assessment-of-potential-environmental-impacts-and-sustainable-management-of-municipal-solid-waste-using-the-dpsiro-framework-a-case-study-of-bahir-dar-ethiopia

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Assessment of potential environmental impacts 
and sustainable management of municipal solid waste using 
the DPSIRO framework: a case study of Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
Awoke Misganaw 
Received: 5 August 2022 / Accepted: 6 January 2023 
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023
Abstract The generation of municipal solid waste is 
increasing globally and poses a negative impact on soci-
ety, the economy, and the environment. Applying an inte-
grated system for managing MSW and recovering the 
material for the production of new products can reduce 
the negative impacts on the environment. The aim of this 
paper is to apply the DPSIRO framework to develop a sys-
tem that reduces the negative impacts of MSW in Bahir 
Dar city in a sustainable way. The study started by iden-
tifying the main driving forces that led to the generation 
of MSW. Then, pressures and states of the environment 
resulting from driving forces were investigated. Next, 
the consequent impacts through driving forces, pressure, 
and state are identified. Finally, the appropriate responses 
and outcomes obtained from the responses were studied. 
Numerical models were used to quantify GHG emis-
sions, leachate, and eutrophication potential. According 
to the findings, the waste disposal site emits about 46 Gg 
of greenhouse gases per year in 2020. The eutrophica-
tion capacity of organic waste generated in the city was 
0.0594 kg N-equivalent or 59.4 g N-equivalent. The waste 
also contains an average of 1112 mm of leachate per day 
on an annual basis. The state of the environment has an 
impact on human health and the ecosystem. Implement-
ing a circular economic system, knowledge transfer, and 
waste management fees are the main responses suggested 
to decision and policymakers. The outcomes were quanti-
fied in terms of organic fertilizer, income, and renewable 
energy (briquette) when the actions were taken.
Keywords Sustainable management · 
Eutrophication potential · Greenhouse gas emission · 
Municipal solid waste · DPSIRO framework
Introduction
Citizens and businesses in most of the world’s cities 
consume a great deal of materials and produce a great 
deal of waste (Makarichi et al., 2018). With rapid pop-
ulation and economic growth and urbanization, solid 
waste output is increasing in urban areas around the 
world (Farzadkia et al., 2020; Singh, 2019; Zorpas et al., 
2017). According to a World Bank report (Franco et al., 
2021; Kaza et al., 2018), cities around the world gener-
ate 2.01 billion metric tons of MSW per year, and that 
number is projected to increase to 3.40 billion tons by 
2050. The solid waste problem is a major concern for 
national and local authorities in many cities through-
out developing and developed countries (Inghels et al., 
2016; Noufal et  al., 2020). Especially in developing 
countries, the common solid waste management system 
that they use is landfill because it is relatively less costly 
to implement and operate compared to other options. 
However, landfills are widely regarded as the least pref-
erable municipal solid waste management system due to 
A. Misganaw (*) 
Faculty of Technology, Department of Chemical 
Engineering, Debre Tabor University, Posta 272, 
Debre Tabor, Ethiopia
e-mail: awokemisganaw12@gmail.com
/ Published online: 13 January 2023
Environ Monit Assess (2023) 195:297
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their high contamination potential, including water and 
soil pollution due to leachate seepage and greenhouse 
gas (GHG) emissions resulting from the decomposition 
of biodegradable waste (Adeleke et  al., 2021; Cantera 
et  al., 2022; Fedorov & Linke, 2022; Krammer et  al., 
2022; Wang et al., 2020).
The negative impact of municipal solid waste mis-
management in cities extends from the local to the 
global level. The release of odorous compounds from 
landfills has a very local (micro-) impact as it affects 
the surrounding population. Discharge of pollutants into 
ground or surface water due to landfilling can have an 
impact on the regional (meso-) scale, as eutrophication 
can occur tens of kilometers away from disposal facili-
ties unless fugitive leachate is collected and properly 
treated. Emissions of greenhouse gases such as methane 
contribute to global warming, which has an impact on 
the global population (macro impact) (Ellen et al., 2018; 
Matheus, 2018; Mattos et al., 2020).
Living standards have improved and technological 
development has resulted in a massive demand for goods 
and products in Bahir Dar over the last few decades. As 
a result, solid waste generation has steadily increased 
(Misganaw & Teffera, 2021). Currently, the majority 
of solid waste produced in the city is dumped into open 
dumpsites without any processing, and uncontrolled 
emissions are formed. These emissions lead to negative 
impacts on soil, water, and air quality and are expected 
to continue in the future until MSW management sys-
tems are improved.
Sustainable MSW management necessitates a multi-
faceted approach including a wide range of stakeholders 
(Misganaw & Teffera, 2022; Salem et al., 2020). Differ-
ent countries in the world use different models for sus-
tainable solid waste management. The most commonly 
used model for the evaluation of the environmental per-
formance of solid waste management systems is the PSR 
(pressure-state-response) model. The PSR model was first 
proposed by Rapport and Friends (Mao et al., 2014), and 
it has been further developed as a common environmen-
tal evaluation by the Organization for Economic Coop-
eration and Development (OECD) and the United Nations 
(UN) since 1993 (Liu et  al., 2020; Robele et  al., 2018; 
Wang et al., 2018). The DPSIR (Driving Force-Pressure-
State-Impact-Response) model is also a tool that is used 
for sustainable MSW management and environmental 
evaluation (Atkins et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2019; Robele 
et al., 2018). The model is based on the Pressure-State-
Response (PSR) context, which was proposed in the late 
1980s by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and 
Development (OECD) and the United Nations Environ-
mental Programme (UNEP) (Zorpas, 2020). The latest 
framework extended from PSR and DPSIR that is used for 
sustainable MSW management is the DPSIRO (Driving 
Force-Pressure-State-Impact-Response-Outcome) frame-
work to fill the gaps of both frameworks (Misganaw & 
Teffera, 2021).
The framework is used to solving multidimensional 
problems associated with solid waste mismanagement. 
Furthermore, no research for the impact of the DPSIRO 
framework outputs to study the negative impact of MSW 
and scenarios created during the systems investigation is 
considered. The DPSIRO framework analysis describes 
how economic and social developments, which are com-
mon driving forces (D), exert pressure (P) on the environ-
ment and as a result, the state of the environment (S) such 
as the depletion of natural resources and degradation of 
environmental quality changes. These changes then have 
an impact (I) on the environment and human health. Due 
to these impacts, society responds (R) to the driving force, 
the pressure, state or impact, and then when society gives 
the response, the outcome (O) shows the expected result 
at each response of the impact. The aim of the study was 
to apply the DPSIRO framework to study the potential 
impact of MSW on air, soil, and water quality and develop 
sustainable indicators to reduce the impact.
Literature review of DPSIRO framework
The Stress-Response (SR) framework created by Statistics 
Canada in the late 1970s is where the DPSIRO framework 
got its start (Rapport & Friend, 1979). The Pressure-
State-Response (PSR) framework was created after this 
initial framework was later expanded in the 1990s by 
the United Nations and EconomicCo-operation and 
Development (Ehara et al., 2018; Mao et al., 2014; Neves 
et  al., 2008; Robele et  al., 2018). This PSR model can 
delicately reveal the interrelationship between human 
activities, environment, and natural resources (Wei et al., 
2019). Following the PSR framework, the European 
Environmental Agency (EEA) established the Driver-
Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework for 
integrated environmental reporting and assessment in 1999 
(Carr et al., 2009; Ehara et al., 2018; Malekmohammadi 
& Jahanishakib, 2017). The modification was conducted 
due to the absence of behavioral factors in the original 
PSR model (Wei et  al., 2019). Since then, the modified 
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framework has been widely used in the analysis of 
environmental issues (Malmir et  al., 2021). The DPSIR 
conceptual framework adds analysis of driving forces and 
impacts (both positive and negative) on humans to the 
basic framework of the PSR model (Ehara et al., 2018; Liu 
et al., 2021). The DPSIR framework’s ability to provide 
clarity and valuable information about the relationship 
between root causes of problems and their consequences 
that arise from developmental projects on the environment 
and the community makes it a tool that can be used 
to study community perceptions and attitudes toward 
development projects (Skondras & Karavitis, 2015).
The DPSIRO framework is an extension of the DPSIR 
framework, and it is a cycle that relates to a particular 
human need and its accompanying activities (Misganaw & 
Teffera, 2021). Like the DPSIR framework, the DPSIRO 
framework also adds analysis of the outcome of responses 
on both frameworks of PSR and DPSIR. But these two 
previous models did not account for how each reaction 
or scenario would affect the system’s output (Misganaw 
& Akenaw, 2022; Misganaw & Teffera, 2021). This gap 
prompts the researcher to conduct a cause-and-effect rela-
tionship analysis on various factors that contribute to the 
negative environmental impact caused by MSW, as well 
as possible measurements with expected outcomes. From 
the perspective of environmental system analysis, the 
DPSIRO framework takes the simplified internal causal 
relationship of the system as the idea to evaluate the inter-
action between human activities and the natural environ-
ment in a more comprehensive way.
Methodology
Area description
Bahir Dar city was chosen for the investigation of the 
possible negative impacts of MSW and the develop-
ment of sustainable indicators to reduce the impacts 
using the DPSIRO framework. Bahir Dar is a town in 
Ethiopia’s northwestern region, near the southern end 
of Lake Tana, at the headwaters of the Blue Nile River 
that then flows through Sudan and Egypt. The city is 
located at an elevation of approximately 1820 m above 
sea level, with geographic coordinates of 11036’ N 
and 37° 25’ E. The establishment of Bahir Dar can 
be traced back to the fourteenth century, when Saint 
Kidane Miheret Church was built on the current site 
of Saint Giorgis Church (Biruk, 2017; Kassie, 2016; 
Tirusew et al., 2013).
The city evolved from a monastery administration 
site as well as a market place to a rapidly growing urban 
center. The Amhara National Regional State’s adminis-
trative seat is now located there. The city is made up 
of five sub-cities that share a common geographical 
location and people’s living habits. With the range of 
attractions on the nearby Lake Tana (Ethiopia’s largest 
lake and popular for churches and monasteries on the 
lake’s 37 islands), it has become one of the country’s 
main tourist destinations. The city consists of more than 
415,000 people in 2021.
Research method
In this study, the DPSIRO framework has been applied 
to assess the impact of municipal solid waste on soil, 
water and air quality in Bahir Dar city. Figure 1 illus-
trates the cause and effect relationship between factors 
of the DPSIRO framework. During the time of study, 
initially the driving forces which led to the generation 
of municipal solid waste were determined. Second, 
the environmental change that results from pressure 
has been investigated. The state change of the envi-
ronment was quantified in terms of greenhouse gas 
emissions (GHGs), eutrophication potential, and lea-
chate using mathematical models. Using an intergov-
ernmental panel on climate change (IPCC) model, the 
total amount of CO2 and CH4 emitted from Bahir Dar 
city waste was estimated (Misganaw & Teffera, 2021). 
According to IPCC guidelines, the equation for meas-
uring methane emissions from waste disposal sites 
was calculated using Eq. 1.
MSWT is total municipal solid waste generated 
(Gg/yr.), MSWF represents the fraction of MSW dis-
posed of in one or more solid waste disposal sites, 
MCF is methane correction factor (fraction), DOC 
indicates degradable organic carbon (fraction) (kg C/kg 
(1)Methane emission
(
Gg
yr
)
=
MSWT ×MSWF ×MCF × DOC × DOCF × F × (1 − OX)
16
(12−R)
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SW), DOCF illustrate fraction DOC dissimilated, F is 
fraction of methane in waste dump gas, 16/12 is the con-
version of carbon to methane, R represents recovered 
methane (Gg/yr.) and OX is oxidation factor (fraction- 
IPCC default is 0) as indicated in Eq. 1.
The method assumes that all future methane emis-
sions occur in the same year that the waste is disposed 
of. The method is straightforward, and calculating emis-
sions needs only the input of a small number of param-
eters, for which the IPCC guidelines provide default 
values in cases where country-specific quantities or data 
are unavailable. The amount of methane gas released 
from the disposal site was estimated using the recom-
mended degradable organic carbon and decay rate val-
ues for waste disposal sites.
The emissions of carbon dioxide from municipal solid 
waste disposal sites without gas collection systems were 
calculated using
In Eq. 2, variable B is CO2 emission (Gg/year), A 
represents the quantity of CH4 calculated from Eq.  1 
(Gg/year), F is the fraction by volume of CH4 in land-
fill gas and generally assumed to be 0.5, OX illustrates 
soil oxidation fraction, typically 0.1 (fraction), and the 
numerical values 44 and 16 represents the molecular 
weight of CO2 (kg/kg-mol) and the molecular weight of 
 CH4 (kg/kg-mol) respectively.
(2)B = A ×
(
1 − F
F
+ OX
)
×
44
16
The eutrophication capacity of organic waste was cal-
culated using Eqs. 3, 4, and 5 after the molecular formula 
of the organic waste of Bahir Dar city was determined.
and
The variables in the above three consecutive equa-
tions represent: EP is eutrophication potential, P indi-
cates the number of phosphorus atoms in the molecule, 
N is the number of nitrogen atoms in the molecule, O 
illustrates the number of oxygen atoms in the molecule, 
C is the number of carbon atoms in the molecule, H 
represents the number of hydrogen atoms in the mol-
ecule, and V ref represents the V for phosphate anion, 
 [PO4]3− and V ref equals 1, MW ref represents the 
MW for phosphate anion, [PO4]3− and MW ref equals 
94.97 g/mol, MW is the compound’s MW, and ThOD 
represents theoretical oxygen demand. The volume of 
leachate resulting from municipal solid waste in Bahir 
Dar city was quantified by using the relation:
(3)EP =
V∕MW
Vref∕MWref
(4)V = P +
N
16
+
ThOD
138
(5)ThOD = C +
H − 3N
4
+
O
2
(6)L = R − Ea
Fig. 1 The DPSIRO 
conceptual framework 
developed by the author
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The symbols in Eq.  6 are represented as L is the 
volume of leachate, R is the volume of rainfall, and 
Eais the volume of real evapotranspiration (or simpler 
evaporation from the earth level). Third, the impact that 
results from the change in soil, water, and air quality was 
determined. In addition to the impact, the recommended 
responses and expected outcomes obtained from the 
possible actions were determined. The responses and 
outcomes form a balanced relationship with economic, 
social, and environmental situations. Finally, the overall 
scenario of the DPSIRO framework was conceptualized 
holistically by forming a balanced relationship between 
economic, social, and environmental conditions.
Data collection, data source, and data type
The data required to develop the DPSIRO framework 
indicators was gathered from both primary and second-
ary data sources. The five kefleketema found in the city 
were grouped into three major classes in order to gather 
appropriate information. These were the three major 
classes: inner, middle, and outer. The grouping tech-
nique was done based on population density, geographi-
cal location, and population settlement and land use pat-
terns to make sample sites homogenous. Then, the data 
was randomly collected from the inner, middle, and outer 
classes to gather representative data for the study area.
There are around seventeen Kebles (administrative 
systems) in the city’s five kefleketema. The core (inner) 
part includes Keble 01, 02, 03, 04, 05, 06, and 12. Keble 
07, 08, 09, 10, 15, and 17 belong to the middle class. 
The remaining Keble numbers 11, 13, 14, and 16 are 
grouped into the outer class. The grouping mechanism 
was obtained from the Bahir Dar city administration 
office, which falls under the Keble level category in 
2016. Keble 05, Keble 10, and Keble 11 were selected 
randomly to gather sample data from the inner, middle, 
and outer classes, respectively. A total of 65, 96, and 62 
households were chosen at random to be sampled for the 
three respective classes. The total number of households 
taken from both groups was 223.
The number of samples collected from sampling house-
holds was 33, 36, and 27 for the central, middle, and inner 
regions, respectively. The total amount of residential waste 
weighted was 646.215 kg. The primary data gathered was 
gathered through solid waste characterization, focus group 
discussions, and face-to-face interviews with responsible 
parties about the current solid waste management system, 
industry availability, and the population number of the city. 
Land observation was the other technique used to deter-
mine the actual capacity of municipal solid waste collected 
in the area, as well as their solid waste collection and sort-
ing methods. Secondary data was collected through a liter-
ature survey from both published and unpublished sources. 
Qualitative and quantitative approaches are used to ana-
lyze the results of the study.
Result and discussion
Deriving force and pressure
The three main driving forces are as follows: natural 
population growth rate, economic growth, and rapid 
urbanization all lead to the generation of municipal solid 
waste in the case of Bahir Dar city. With a waste gen-
eration rate of 0.223 kg per capita per day, the municipal 
solid waste produced in Bahir Dar city increased from 
73.05 tons per day in 2007 to 148.13 tons per day in 
2020 (Misganaw & Teffera, 2021). The average annual 
population growth rate of 6.6% (Biruk, 2017; Tirusew 
et  al., 2013) is one of the key factors influencing the 
shift in urban solid waste generation rate. The study of 
municipal solid waste in Bahir Dar revealed that as the 
city’s population grows, the amount of municipal solid 
waste generated grows as well. As shown in Table  1, 
solid waste production is rising in all waste generation 
sources. Depending on the result of the total waste gen-
erated, only 58% was properly collected and disposed 
of and 86% of the total waste generated is degradable 
(Asmare & Alelign, 2019; Wegedie, 2018).
Based on the analysis of the environmental sustain-
ability of the DPSIRO model, the pressure of municipal 
solid waste generation (P) is initiated by the driving force 
of municipal solid waste generation (D) and can block 
the action of the responsible community®. A large quan-
tity of solid waste is generated in residential areas. On 
average, it covers around 55% of the total waste. Rapid 
urbanization and technology used for production pro-
cesses are also considered driving forces leading to waste 
generation in the city. In addition to waste generation, the 
other indicators considered as pressures are production, 
consumption, and land use for solid waste disposal sites.
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State
The pressure resulting from the driving force leads to 
changes in the state of environmental components, such 
as water, air, and soil quality. This environmental degra-
dation creates an elevated threat to economic growth and 
development (Chapagain et al., 2020). Change in envi-
ronmental quality is a combination of physical, chemi-
cal, and biological conditions.
Greenhouse gas emissions
Air pollution is one of the world’s most important chal-
lenges, with long-term and short-term health conse-
quences in countries of all socioeconomic levels (Luiz 
et al., 2020; Maroosi et al., 2019). Carbon dioxide emis-
sions from the combustion of solid waste are one of the 
primary causes of global warming caused by the green-
house effect (Fedorov & Linke, 2022). The amount of 
 CH4 and CO2 emitted from the Bahir Dar city dump site 
was determined using the IPCC model. In this paper, 
MSW equals the amount of urban waste transported to 
the disposal site. Then the MSWF is equal to 58% and 
the remaining 42% is assumed to be lost due to recycling, 
waste burning at source, waste thrown in to the drains, 
and waste not reaching the dump site due to insufficient 
solid waste management system. This insufficient man-
agement increases the transmission of diseases and causes 
contamination of surface and ground water, greenhouse 
gas emissions, and ecosystem damage. The total GHG 
emissions from dumpsites are calculated as the sum of 
the CO2 emissions and the CH4 emissions (converted to 
 CO2eq) (Misganaw & Teffera, 2021). The result obtained 
by using this relationship was 23.112 Gg in 2007 and 
reached 46.873Gg in 2020. As the result indicated in 
Fig.  2, the emission of greenhouse gases is increasing 
from time to time from 2007 to 2020 proportional to pop-
ulation growth.
Eutrophication potential
Another state condition that occurs in a body of water 
when the composition of organic waste rises during 
the generation of MSW is eutrophication. The chemi-
cal formula of organic waste produced in Bahir Dar city 
was determined to calculate the EP (excessive biologi-
cal activity of organisms due to over-nitrification) of 
MSW generated in the area. The percentage coverage of 
organic and inorganic waste generated in the city was 
indicated in Fig. 3.
Table 2 indicates the percentage chemical composi-
tion of organic wastes in terms of carbon, hydrogen, oxy-
gen, and nitrogen. The weight of carbon (C), hydrogen 
(H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N) for each portion of 
organic waste was determined using the data in Table 2. 
The aim of determining the weight of elements found 
in organic waste was to determine the waste’s chemical 
molecular formula in terms of carbon, hydrogen, oxy-
gen, and nitrogen to determine eutrophication potential.
The chemical composition of organic wastes was 
determined based on the composition in the abovemen-
tioned table. The total percentage composition calculated 
Table 1 Amount of solid 
waste generated in US tons/
day in different streams 
from 2007 to 2020
Others include street 
cleaning, parks beaches, 
recreational areas, and 
treatment plants
Year Residential Commercial Industrial Service provider Others Total
200740.17 13.88 12.41 2.922 3.652 73.05
2008 42.29 14.61 13.07 3.076 3.845 76.90
2009 44.79 15.47 13.84 3.257 4.072 81.44
2010 47.23 16.31 14.69 3.434 4.293 85.87
2011 49.95 17.25 15.43 3.632 4.541 90.82
2012 52.61 18.17 16.26 3.826 4.783 95.66
2013 55.83 19.28 17.25 4.060 5.075 101.5
2014 59.12 20.42 18.27 4.299 5.374 107.5
2015 62.53 21.60 19.32 4.547 5.684 113.6
2016 66.00 22.80 20.40 4.800 6.000 120.0
2017 69.61 24.05 21.51 5.063 6.329 126.5
2018 73.51 25.39 22.72 5.346 6.682 133.6
2019 77.32 26.71 23.90 5.623 7.029 140.5
2020 81.47 28.14 25.18 5.925 7.406 148.1
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in the organic part of the municipal solid waste of Bahir 
Dar city is indicated in Table 3.
The eutrophication potential (EP) can be calcu-
lated for any compound that contains only C, H, N, 
and O. In order to determine the eutrophication poten-
tial of organic waste generated in Bahir Dar city, 
obtaining the molecular formula of the organic waste 
is required. Then the molecular formula of the waste 
can be obtained by dividing each component by its 
molecular weight and excluding sulfur and ash. To 
obtain the general chemical formula that is present in 
organic municipal solid waste of Bahir Dar city, use 
the lowest represented element, nitrogen, as the base. 
After taking nitrogen as the base, then dividing each 
value of the element by the number of moles of nitro-
gen as the result indicated in Table 4.
As indicated in Table 4, the organic waste produced 
in the city has the chemical formula C24H36O13N. The 
calculated values of ThOD and V were 38.75 and 
0.343, respectively, by using the molecular formula of 
organic waste of the city and mathematical equations 
in the material and method part. The eutrophication 
potential of organic waste produced in Bahir Dar city 
was 0.0594 kg N-equivalent or 59.4 g N-equivalent.
Leachate
Like greenhouse gas emissions and eutrophication, 
leachate is another factor that changes the state of a 
given environment. A number of factors influence 
the proportion of leachate generated, including waste 
characteristics, structure, and compressed congestion; 
weather conditions; average annual temperature, cell 
size, and gradual processing of the disposal region; and 
groundwater impacts.
Generally, leachate quantity is patterned or speci-
fied through an easy water equilibrium method, con-
sidering the amount of water reaching the landfill and 
the level of water departing from the landfill (that is, 
water used in biochemical processes and evaporation). 
The average annual evapotranspiration of Bahir Dar 
city is 307 mm per day and the average annual tem-
perature and rainfall are 19.6 °C and 1419 mm per day, 
respectively. Then the average amount of leachate that 
is found in municipal solid waste in Bahir Dar became 
1112 mm per day.
Fig. 2 Net annual GHGs 
emission (Gg per year) from 
2007 to 2020
Food waste, 43.45
Paper , 
9.39
Plas�cs , 3.29Tex�les , 1.27
Rubber , 0.72
Leather & animal 
remain, 1.97
Yard wastes, 
10.18
wood, 1.73
inorganics, 28
Fig. 3 Organic and inorganic composition of solid waste
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Impact
In the DPSIRO framework, impacts are expressed in 
terms of the effect of change in the quality of the envi-
ronment (soil, air, and water) on social and ecologi-
cal systems. Ecosystem and human welfare effects are 
both included in the impacts, but the former is focused 
on ecosystem problems such as reducing water, soil, 
and air quality (Cooper, 2013). Indicators in the impact 
component of the DPSIRO framework are used to meas-
ure the change in the state of air, soil, and water due to 
the pressure and the driving force caused by the state 
of air, soil, and water quality change. As indicated in 
Fig. 2, the emissions of greenhouse gases increased from 
23.112 to 46.873Gg in the years between 2007 and 2020 
(Misganaw & Teffera, 2021). By trapping heat, this 
rise contributes to climate change as well as respiratory 
problems caused by smog and pollution. Increased GHG 
emissions cause genetic damage in animals, plants, and 
bacteria, in addition to having an impact on human health 
(Mussury & Rocha, 2020). Other implications of climate 
change caused by greenhouse gases include extreme 
weather, food supply shortages, and increasing wildfires.
The eutrophication potential of municipal solid waste 
in the city is high, and this leads to toxic poisons for 
human health that can be produced by harmful algal 
bloom species. Algal toxins can build in shellfish and, 
more broadly, seafood, reaching harmful levels for 
human and animal health. Shellfish poisoning can result 
in paralysis, neurotoxicity, or diarrhea. Eutrophication 
has a high ecological impact, in addition to human health 
impacts. Lake Tana, which is the largest lake in Ethiopia, 
is found in Bahir Dar city and has abundant fish products 
for the community. Increased turbidity or reduced light 
penetration into the lower depths of the water column 
is both caused by phytoplankton development. This can 
Table 2 Chemical 
compositions of organic 
waste components
Percent by weight
Component Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Sulfur Ash
Food waste 48.0 6.4 37.6 2.6 0.4 5.0
Paper 43.5 6.0 44.0 0.3 0.2 6.0
Plastics 60.0 7.2 22.8 - - 10.0
Textiles 55.0 6.6 31.2 4.6 0.15 2.5
Rubber 78.0 10.0 - 2.0 - 10.0
Leather and ani-
mal remain
60.0 8.0 11.6 10.0 0.4 10.0
Yard wastes 47.8 6.0 38.0 3.4 0.3 4.5
wood 49.5 6.0 42.7 0.2 0.1 1.5
Table 3 General 
composition of solid waste 
in Bahir Dar city
Component Composition
C in Kg H in Kg O in Kg N in Kg S in Kg Ash in Kg
Food waste 440.750 58.767 345.254 23.874 3.673 45.911
Paper 86.363 11.912 87.356 0.596 0.397 11.912
Plastics 41.565 4.988 15.795 - - 6.928
Textiles 14.817 1.778 8.405 1.239 0.040 0.674
Rubber 11.661 1.495 - 0.297 - 1.495
Leather and ani-
mal remain
24.823 3.310 4.799 4.137 0.165 4.137
Yard waste 102.880 12.914 81.787 7.318 0.646 9.685
Wood 17.993 2.181 15.521 0.073 0.036 0.545
Total 740.852 97.345 558.917 37.534 4.957 81.287
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stifle the growth of submerged aquatic plants in lakes, 
affecting species that rely on them.
Leachate also leads to various human health impacts, 
like greenhouse gas emissions and eutrophication. Sweat-
ing, bleeding, and stomach ailments can all be induced by 
drinking contaminated leachate water. Blood disorders, 
congenital defects, and even cancer can result from the 
consumption of water affected by leachate. Solid wastes 
generate organic pollutants and are taken by agricultural 
plants and their accumulation in edible parts causes seri-
ous health problems to animals and humans (Parlavecchia 
& Loffredo, 2020).
Responses
There are different responses to reduce impacts on water, 
air, and soil environments due to MSW generation. These 
responses given during the time of study are: sustainable 
with regard to the environment (i.e., friendly with nature 
in current time and future), technologically feasible with 
adequate methods and equipment, economically feasi-
ble, wanted by the society living in the city, legally much 
with national as well as international legislation, and also 
administratively attainable. Based on the scenarios, Bahir 
Dar City could consider responses such as transitioning 
from a linear to a circular economy (i.e., using waste from 
one sector as an input for another). In this case, there are 
several studies that are used as inputs to convert Bahir 
Dar’s policy from a linear to a circular economy system. 
According to Asmare and Alelign (2019) and Biruk 
(2017), more than 74% of Bahir Dar City’s municipalsolid waste can be used to make briquettes, and over 86% 
of the waste can be composted into organic fertilizer.
The application of user fees for waste management ser-
vices is the next possible action, because it is necessary to 
impose fees on waste generators. It reduces the city’s gar-
bage creation from various sources. The goal of imposing 
waste charges is to reduce waste generation both in terms 
of quantity and risk, as well as to improve waste recov-
ery (Michel et al., 2018; Sanjeevi & Shahabudeen, 2015). 
Transportation and waste treatment fees are included in 
the prices. The cost to be paid should be lower for sepa-
rated waste than for mixed waste. The purpose of the 
waste tax is to promote recovery and reduce MSW on the 
waste disposal site (Misganaw & Teffera, 2021). Creating 
awareness in the community regarding reducing, reusing, 
and recycling (3Rs) is an important response to reduce 
the negative impact. Suitable waste management policies 
and frameworks should be implemented and monitored 
properly. The ability of a municipality to build in terms 
of economic, personnel, and technical aspects and trans-
fer information to the community regarding health, socio-
economic, and other harmful impacts of improper solid 
waste management of the city are important responses to 
reduce the generation and impact of waste.
Outcome
The responses to the DPSIRO model resulted in high effi-
ciency in research to assist decision-makers in developing 
and executing policies in favor of the city’s municipal solid 
waste management system. The strategic actions taken 
by responsible parties at various levels of the DPSIRO 
framework (driver, pressure, state, and impact) lead to 
significant outputs related to social, environmental, and 
economic sustainability. The possible actions  dealt with 
in response section  lead to various outcomes. From those 
outcomes, the three basic states that are identified in soil, 
water, and air (leachate, eutrophication, and greenhouse 
gas emissions) can be reduced due to waste quantity 
reduction in waste disposal sites. Bahir Dar city’s waste 
disposal site consumes around 22 hectares (Asmare & 
Alelign, 2019). So, the implementation of the 3R policy in 
MSW management of Bahir Dar results in the creation of 
lands for construction, farming, and other purposes from 
waste disposal sites. The impacts resulting from inorganic 
fertilizer can also be reduced by substituting it with organic 
fertilizer (compost) and using compostable wastes as raw 
material. The city produced 148.12 tons of MSW per day 
in 2021 with a waste density of 162.3 kg/m3. The annual 
volume of waste was 333,291.6 m3 per year. According 
to Dream Light PLC’s expertise, a maximum of 0.6 m3 
of solid waste is required to produce one quintal (100 kg) 
of compost. This indicates that 47,772 tons of compost 
can be produced from 86% biodegradable MSW per year. 
Based on this product, the total income generated per year 
is around 1,313,724 birr.
Table 4 Molar composition and normalized mole ratio of ele-
ments in MSW
Element Atomic weight Moles Mole ratio
Carbon 12.01 61.686 23.626
Hydrogen 1.01 96.381 35.976
Oxygen 16.00 34.932 13.039
Nitrogen 14.01 2.679 1.00
Page 9 of 13 297
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In addition to the financial benefits, the environmen-
tal consequences of MSW mishandling are mitigated. 
Knowledge transmission regarding MSW management 
and the use of waste taxes and levies in society in the 
context of a circular economy raises public awareness 
about waste income production and protects people’s 
economy, environment, and health. Figure  4 uses the 
DPSIRO framework to summarize the result of better 
knowledge of the overarching concept of the research.
As the scenario indicates in Fig. 4, there are a num-
ber of cause-and-effect relationships in MSW generation 
and management. Various indicators present in the con-
ceptual analysis of the framework can make an essential 
difference in the outcome of the evaluation. As the fig-
ure (Fig. 4) indicates, the DPSIRO framework character-
izes causal relationships and consists of six indicators 
(driving force indicators, pressure indicators, state indi-
cators, impact indicators, response indicators, and out-
come indicators). The framework is very important to 
integrate information from the natural, social, and eco-
nomic domains. Simultaneously, these six indicators are 
used to reflect the fundamental meaning of sustainable 
development and are appropriate for researching MSW 
management sustainability issues. The analysis of the 
framework is used as an input or as a tool for the global 
study of waste management for researchers in different 
case studies.
Conclusion on research findings
The DPSIRO framework indicated the overall scenario of 
the impact of municipal solid waste on air, water, and soil. 
The generation of municipal solid waste in Bahir Dar city 
is increasing from time to time due to population growth 
and economic transformation as a driving force. This 
leads to a change in the quality of the given environment 
due to the mismanagement of municipal solid waste. Cur-
rently, a large portion of the waste generated in Bahir Dar 
is dumped directly into an open dumpsite with no sorting. 
The amount of greenhouse gases estimated from waste 
disposal sites reaches 46Gg per year in terms of carbon 
Fig. 4 Scenario of 
DPSIRO framework for 
the municipal solid waste 
management system of 
Bahir Dar city
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dioxide equivalent. Most of the waste generated in the 
city is organic with the molecular formula C24H36O13N. 
This waste increases the eutrophication in the water body 
with the potential of 0.0594 kg N-equivalent. The aver-
age amount of leachate that is found from municipal solid 
waste in Bahir Dar is 1,112 mm per day, with an average 
annual temperature and rainfall of 19.60 °C and 1419 mm 
per day, respectively.
These greenhouse gas emissions, eutrophication 
potential, and leachate are considered under the state 
factors of the DPSIRO framework. The waste gen-
erated in the city poses various impacts on human 
health and wildlife. The scenario of the response indi-
cated that Bahir Dar City should start to implement a 
policy of circular economy to reduce potential envi-
ronmental and human health impacts with economic 
benefits. The waste composition is also used as input 
in order to implement those management options. 
According to the results, if Bahir Dar implements 
reduction, reuse, and recycling, it is possible to pro-
duce 47,772 tons of compost per year from 86 percent 
biodegradable garbage. The average total amount of 
money produced per year, according to this product, 
is also around 1,313,724 Birr. The responses identi-
fied in this study lead to environmental, social, and 
economic balance. For more investigation, quantifica-
tion of the other impacts associated with municipal 
solid waste is recommended.
Author contribution The author, Awoke Misganaw, contrib-
uted to the study’s conceptualization, methodology, and soft-
ware, as well as its data curation and original draft preparation, 
visualization, investigation, supervision, validation, reviewing, 
and editing.
Funding Funding was provided by Debre Tabor University 
to conduct this research.
Data availability statement The datasets generated during 
and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the 
corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Declarations 
Consent to participate Not applicable.
Consent for publication Not applicable.
Competing interests The author declares no competing interests.
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