 
/i/
To produce this phoneme, you should keep your lips relaxed and slightly parted. Also, you should keep your tongue high. Just remember that this is a short, quick sound. If you prolong the sound and keep your lips tense, as in a smile, another phoneme will be produced. This vowel is found at the beginning and middle of words and is spelled as y, i or ui.
sin, symbol, quick
/e/
To produce this phoneme, your tongue should also be high near the roof of the mouth. You should keep your lips slightly spread and unrounded.
pen and pain. In the first one, the short vowel /e/ is used, in the second one, nonetheless, the phoneme /ei/ is used. To pronounce /e/ you should open your mouth wider than for /ei/, but not as wide as to produce pan. 
/e/ is found at the beginning and middle of words and may be spelled as e or ea.
and, egg, any, dead, meant, head
Some of the less frequent spellings for the phoneme /e/ are a, ai, ie, ue and eo.
any, again, friend, guest, leopard
The letters ea before d are also usually pronounced as /e/.
ready, dead, ahead
/æ/
To produce this sound, you should keep your tongue low. Your jaw is also wider, especially when compared with the previous phoneme /e/. You should keep your lips spread as well. If your mouth is not wide enough, you may say bed instead of bad, and bet instead of bat. Just remember to spread your lips and open your mouth. The phoneme does not occur at the end of words and is usually spelled as a, in words such as:
apple, cat, back, angry
The combination of letter au is a less frequent spelling for the phoneme in question
laugh and laughter
/ʌ/
To produce this sound, your lips, jaw and tongue should be relaxed. While the lips are partly parted, the jaw is slightly lowered. The tongue is also in a mid-position in the mouth. The phoneme /ʌ/ does not occur at the end of words and is usually spelled as u
us, ugly, much, uncle
It may also be spelled as o, in words such as:
love, done, mother
Less frequent spellings are oo, oe, ou and a.
cousin, trouble, flood, what, does
/ʌ/ only occurs in stressed syllables.
/ɒ/
This vowel is at the lower end of the trapezium, which means that your tongue is kept low to produce this sound. In fact, the tongue is flat, on the floor of the mouth. Your jaw is also kept low. Your lips should be kept apart, as if you were yawning. The letter o in English is usually pronounced as /ɒ/ o som do âh
top, positive, not
This vowel sound does not occur at the end of words and is usually spelled as a or o. 
When the letter o is followed by b, d, g, p, t and ck, it is pronounced as /ɒ/.
robin, rod, stop, pocket
The letter a, when it precedes the letter r, is also pronounced the same way.
farm, cart, start
/ʊ/
Quick sound. Your lips should barely move while you produce it. You should keep your lips partly relaxed and parted. You tongue is kept also high to produce this sound and your jaw is kept slightly low. This phoneme only occurs in the middle of words and is usually spelled as u, oo or ou.
book, cook, foot, could, should, cushion som û
Sometimes the letter o is also pronounced as /ʊ/, as in the following words:
wolf, woman som oo
- Long vowels
These words contain longer vowels. Comparatively, then, these monophthongs are longer. 
feel, calm, board, moon, herd
There are five long monophthongs in English: /i˸/, /ɑ˸/, /ɔ˸/, /u˸/ and /ɜ˸/.
/i˸/
To produce this phoneme your tongue should be high and your jaw should be almost completely raised. You should also feel the tension in your lips, as they are kept in a “smile” position. This phoneme is found in the beginning, middle and end of words. E, ee, ea, and ie may be pronounced as /i˸/
mean, eager, eel, be, niece
i and eo may also be pronounced as /i˸/:
people, police
/ɑ˸/
To produce this sound your tongue position is really low (this vowel is at the lower end of the trapezium), the mouth is kept wide open.
The first vowel, may sound pretty similar, a short vowel /æ/, the latter has a long vowel in it /ɑ˸/.
fat and fart; hat and heart; cat and cart; match and March
/ɔ˸/
In the first word the short vowel /ɒ/ is being used, whereas in the second one, the long vowel /ɔ˸/ is used instead. 
bot and bought
Difference, apart from the duration, though: the shape of the mouth. To pronounce bought your mouth is slightly tighter and more rounded. 
cot and caught; bod and bored; what and wart; shot and short; spot and sport
/u˸/
high to produce this sound, your tongue should be. Your lips should be tense and in a whistling position. Differently from what happens in the production of /ʊ/, this is a long sound. If we compare pull and pool, you will realize that to say the latter you have to protrude your lips and make sure that you prolong the pronunciation of the vowel. Except for the word ooze, does not occur in the beginning of words. /u˸/ may be spelled as u, oo, o, ew and ue.
rule, cool, do, new, blue
/ɜ˸/
To produce this sound, yYour tongue is slightly low, placed in the middle of your mouth, your lips relaxed. It is normally spelled as –er. Other possible spellings are -or , -ir and -ur
person, her êr
Video: Short vowels X Long vowels
The difference between long and short vowels. São 20 sons que variam das vogais e combinação delas. Todas vogais são aproximants, sem obstrução do ar. Grande responsável pelos sons das vogais é a língua. E a pronuncia vai depender da duration da pronuncia das vogais
ASSISTIR MAIS VIDEOS DA TATIANA MASSUNO
LEARNING CHECK
1. Choose the alternative that contains a true statement about the following pair: ship/sheep.
While /i/ is a short vowel, /i˸/ is a long one.
Duration plays a great role in distinguishing between these phonemes. The symbol ˸ is an indicator of a long phoneme. Ship is composed of a short vowel, whereas sheep contains a long one.
2. Choose the alternative that contains only long vowels:
First, blue, short, police
There are only five monophthongs in English: /i˸/, /ɑ˸/, /ɔ˸/, /u˸/ and /ɜ˸/, and letter d is the only option in which these phonemes are present.
SECTION 2 - To distinguish monophthongs from diphthongs
- TONGUE HEIGHT, DURATION, AND LIP SHAPE
They have been studied in terms of tongue height, duration, and lip shape.
Based on these categories, how can we describe the word choice? Is it similar to its corresponding verb? Choose?
Spellings and phonemes do not coincide.
Both phonemes are composed of two letters, and both contain the letter o.
While the verb choose iscomposed of the long vowel studied before, that is, /u˸/, the noun choice is composed of a different vowel sound, called diphthong.
- MONOPHTHONGS AND DIPHTHONGS
When a vowel has only one articulatory position throughout its production, it is considered to be a monophthong. When, conversely, more than one articulatory position is observed, the vowel is then a diphthong.
· In the word choose, for instance, the articulation is fixed throughout sound production; there is, then, no change in the position of the tongue or the lip.
· In the word choice, however, two discernible different points are observed. It starts with an open vowel and ends with a close one. This diphthong /ɔi/ is a closing diphthong.
The words choice, mouth and price are examples that contain pretty common diphthongs; they are all examples of closing diphthongs. They start with open vowels and raise to close vowels, in the area of /i/ and /u/.
To produce close vowels the tongue is kept in a higher position, near the roof of the mouth. As the tongue rises, to produce a close vowel, the space between the tongue and the roof of the mouth becomes narrower. Therefore, the tongue rises, closing the space between the roof of the mouth and the tongue. 
Therefore, going from an open vowel to a close one involves tongue movement.
Diphthongs can then be classed according to the direction of the tongue movement. 
Fronting diphthongs end with /i/	Backing diphthongs end with /ʊ/	Centering diphthongs end with /ə/
1. FRONTING DIPHTHONGS - /ei/, /ai/, /ɔi/
/ei/
This is a compound sound, since the two vowels are blended. To produce this sound your lips should be spread and unrounded. Your jaw raises as your tongue moves. Your jaw closes slightly. The tongue moves from the midlevel position to being closer to the roof of the mouth. This diphthong is found in the beginning, middle and end of words. It may be represented by different spellings: a, ai, ay and eigh, as in the words:
late, main, day, eight
In all these words the letter a occurs in a syllable ending in silent e. Whenever this is the case, the letter a is pronounced as /ei/.
bake, same, name, case
Whenever the letters ei are followed by g or n, they also represent the phoneme /ei/.
reign, neighbor, vein
The letters ay, ai and ey are usually pronounced as /ei/ too. For instance, in the words:
play, away, they, aim
/ai/
Since this diphthong starts with /a/ and ends with /i/, the lips move from an open position to being slightly parted. The jaw also raises with the tongue and closes. This closing diphthong involves tongue movement. The tongue moves from a low position to a higher one. At the end, the tongue is closer to the roof of the mouth. It is, as the previous one, found in the beginning, middle and end of words. It is represented as different spelling patterns such as i, y, ie and igh. 
high, I, my, die
The words bite, refinement, fine also contain /ai/. But they have something else in common. The letter i occurs in a syllable ending in silent –e. And whenever this is the case, the letters are pronounced as /ai/. When the letter i is also followed by gh, ld and nd it represents the phoneme /ai/.
sight, wild, find
/ɔi/
This diphthong are basically two different spellings for it: oy and oi. It starts with /ɔ/ and ends with /i/. The lips move from a tense oval shape to a more relaxed position. The tongue moves from a low position to a higher one. This diphthong is also found in the beginning, middle and end of words.
oil, join, toy
2. BACKING DIPHTHONGS – /aʊ/, /oʊ/
/aʊ/
A closing diphthong, the tongue glides from a lower position to a higher one. Your jaw also raises with the tongue. Your lips also glide from an open position. If these lip and tongue movements do not occur, you will produce a monophthong instead. To produce a diphthong the articulatory position changes as you produce the sound, therefore, there is always lip and tongue movement. If your tongue and your lip remain in the same position throughout the sound production, the phoneme /a/ will be produced. 
Pond instead of pound
Represented as the letter o followed by u, w, or ugh
owl, mouse, loud, town, drought
/oʊ/
The tongue glides from the midlevel position and comes closer to the roof of the mouth. The jaw also rises with the tongue. To produce this sound, your lips should also be kept tense and in a very rounded shape. This is a long sound. It is found in the beginning, middle and end of words. And it may be represented by different spellings: o, oa, ow, oe, and ou; as in the words:
coat, no, goat, know, toe, dough
The following words show a common pattern for this diphthong. The letter o is usually pronounced as /oʊ/ when it occurs in a syllable ending in silent e.
phone, home, note
Another common pattern is when o is followed by ld. In words such as bold, old, told the diphthong /oʊ/ is also present
bold, old, told
3. CENTERING DIPHTHONGS - /iə/, /ʊə/, /eə/
/iə/som de “iâ”
The diphthong /iə/ starts with the tongue position for /i/, that is, the tongue is in a higher position at first. Then, the tongue moves towards a centering position. This diphthong is usually spelled as e or ea.
Examples for this diphthong are the words:
near, fear, beer, dear, career, experience
/ʊə/
The diphthong /ʊə/ starts with the tongue position for the production of /ʊ/ and also moves towards a more centering tongue position. This diphthong is usually spelled as u, ou or oo. Differently from the phonemes previously discussed, this is not a common sound in English.
during, hour, security
/eə/
To produce this phoneme, you start from the /e/ position and finish in a mid-central position, here represented as the phoneme /ə/. This diphthong is usually spelled as e or ea.
care, hair, wear, air
All the diphthongs have been represented by a combination of two symbols, for instance, /iə/, /ʊə/, and /eə/, they, actually, refer to a single phoneme, that is, they are single sounds. Diphthongs are also long sounds and they may be as long as the long vowels discussed in the previous section.
Triphthong
Between the start point and the end point there is a third term, another vowel. These are not separate sounds, since they refer to one single phoneme.
fire, power
Alternatively, they may be called diphthong that have an extended vowel. Usually, these phonemes are represented by a diphthong followed by the letter r. The phonemes are as following: /aiə/ and /aʊə/.
Throughout this section we have discussed single phonemes that were actually a combination of two different vowels (or even three!). Two phonemes thus blended in order to produce a single long sound. While discussing centering diphthongs a phoneme gained importance, namely the mid-central vowel. 
- Vídeo: Diphthongs
LEARNING CHECK
Parte superior do formulário
1. Even though diphthongs actually refer to a single phoneme, they involve lip and tongue movements. Having that in mind, choose the alternative that contains examples of diphthongs:
Boat, goat, know, no.
In terms of spelling, diphthongs may be represented as a single letter. Even though the word no is composed of two letters and there is no sign of two vowels being joined together, it actually represents a diphthong. Different diphthongs may be represented by distinct spellings.
2. Choose the alternative that contains a true statement about the behavior of closing diphthongs:
They start with lower vowels and end with higher vowels.
Since closing diphthongs start with open vowels and raise to close vowels, the position of the tongue changes from a low position (open vowels) towards a higher position (close vowels).
SECTION 3 - To recognize the schwa sound
- CONTEXT
Even though, grammatically speaking, English may pose fewer challenges to learners, especially when compared to a language packed with inflections such as German, the same does not apply, though, to its phonetics.
 
Students expect phonemes (sounds) and graphemes (letters) to coincide.
OR
They expect letters to sound always the same, that is, to have a pretty definitepronunciation.
English is a language, however, that frustrates any attempt to establish a one-to-one relationship between phonemes and graphemes.
Do you remember that the letter A has seven different pronunciations? The words cat, cake and among contain three different phonemes associated with the letter a. And this is one of the great challenges English poses: many letters or even combination of letters may share the same pronunciation.
Different words like about and doctor share the same phoneme, that is the schwa sound, even though their spellings do not coincide. What’s more, depending on the context in which a word is uttered, its pronunciation may change. In other words, when uttered alone it may be pronounced in a way, when the same word occurs in a sentence, however, it may sound differently. The context in which a phoneme occurs affects its pronunciation. The context may be a syllable, a phrase, or even a sentence.
In this section we will be studying a pretty common vowel sound. But don’t be mistaken! Common here just means ordinary, as this phoneme may be cause of some frustration.
- THE SCHWA SOUND: CHARACTERISTICS /ə/
One of the most common vowel sounds in English is actually a “lazy sound”. Your lips should barely move to produce this phoneme, while they remain pretty relaxed. This is a quick, short sound, even shorter than the short vowels previously discussed. It appear in beggining, middle na at the end of words.
The letter A may be reduced to the schwa sound, as well as the letters e, i, o and u. The following combination of letters may also be reduced to the schwa: eo, ou, iou, io, and ai.
The schwa sound has, then, no regular spelling. And this may be the reason why even some adult native speakers may find it hard to remember the spelling of certain parts of words.
Calendar may be mistaken for calender; separate for seperate
Vowels can be reduced to the schwa. The use of this word – reduced – can be a nice indicator of the context from which the schwa emerges.
Word AND
According to the Cambridge Dictionary, this conjunction and can be pronounced in different ways, both in the American and in the British varieties.
· STRONG FORM - it is pronounced as /ænd/
· WEAK FORM - it may take two different pronunciations: /ənd/ and /ən/.
The vowels can be either /æ/ or /ə/; the same letter, but different sounds. The latter is what we call the schwa sound. In better terms, the schwa sound only occurs in unstressed syllables.
Stressed syllables have certain characteristics.
They are usually louder, longer and pronounced on a different pitch.
They have then a full quality and are never weak. There is usually only one stressed syllable in a word.
In the word teacher, for instance, the stress falls on the first part of the word (teach). The second syllable in teacher is thus shorter and lower.
In the word today, on the other hand, it falls on the second part (day). 
When nouns have only one syllable, then, this one must be stressed.
Unstressed syllables, conversely, are not as loud and not as long as stressed ones.
The letter e, in -er, this way, does not have a full quality since it is in an unstressed syllable.
It is pronounced in a relaxed way, almost without lip movement. It is pronounced as a schwa.
That is why we say vowels can be reduced to the schwa sound. Whenever vowels, any vowels, find themselves in unstressed syllables they may be reduced to the schwa sound.
Just remember:
The schwa only occurs in unstressed syllables.
It is the most common vowel in connected spoken English.
It has no regular spelling.
It is a mid-central vowel, sometimes called neutral vowel.
The schwa, however, is not only variable within words, but also within phrases and sentences.
· Within words
· the beginning of words, as in:
Ago		amaze		suppose	contain			umbrella		upon
· In the middle of words
Agony		relative		Holiday		company		telephone		
· At the end of words
Soda		sofa		lemon		circus		
· And also more than once in a word (since more than one syllable may be unstressed)
Umbrella		elephant		accident
As you could see, it can be represented by different spellings:
AS A = arrive, ashamed, asleep
AS E = open, oven, belief
AS I = liquid, humid, capital
AS O = occur, obtain, lemon
AS U = upon, suppose, circus
Combinations of letters such as eo, ou, iou, io, and ai may also be reduced to the schwa, as is the case with the following words: pigeon, famous, religion, certain, delicious, nation.
As you can see the schwa sound is a common vowel sound because many different letters and combinations of letters can represent it. It is common but, by no means, simple! It may not even be represented at all!
word rhythm!
It has two syllables and two vowels. The first vowel is stressed, the vowel /i/. The second one, since it is unstressed, is pronounced as the “lazy sound”, that is, the schwa /ə/.
· Within phrases and sentences
As mentioned before, the conjunction and may be pronounced in different ways. Two vowel phonemes are possible: /æ/ and /ə/
The reason why lies in the context from which the word emerges.
· Words within sentences have different stress patterns. While some words may be emphasized, that is, they are pronounced on a different pitch and are usually louder and longer; others may be barely pronounced.
· Some, depending on how the speaker articulates the sounds, may seem to completely disappear. Stress, in English, points out to the most important words in a sentence or phrase.
· By emphasizing some words, you are signalling to your listener that some words are more important to the message being conveyed than others.
· The conjunction and alone may be pronounced as /ænd/. Within a sentence, however, since it carries little meaning, its vowel may be reduced to a schwa sound.
· Vowels in grammatical words, or function words, thus, may be reduced to the schwa sound.
 (
“An 
apple
 a day keeps the doctor away”, the schwa sound may be found within words and within the sentence.
)
· The unstressed syllables in the words: apple, doctor and away, all have the schwa sound.
· The second vowels in the words apple and doctor are pronounced as the schwa sound, as well as the first vowel in away.
· Within the sentence, the articles an, a and the, since they are unstressed, also contain the schwa sound.
See how the schwa sound is an ordinary sound:
An apple a day keeps the doctor away
ən 'æpəl ə 'deɪ 'ki:ps ðə 'dɒktə ə'weɪ
 (
Grammatical words – conjunctions, determiners, auxiliaries, prepositions – whenever their function in a sentence is mainly grammatical have their vowels reduced to the schwa sound. In the noun phrase a glass of water, both the article a, and the preposition of are reduced to the schwa sound. 
) 
Grammatical words 
In the question – Do you like music? – the auxiliary do is also reduced to the schwa sound. DO can be an auxiliary verb and a main verb, it can also be emphasized or not. Therefore, the occurrence of the schwa is here conditioned by whether or not the word do is stressed. When it is stressed, it may be pronounced as a short vowel or a long vowel; when, on the other hand, it is unstressed, then it is pronounced as a schwa.
 - STRONG AND WEAK FORMS
In their weak forms they are pronounced as the neutral vowel schwa.
a) Was she reading? - its weak form
b) Yes, she was. - its strong form
The schwa sound, as it only occurs in unstressed syllables, is only present in the weak forms of auxiliary verbs. In short answers, auxiliary verbs (do, does, have, has, were and even the modal verb can) appear in their strong forms. In questions, however, the weak forms (the schwa) are prevalent.
Do you have a car?
Yes, I do.
The schwa sound is an important indicator of unstressed sounds, both within words and sentences. This “lazy sound” is not at all sloppy and it occurs naturally in all types of settings, be them formal or informal. By practicing this short, relaxed sound, you will sound more and more natural in English.
Vídeo = The schwa sound
Aparece em quase todas as palavrasem inglês. È a redução dos sons das vogais. Short, neutral and relaxed sound
LEARNING CHECK
1. Choose the alternative that contains a true statement about the schwa sound:
b) Your lips should barely move to produce this sound. Also, they are kept in a relaxed position.
The schwa sound can only occur in unstressed syllables. It is called the lazy sound since your lips barely move to produce this sound. Your lips are also relaxed when you produce this short, quick vowel.
2. The schwa sound signals to unstressed sounds. The same letter in a word may be pronounced as a short or long vowel and as the schwa depending on the context. Choose the alternative in which the vowel in the auxiliary verb is pronounced as the schwa:
d) Was she there?
Auxiliary verbs have weak and strong forms. The schwa sound only occurs in unstressed syllables, that is, it is present in the weak forms of the auxiliary verbs. In questions, the weak forms are used.
SECTION 4 - To describe concepts linked to the combination of vowels and consonants (tonicity, intonation, homonymy and polysemy)
- COMBINING VOWELS AND CONSONANTS
Although we may claim that someone has a monotonous tone of voice, as if this person were speaking in a monotone, that is, in one single tone from beginning to end; in reality, this perception couldn’t be further from the truth. We are incapable of utterances that are monotone in nature. We are actually using pitch variation all the time.
Certain sounds may be emphasized, 				Certain phonemes may be longer and louder
while others may be unstressed. 				while others may be quick and lower.
The objective of this section is to look a little deeper into such inflections, such intonational contours.
The long or short vowels or even diphthongs, these sounds do not exist in isolation, but rather they exist combined in syllables and, consequently in larger structures: sentences, clauses, texts.
- THE SYLLABLE
We have seen that vowels are syllabic phonemes, meaning that they can form a syllable on their own. 
In a nutshell, a syllable has two main constituents
· THE ONSET - The onset is defined as any consonant that precedes a vowel. In a word such as clip, two consonants precede the vowel (/k/ and /l), whereas in a word such as it, the onset slot is empty. A word then in English may have an empty onset. The remaining segments constitute the rhyme.
· THE RHYME - The rhyme in the word it is /it/, in the word clip, /ip/. The rhyme can be subdivided into nucleus and coda. The most sonorous element in a syllable will occupy the nucleus slot. Low vowels, high vowels, approximants, nasals may be fit to occupy the nucleus slot, in this respective order. So, in the words it and clip the phoneme /i/ occupies the nucleus slot.
In a word “appraise” two vowels = The phoneme /ə/, and the diphthong /ei/.
These vowels constitute two different nuclei. This is then a two-syllable word. When a word in English has more than one syllable, one of them receives more stress than the others. In other words, the amount of volume a speaker gives to one of the syllables is greater than to any other.
Stressed syllables are louder and longer. In the word appraise the use of the schwa sound is a good indicator that the first syllable is the unstressed one. Sometimes words such as stress, accent or emphasis are used interchangeably.
The stress may fall on the first syllable, in words such as: Tuesday, awful, ever, brother, window. It may fall on the second syllable as is the case in words such as: myself, outdone, around, allow.
Words containing more than two syllables, have primary stress on the first, second or third syllables. Since English makes use of strong and weak stress, one of the syllables is going to be more emphasized than the others.
- afternoon, primary stress falls on the third syllable.
- vanilla, primary stress will fall on the second syllable.
Stressing the wrong syllable may lead to a bunch of misunderstandings and communication problems.
A common mistake Brazilian students make is to incorrectly stress the first syllable in the word police, when, primary stress should fall on the second syllable.
- TONIC SYLLABLES
Stress goes beyond the boundaries of word level. Within sentences and clauses different words receive different amounts of emphasis. It would sound extremely unnatural to stress all the words equally in a sentence. By stressing some words, the speaker highlights the importance of these words within the sentence. If, on the other hand, stress is placed on the wrong word you may not only completely change the meaning of the sentence, but also distort the intended meaning or even give much stress to unimportant words.
He lives in the green house.		He lives in the greenhouse.
*In the first example, the word house is being stressed, meaning that his house is green.
*In the second example, the stress is placed on green, instead, like, the meaning conveyed is another. He lives then in the place where the plants grow.
Content words or lexical words, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are usually stressed. Grammatical words such as auxiliary verbs, determiners, prepositions, conjunctions are usually unstressed.
In a sentence or clause certain words will be more stressed than others. Stress will fall more often than not on content words, unless stressing grammatical words may serve a purpose in conveying meaning. For instance, in the following sentence:
I do like reading.
The auxiliary verb may be stressed to oppose a previous utterance and to emphasize the fact that even though you might believe reading is not one of my favorite pastimes, I actually like it a lot. Thus, stress may fall on auxiliary verbs to correct some false assumption. Stressing words, then, helps clarify meaning by calling attention to certain words.
Mary went to the doctor.
Three content words can be perceived – Mary, went and doctor. These words, this way, are more stressed than the grammatical words – to and the. The content words also have stressed syllables. The penultimate syllable in Mary, went (since it is a single syllable) and the penultimate syllable in doctor. There is one syllable, however, in the whole sentence that is more prominent and longer than the others. This syllable is called the tonic syllable, where the tone falls.
- INTONATION
Intonation refers to the rise and fall of the voice when speaking. Intonation conveys meaning, the speaker’s attitude, signals to whether the utterance is a question or a statement, etc. The wrong use of intonation, if your voice rises instead of falling, may change a declarative sentence into a question. Or, you may come across as being bored or uninterested.
Two types of sentences may end with a falling pitch:
She is my sister. / Mary is a doctor.
Questions starting with question words (what, who, where, when, etc).
Where’s my book? / When did he leave?
As examples of rising pitch we can mention: Yes/ No questions
Are you a doctor? Is she coming?
Statements that express doubt or uncertainty.
I think they are coming.
- HOMONYMY AND POLYSEMY 
All along we have been harping on the same string. Homophones and homographs are those types of phenomena that once again break the illusion that graphemes and phonemes can actually coincide.
· HOMOPHONES = are words that are pronounced the same, so they have the same phonemic transcription, but that are actually spelled in different ways. Example to this phenomenon is the pair: grown and groan. The following words are all pronounced the same /sait /. The words are: sight, site and cite.
· HOMOGRAPHS = Homographs are words that are spelled the same but pronounced differently. The difference resides in the stressed syllable. Conflict, for instance, can be either a verb or a noun. 
The stress for nouns will always fall on the first syllable, whereas for verbs the second syllable will be stressed.
conflict, conduct, content, desert, digest, contest, permit, object, exploit, increase
These are words which are spelled the same, pronounced thesame, but that have completely different meanings.
LEFT =  Left can be both the opposite of right (direction) and the past tense of the verb leave. Both words even though they share the same spelling and pronunciation have completely unrelated meanings. They are, then, full homonyms.
Polysemy refers to the same word being applied to different contexts. In better terms, the word can have literal meaning and extended metaphorical meaning. (pode ter sentido literal ou figurativo)
HEAD = can refer to both a part of the body, or to the position of the boss, like in the phrase: 
Head of the department.
Polysemy, then, refers to the same word used in two different ways: literal and metaphorical.
1. These two sentences are clear examples of polysemy
I read the newspaper this morning. - it refers to the actual object
The newspaper fired Jill. - it refers to the company.
NEWSPAPER = since they entail the exact same word– being used differently. 
GOOD = can refer to both moral judgment and the judgment of a skill, can also an example of polysemy.
2. This is then a clear case of homonymy
 (
M
y dog always barks at the mailmen 
T
he tree’s bark was 
brown
)
BARK = it refers to two different things. In the first sentence, it refers to the sound a dog makes, in the second one, it refers to the exterior of a tree. In the above examples, the words have the same spelling and pronunciation, their only difference resides in meaning.
Summing up, phonetics plays a great role in conveying meaning. By means of the correct use of stress and intonation, misunderstandings can be avoided and communication will run more smoothly. What’s more, being attentive to the correct stress of words, whether primary stress falls on the first, second or third syllable, can avoid mistaking a homograph for the other. Since English does not have a one-to-one correspondence between graphemes and phonemes, phenomena such as homophones and homographs are quite common. The latter refers to words that share the same spelling but whose pronunciation differ. Stress, then, can help distinguish one homograph from the other.
Even though homonymy and polysemy may at first seem synonymous, they actually refer to two different situations. The former is when two completely different words share the same spelling and pronunciation. And the latter is when the same word is used in different contexts.
Videos: Vowels and consonants.
LEARNING CHECK
1. A syllable has two main constituents: the onset and the rhyme. Bearing that in mind, answer the following question: What constitutes the onset in the word ear?
The onset is empty
Since the onset is defined as any consonant preceding a vowel, for the word in question the onset is empty. There are no consonants preceding the vowel sound.
2. Which phenomenon does the following pair of sentences exemplify?
There’s a book on the table/ I want to book a table. Reservar uma mesa
Homonymy
In both sentences the word bookbook refers to a physical object; in the second one, to the act of making reservations. Since the words share the same spelling and pronunciation but have different meanings they are homonyms.
CONCLUSION
FINAL ISSUES
We have studied that vowels in English are described based on tongue and lip shapes, duration and articulatory positions. Vowels can be long or short, monophthongs or diphthongs and also open or close. We have also learned that stress and intonation play significant roles in conveying messages. And finally, since spelling and pronunciation do not coincide, we have studied different phenomena that show how this is actually true.
By now you may have become familiarized with how vowels are produced in English, and you may also have learned to distinguish different vowel sounds and identify different phenomena such as homonymy and polysemy.
- PODCAST
Let’s hear now Professor Tatiana Massuno explaining, in a summarized way, what we studied throughout these four sections
- REFERENCES
BROWN, Adam. Pronunciation and Phonetics: A Practical Guide for English Language Teachers. New York: Routledge, 2014.
CARR, Philip. English Phonetics and Phonology: an introduction. 2. ed. West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.
COLLINS, Beverly; MEES, Inger. Practical phonetics and phonology: a resource book for students. 3. ed. New York: Routledge, 2013.
DALE, Paulette; POMS, Lillian. English pronunciation made simple. New York: Longman, 2005.
GUT, Ulrike. Introduction to English Phonetics and Phonology. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2009.
LADEFOGED. Peter. Vowels and Consonants: An Introduction to the sounds of languages. Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, 2001.
OGDEN, Richard. An Introduction to English Phonetics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009
ROACH, Peter. English Phonetic and phonology: a practical course. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
- GO FURTHER
Check the Section Pronunciation Resources at the Speaking Center Webpage of University of Iowa for more practice exercises and pronunciation rules.
About teaching pronunciation, you can find good references in the books How to teach pronunciation, written by G. Kelly (Longman Press, 2001) and Teaching English Pronunciation, written by J. Kenworth (Longman Press, 1987)
- CONTENT AUTHOR
Tatiana de Freitas Massuno
Currículo Lattes
- NOTE
A EnsineMe reserva ao autor o direito de se manifestar.