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Journal of Ethnopharmacology 127 (2010) 674–684
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Ethnopharmacology
journa l homepage: www.e lsev ier .com/ locate / je thpharm
comparison of knowledge about medicinal plants for three rural
ommunities in the semi-arid region of northeast of Brazil
ecília de Fátima Castelo Branco Rangel de Almeidaa,b, Marcelo Alves Ramosa,
lba Lúcia Cavalcanti de Amorimb, Ulysses Paulino de Albuquerquea,∗
Departamento de Biologia, Laboratório de Etnobotânica Aplicada (LEA), Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Brazil
Departamento de Farmácia, Laboratório de Produtos Naturais (LAPRONAT), Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Brazil
r t i c l e i n f o
rticle history:
eceived 23 September 2009
eceived in revised form
3 November 2009
ccepted 1 December 2009
vailable online 5 December 2009
eywords:
thnobotany
thnopharmacology
a b s t r a c t
Aim: The aim of this research was to understand the importance of native and exotic plants in local
medical systems in the Caatinga of the Brazilian northeast, and the influence of socio-economic factors
on the acquisition of knowledge about these resources.
Methods: A total of 55 people were interviewed in three rural communities using free list and semi-
structured interviewes.
Results: A total of 108 ethnospecies were reported, 99 of which were identified; 43 of these were pre-
ferred by informants. Most of the plants cited were exotic (51) but the difference in diversity among
these plants and native plants (48) was not considered significant (p > 0.05). The exotic plants were pre-
dominantly herbaceous and used to cure diseases that native plants did not seem to treat. There were
xotic medicinal plant
raditional knowledge
aatinga
iversification hypothesis
se redundancy
no differences between men’s and women’s knowledge of the plants (p > 0.05). However, for some com-
munities, factors such as age and income were correlated with the number of citations and indications
for plants, which suggested that older people and those with higher income levels had more knowledge
about these properties.
Conclusion: The data presented in this study showed the importance of exotic species in the region studied
lant
and demonstrated that p
treatment in the area.
. Introduction
Scholars have reported that many traditional communities are
n the process of losing knowledge, possibly due to the introduc-
ion of economic benefits, such as sanitation, electricity, medical
are and formal education in these communities (Benz et al., 2000;
oeks, 2004; Case et al., 2005). One of the obvious consequences of
his process, for example, is the reduction of the use of medicinal
lant resources (Vandebroek et al., 2004).
The popular knowledge of medical resources is certainly very
ynamic and is subject to various influences; knowledge can
ary according to an individual’s attributes, such as gender, age,
ducation level, income, social status and the economic roles
layed within the family, skills and abilities (Hanazaki et al., 2000;
onteiro et al., 2006; Quinlan and Quinlan, 2007). For example,
ender clearly influences knowledge about plant resources because
ender roles and occupations are differentiated. Thus, men’s and
∗ Corresponding author at: Ulysses Paulino de Albuquerque, Laboratório de
tnobotânica Aplicada, Departamento de Botânica, Universidade Federal Rural de
ernambuco, Recife/PE, Brazil. Tel.: +55 81 3320 6350; fax: +55 81 3320 6360.
E-mail address: upa@db.ufrpe.br (U.P. de Albuquerque).
378-8741/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
oi:10.1016/j.jep.2009.12.005
knowledge can be perceived as a way to diversify options for medical
© 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
women’s knowledge may be reflected in distinct patterns of own-
ership and use of plants. In studies of rural communities in
northeastern Brazil, Voeks (2007) reported that females are more
knowledgeable about the medicinal uses of plants, and they can
name and describe plants’ therapeutic properties with greater
accuracy. However, different patterns have been recorded and
increased interest has led to greater numbers of works addressing
such issues about plant knowledge.
The objectives of this study were to determine the importance
of native and exotic medicinal plants that are cited by three rural
communities in the Caatinga (semi-arid), which is in the northeast
of Brazil. In addition, this study assessed the effects of gender, age
and income on knowledge about these resources. In the Brazilian
northeast, the Caatinga has fundamental importance in the lives of
people that inhabit this region because it offers a wide variety of
animals and plants that are used for food, fuel, building materials
and medicinal purposes (Araújo et al., 2007; Alves and Rosa, 2005,
2006, 2007; Alves, 2009). The Caatinga still harbors people who
have a vast knowledge of the available plant resources in the area,
and only in recent years has this relationship been further explored,
especially in relation to the use of medicinal plants (Albuquerque
et al., 2007).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03788741
http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jethpharm
mailto:upa@db.ufrpe.br
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2009.12.005
of Eth
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C.de.F.C.B.R. de Almeida et al. / Journal
. Methods
.1. Study area
This study was performed in the Soledade municipality, located
n the Soledade microregion and in the mesoregion of Agreste,
araíba state, at the coordinates 07◦03′26′′S and 36◦21′46′′W
Fig. 1). Soledade is in the Paraíba River Basin and Taperoá River
ub-basin (Lacerda et al., 2005), crossed by perennial rivers, but
ith small flow and low potential for groundwater. The seat of the
oledade municipality is 165.5 km from the capital of João Pessoa,
34.9 km2 in area and 521 m above sea level (Mascarenhas et al.,
005). The climate is semi-arid with warm summer rains (BSwh’),
–8 months of drought and precipitation of only 400–600 mm per
ear (SEBRAE, 1998). Due to the warm and dry climate, the vegeta-
ion consists of deciduous and thorny Caatinga forests (Beltrão et
l., 2005), with a dominant shrub layer and few individual trees.
According to data from the 2007 census, Soledade has 13,128
nhabitants; 70.15% of these inhabitants live in urban areas, and
9.85% in rural areas. The population density of the area is
1.05 inhabitants/km2 and the average monthly income for these
nhabitants is U$ 144.35. There are 32 hospital beds in eight health
acilities throughout the city (IBGE, 2008). The main economic
ctivity is agriculture; the planting of beans, corn and livestock
Fig. 1. Location of the Soledade/PB municipality mo
nopharmacology 127 (2010) 674–684 675
has great importance there because of uncertain rainy seasons that
directly affect agricultural production. Thus, the main food sources
for these families are the consumptions of milk, eggs, meat, beans
and corn. In this region, farmers select plants to develop in their
backyards, and they insert species that suit the region and serve
different roles within the family unit.
The municipality of Soledade, with sampling of all households
in the communities of Cachoeira, Bom Sucesso and Barrocas, total-
ing 55 interviews. The Cachoeira community is located from 14 km
distance of the Center of Soledade, Barrocas about 18 km and Bom
Sucesso about 21 km, and between them has distance 7 km (Sá e
Silva et al., 2009).
The Cachoeira community features 19 households that are close
to each other and located on the land owned by a local resident
known as “Mrs. Genuína”. The informal trade of sweets, a bar,
a school, a soccer field and a Catholic church that is under con-
struction, are features of this community. In Barrocas, the 12 rural
households are more scattered due to the predominance of large
farms. There is a closed school in the community, which is the rea-
son why childrenwere transferred to the schools in the Soledade or
Bom Sucesso communities. In Bom Sucesso, there is a clear physical
division between a village with sidewalk streets and a few scattered
farms that constitute 24 households. There is a Catholic church, an
elementary school, two grocery stores, a cemetery, a soccer field
dified from Sá e Silva et al. (2009) (NE, Brazil).
6 of Ethnopharmacology 127 (2010) 674–684
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Table 1
The diversity of medicinal plants that were cited by rural communities of Cachoeira,
Barrocas and Bom Sucesso (NE, Brazil).
Number of cited species
Cachoeira Barrocas Bom Sucesso General Preferred
Natives 33a 36a 34a 48a 16a
76 C.de.F.C.B.R. de Almeida et al. / Journal
nd a medical center. The clinic serves all residents from the three
ommunities for routine examinations, and it consists of a nurse, a
ursing assistant, and a dentist (Sá e Silva et al., 2009).
.2. Collection of ethnobotanical data
Ethnobotanical data was collected through semi-structured
nterviews (Albuquerque et al., 2008). Informed free consent terms
ere obtained from those who offered to participate in the study,
ollowing the legal ethical regulations set out in the 196/96 resolu-
ion from the Ethics Committee in Research (Ministério da Saúde,
002). The following guiding question was used in all interviews:
What medicinal plants do you know?” Subsequently, details of
ach species mentioned, concerning the part used, preparation
ethod, indications and contra-indications, were recorded.
Data collection was performed from January to July of 2006,
e used the free list and semi-structured techniques to conduct
he interviews (Albuquerque et al., 2008). Interviews were con-
ucted with household-heads who were over 18 years old and
ere present at the occasion of the interviewer’s visit. In three
ouseholds that we visited in the Bom Sucesso community, two
ndividuals refused to participate in the study; one interviewee in
achoeira reported not having knowledge about medicinal uses for
lants.
There were 40 women and 15 men in the study. Participants
ncluded 14 women and 5 men from Cachoeira, 9 women and 3 men
rom Barrocas, and 17 women and 7 men from Bom Sucesso. Fami-
ies were composed, on average, of four people. About 70% of these
amilies were supported by a monthly income that roughly equaled
he Brazilian minimum wage (U$ 264.80), some of them were
nly supported by government programs such as school-aid or
amily-aid, and one single family had 10 minimum wages income.
dditionally, three families reported not having any income. They
ad low income levels because they survived on family farm-
ng. Other occupations were reported as well, including retiree,
ousewife, public servant, cattle rancher and teacher. Respondents
eported an age range from 20 to 88 years old, and 29% of them
ere between the ages of 50 and 58 years.
In the families studied, high blood pressure was the biggest
ealth problem, and it was followed by back and heart problems,
heumatism, high cholesterol and gastritis. Although this was con-
idered a rural community, these families presented typical health
roblems of individuals in urban communities. At the time of the
nterviews, about 20% of the families were using of medicinal plant
o treat their diseases.
With the aid of semi-structured interviews, socio-economic
ata (sex, age, monthly family income, and number of residents)
as obtained and information about the medicinal plant species
as selected from the free list. In addition, houses were revisited
n order to review and enrich the information that was previously
rovided (Albuquerque et al., 2008); this information included ver-
fication about the species that were preferred by the informants,
nd statements about the plants that were considered most impor-
ant to them.
.3. Categorization of species
According to their biogeographical origin, the plants mentioned
n the interviews were identified and classified as native or exotic.
pecies were considered native when they were native to the region
nd to Brazil and/or grew spontaneously in the Caatinga (but with
outh American origin). Plants were considered exotic when they
ad extra continental origin, cultivated in the region or with ample
istribution, such as the tropical and cosmopolitans weeds. Species
tudied were identified and deposited in the Geraldo Mariz Herbar-
um (UFP), Federal University of Pernambuco.
Exotics 33a 35a 37a 51a 27b
Different letters in the same column indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) by the
chi-square (�2) test.
2.4. Categorization of uses
Owing to the variety of diseases reported locally, these diseases
were grouped into 17 body systems. We used the World Health
Organization classifications to group them (WHO, 2006) into the
following categories: digestive, respiratory, gynecological/urinary,
circulatory, nervous, sensory, motor, puerperium, cutaneous, poi-
soning, cancer, hematopoietic, nutrition, infectious/parasitic. Those
diseases that presented symptoms and signs from multiple origins
were not classified into the systems described above (Albuquerque
et al., 2007). Fever, body aches, pains in general and abdominal
cramps were incorporated into the category “diseases and not
defined aches.”
2.5. Data analyses
The data obtained in the free list was applied to the Free-list
analysis in the Program Anthopac 4.0 (Borgatti, 1996) in order to
obtain the salience for each species. This analysis indicated if the
species which had the highest salience would be those species men-
tioned as the most preferred by the Spearman correlation.
The chi-square test was used to analyze differences between the
following factors: number of plants that were known and exclusive
in the three communities studied and the number of native and
exotic plants that were found in the habits (herb, shrub and tree) of
each community. The same test was used to compare the diversity
of preferred species of native and exotic plants. The non-parametric
Kruskal–Wallis test was used to analyze differences in women’s and
men’s knowledge about the plant treatment and the listed species.
Owing to the low number of male respondents in comparison to
the number of female participants in the three communities, it was
not possible to make a comparison between women and men in
each community.
The Spearman correlation (Sokal and Rholf, 1995) was used
to analysis the number of species and indications cited and the
socio-economic data of respondents, such as gender, age and fam-
ily income (p < 0.05). For all the statistical analyses, the statistical
package BioEstat 5.0 was used (Ayres and Ayres-Júnior, 2007).
3. Results
In total, 108 ethnospecies were cited in the three communi-
ties studied. Of these, 99 were identified; 51 were exotic and 48
were native (Tables 1 and 2). These species consisted of 45 fami-
lies; the most important families were Euphorbiaceae (8 species)
Lamiaceae (7 species), Bromeliaceae, Caesalpiniaceae, Mimosaceae,
and Solanaceae (5 spp.).
Informants cited 81 species in Cachoeira, 70 in Barrocas and
63 in Bom Sucesso. Eight species were exclusive to Cachoeira, 11
to Barrocas and 15 to Bom Sucesso, which indicated that there
was little difference in the number of species that were exclusive
to a community (Table 3). The chi-square test showed no signifi-
cant differences in the proportion of known (�2 = 2.72, p > 0.05) and
exclusive (�2 = 3.81, p > 0.05) plants within the three communities.
C.de.F.C.B.R. de Almeida et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 127 (2010) 674–684 677
Table 2
List of medicinal species cited in the communities of Cachoeira (C), Barrocas (B) and Bom Sucesso (BS) (NE, Brazil).
Family/scientific name Vernacular name Habit Origin Number of citations
C B BS
Amaranthaceae
Alternanthera dentata (Moench.) Stuchlik. ex R.E.Fr. Novalgina Herb Exotic 1
Alternanthera sp. Penicilina Herb Exotic 1
Gomphrena basilanata Suesseng.Capitão Herb Native 4
Anacardiaceae
Anacardium occidentale L. Cajueiro-roxo Tree Native 14 9 12
Myracrodruon urundeuva Allemão Aroeira Tree Native 12 7 12
Schinopsis brasiliensis Engl. Baraúna Tree Native 2
Spondias tuberosa Arruda Umbuzeiro Tree Native 1 1
Annonaceae
Annona muricata L. Graviola Tree Exotic 1
Apiaceae
Daucus carota L. Cenoura Herb Exotic 1
Foeniculum vulgare Gaertn. Endro Herb Exotic 3
Pimpinella anisum L. Erva-doce Herb Exotic 2 2 3
Apocynaceae
Aspidosperma pyrifolium Mart. Pereiro Tree Native 2 6
Arecaceae
Cocos nucifera L. Coqaueiro Tree Exotic 2 1
Syagrus sp. Coco catolé Tree Native 1
Asteraceae
Acanthospermum hispidum DC. Espinho-de-cigano Herb Exotic 2 1
Egletes viscosa (L.) Less. Macela Herb Exotic 3 3
Matricaria chamomila L. Camomila Herb Exotic 1 1 2
Bignoniaceae
Tabebuia avellanedae Lorentz ex Griseb. Pau-d’arco-roxo Tree Native 1
Bombacaceae
Pseudobombax marginatum (A. St.-Hill., Juss. & Cambess.) A. Robyns. Imbiratanha Tree Native 5 4 5
Boraginaceae
Heliotropium elongatum Hoffm. ex Roem. & Schult. Fedegoso Herb Exotic 3 2
Bromeliaceae
Ananas sp. Abacaxi Herb Native 1 1
Encholirium sp. Macambira-de-pedra Shrub Native 1
Neoglaziovia sp. Caruá Herb Native 2
Tillandsia recurvata (L.) L. Salambaia Herb Native 1
Tillandsia streptocarpa Backer Salmabaia-do-pinhão-brabo Herb Native 1 1
Burseraceae
Commiphora leptophloeos (Mart.) J.B. Gillet Umburana Tree Native 6 6 4
Cactaceae
Cereus jamacaru DC. Cardeiro Tree Native 2 2 2
Melocactus sp. Coroa-de-frade Herb Native 1 1
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. Palma Shrub Exotic 1
Caesalpiniaceae
Bauhinia cheilantha (Bong.) Steud. Mororó Tree Native 4 5 9
Caesalpinia ferrea Mart. Jucá Tree Native 3 2 4
Caesalpinia pyramidalis Tul. Catingueira Tree Native 4 3 2
Hymenaea sp. Jatobá Tree Native 1 1
Senna sp. Sena Tree Native 1
Capparaceae
Capparis flexuosa (L.) L. Feijão-brabo Tree Native 1
Cleome spinosa Jacq. Mussambê Shrub Exotic 2 2
Caprifoliaceae
Sambucus sp. Sabugueiro Shrub Exotic 1 1 2
Caricaceae
Carica papaya L. Mamoeiro Tree Native 1 1
Celastraceae
Maytenus rigida Mart. Bom-nome Tree Native 10 4 9
Chenopodiaceae
Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Mastruz Herb Exotic 8 7 9
Convolvulaceae
Ipomoea sp. Batata-doce Herb Native 1
Operculina sp. Batata-de-purga Herb Native 1 1 3
678 C.de.F.C.B.R. de Almeida et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 127 (2010) 674–684
Table 2 (Continued )
Family/scientific name Vernacular name Habit Origin Number of citations
C B BS
Crassulaceae
Kalanchoe brasilensis Camb. Saião Herb Exotic 1 4 5
Cucurbitaceae
Citrillus vulgaris Schard. Melância Herb Exotic 1 1
Luffa operculata Cong. Cabacinha Herb Native 1 1
Sechium edule (Jacq.) Sw. Chuchu Herb Exotic 1 1
Wilbrandia sp. Cabeça-de-negro Herb Native 1 1
Euphorbiaceae
Cnidoscolus quercifolius Pohl Favela Tree Native 13 3 7
Cnidoscolus (L.) Arthur Urtiga-branca Herb Native 3 2 4
Croton blanchetianus Baill. Marmeleiro Tree Native 3 2 4
Croton aff. muscicarpa Mull. Arg. Cidreira-braba Shrub Native 1
Croton rhamnifolius Wild. Velame Shrub Native 1
Croton sincorensis Mart. ex Müll. Arg. Marmeleiro-branco Shrub Native 1 1 2
Jatropha mollissima (Pohl) Baill. Pinhão-brabo Shrub Native 2 1 1
Phyllanthus sp. Quebra-pedra Herb Exotic 2 1 3
Fabaceae
Amburana cearensis (Allemão) A.C. Sm. Cumaru Tree Native 7 5 13
Erythrina velutina Willd. Mulungu Tree Native 3 2 2
Lamiaceae
Hyptis suaveolens Poit. Alfazema-braba Shrub Exotic 1
Hyptis sp. Maria-dos-três-babados Herb Exotic 1
Mentha piperita L. Hortelã-miúda Herb Exotic 8 8 11
Ocimum basilicum L. Manjericão Herb Exotic 2 1 1
Plectranthus amboinicus (Lour.) Spreng. Hortelã-graúda Herb Exotic 8 7 9
Plectranthus barbatus Andr. Hortelã-do-pará ou anador-sete-dores Shrub Exotic 3 2 1
Rosmarinus officinalis L. Alecrim Herb Exotic 2 3 3
Lauraceae
Persea americana Mill. Abacate Tree Exotic 2
Liliaceae
Aloe vera (L.) Berm.f. Babosa Herb Exotic 2 5 8
Allium cepa L. Cebola-branca Herb Exotic 1 2
Allium sativum L. Alho Herb Exotic 1 4 1
Malpighiaceae
Malpighia glabra L. Acerola Tree Exotic 3 1
Mimosaceae
Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell.) Brenan. Angico Tree Native 5 2 12
Mimosa tenuiflora (Willd.) Poir. Jurema-preta Tree Native 3 3
Piptadenia stipulacea (Benth.) Ducke Jurema-branca Tree Native 2
Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. Algaroba Tree Exotic 1
Stryphnodendron sp. Barbatenom Tree Exotic 1
Monimiaceae
Peumus boldus Mol. Boldo Tree Exotic 6 1 3
Myrtaceae
Eucalyptus sp. Eucalipto Tree Exotic 2 3 4
Psidium guajava L. Goiabeira Tree Native 1 2 2
Nyctaginaceae
Boerhavia diffusa L. Pega-pinto Herb Exotic 2
Olacaceae
Ximenia americana L. Ameixa Tree Native 12 7 15
Passifloraceae
Passiflora edulis Sims Maracujá Shrub Native 1 1
Pedaliaceae
Sesamum orientale L. Gergelim Herb Exotic 1
Poaceae
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf Capim-santo Herb Exotic 3 5 10
Saccharum officinarum L. Cana Herb Exotic 1
Punicaceae
Punica granatum L. Romã Tree Exotic 3 3 1
Rhamnaceae
Zizyphus joazeiro Mart. Juazeiro Tree Native 3 2 5
Rutaceae
Ruta graveolens L. Arruda Herb Exotic 5 4 12
Citrus sp. 1 Laranjeira Tree Exotic 1 1 2
Citrus sp. 2 Limoeiro Tree Exotic 4
C.de.F.C.B.R. de Almeida et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 127 (2010) 674–684 679
Table 2 (Continued )
Family/scientific name Vernacular name Habit Origin Number of citations
C B BS
Sapotaceae
Sideroxylon obtusifolium (Roem. & Schult.) T.D. Penn. Quixabeira ou Quixabeira-branca Tree Native 14 7 15
Selaginellaceae
Selaginella convoluta (Am.) Spring Mão-fechada Herb Native 1
Solanaceae
Nicotiana glauca Graham Oliveira Shrub Native 1
Solanum agrarium Sendtn. Gogoia Herb Exotic 2 6
Solanum tuberosum L. Batatinha Herb Exotic 1
Solanum sp. 1 Berinjela Herb Exotic 1
Solanum sp. 2 Jurubeba Shrub Exotic 1
Sterculiaceae
Melochia tomentosa L. Malva-rosa Herb Native 4 1 2
Waltheria rotundifolia Schrank Malva-branca Herb Exotic 1
Theaceae
Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntz. Chá-preto Shrub Exotic 3 1 3
Verbenaceae
Lippia alba (Mill.) N.E.Br. Erva-cidreira Herb Exotic 13 8 16
Indetermined
Not identified 1 Anador Herb ? 3 1
Not identified 2 Baspo Tree ? 2
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Not identified 3 Cravo-branco
Not identified 4 Quina-quina
Not identified 5 Urinana
The species most frequently mentioned in the three com-
unities were Lippia alba (Mill.) N.E.Br.—Erva-cidreira (37),
ideroxylon obtusifolium (Roem. & Schult.) TD Penn.—Quixabeira
36), Anacardium occidentale L.—Cajueiro-roxo (35), Ximenia amer-
cana L.—Ameixa (34), Myracrodruon urundeuva Fr. All.—Aroeira
31).
.1. The importance of native and exotic species
Most of the plants cited were exotic (Table 1); however, there
as no statistical difference between the diversity of native and
xotic plants mentioned (p > 0.05) (Table 1). Thus, the three com-
unities studied had the same general pattern: a predominance
f exotic plant citations that did not differ statistically from the
umber of native plant citations (Table 1).
Approximately 44% of the plants identified in this study were
referred by members of the communities studied (43 species, see
able 4). It should be noted that the vast majority of these preferred
lants were exotic (27 spp.), and the others (16 spp.) were native to
he region. There were no statistical differences between these val-
es (�2 = 2.81; p > 0.05), besides the important role of exotic species
able 3
edicinal species those were exclusive to each community of Cachoeira, Barrocas and Bo
Cachoeira Barrocas
Alternanthera dentata (Moench.) Stuchlik. ex R.E.Fr. Croton aff. mu
Alternanthera sp. Daucus carota
Boerhavia diffusa L. Encholirium sp
Hyptis suaveolens Poit. Hyptis sp.
Piptadenia stipulacea (Benth.) Ducke Ipomoea sp.
Schinopsis brasiliensis Engl. Neoglaziovia s
Solanum tuberosum L. Persea america
Tillandsia recurvata (L.) L. Prosopis juliflo
Saccharum offi
Selaginella con
Waltheria rotu
Herb ? 1
Tree ? 1
Herb ? 1
in the region, and their contribution to the higher diversity of pre-
ferred plants by local communities.
The salience analysis, which considered the number ofplant
citations and the order in which they were mentioned during
the free-list, was outlined by the following plants: (a) Cachoeira
community: Sideroxylon obtusifolium (0.467), Cnidoscolus querci-
folius (0.417) Lippia alba (0.411); (b) Barrocas community: Ximenia
americana (0.405), Anacardium occidentale (0.404), Myracrodruon
urundeuva (0.400); (c) Bom Sucesso community: Lippia alba (0.478),
Sideroxylon obtusifolium (0.385), Ximenia americana (0.365) (see
Table 5). After comparing the salience results with the frequency
of the preferred citations, a significant and strong correlation
was found in the Cachoeira (rs = 0.84, p < 0.05) and Bom Sucesso
(rs = 0.98, p < 0.001) communities.
The native species comprised a greater number of the tree
medicinal plants mentioned, while the exotic comprised a higher
number of the herbal ones (Fig. 2). This pattern occurred when
we evaluated the data in general and for each community studied.
In the statistical comparison of the diversity of native and exotic
plants among the different habits found (see Fig. 2), we observed
that the diversity of herbs was significantly higher among the exotic
m Sucesso (NE, Brazil).
Bom Sucesso
scicarpa Mull. Arg. Annona muricata L.
L. Capparis flexuosa (L.) L.
. Citrus sp. 2
Croton rhamnifolius Wild.
Foeniculum vulgare Gaertn.
p. Gomphrena basilanata Suesseng.
na Mill. Nicotiana glauca Graham
ra (Sw.) DC. Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.
cinarum L. Senna sp.
voluta (Am.) Spring Sesamum orientale L.
ndifolia Schrank Solanum sp. 1
Solanum sp. 2
Syagrus sp.
Stryphnodendron sp.
Tabebuia avellanedae Lorentz ex Griseb.
680 C.de.F.C.B.R. de Almeida et al. / Journal of Eth
Table 4
Species that were cited as preferred in the communities of Cachoeira, Barrocas and
Bom Sucesso (NE, Brazil).
Preferred species Cachoeira Barrocas Bom
Sucesso
Acanthospermum hispidum DC. 2 0 0
Allium cepa L. 1 0 0
Allium sativum L. 1 1 1
Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. 0 0 1
Alternanthera dentata (Moench.) Stuchlik. 1 0 0
Amburana cearensis (Allemão) A.C. Sm. 3 4 2
Anacardium occidentale L. 5 4 4
Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell.) Brenan. 0 0 2
Bauhinia cheilantha (Bong.) Steud. 2 2 0
Caesalpinia ferrea Mart. ex Tul. var.
leiostachya Benth.
1 1 0
Caesalpinia pyramidalis Tul. 1 1 0
Camellia sinensia (L.) Kuntz. 1 1 0
Chenopodium ambrosioides L. 1 2 5
Cleome spinosa Jacq. 1 0 0
Cnidoscolus quercifolius Pohl. 6 0 2
Cnidoscolus urens (L.) Arthur 0 1 0
Commiphora leptophloeos (Mart.) J.B. Gillett 1 1 0
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf 1 1 6
Egletes viscosa (L.) Less 1 0 0
Eucalyptus sp. 1 1 3
Ipomoea sp. 0 1 0
Kalanchoe brasiliensis Camb. 2 2 2
Lippia alba (Mill.) N.E.Br. 1 2 10
Matricaria chamomila L. 1 1 0
Maytenus rigida Mart. 3 0 0
Melochia tomentosa L. 2 0 0
Mentha piperita L. 3 2 3
Myracrodruon urundeuva Allemão 2 0 1
Ocimum basilicum L. 0 1 0
Peumus boldus Mol. 2 0 2
Phyllanthus sp. 0 1 0
Plectranthus amboinicus (Lour.) Spreng. 3 2 4
Plectranthus barbatus Andr. 0 0 1
Pseudobombax marginatum (A.St.-Hill., Juss.
& Cambess.) A. Robyns
1 1 1
Psidium guajava L. 0 0 1
Punica granatum L. 2 0 0
Rosmarinus officinalis L. 1 0 1
Ruta graveolens L. 1 1 1
Sambucus sp. 0 1 1
Sechium edule (Jacq.) Sw. 1 0 0
Sideroxylon obtusifolium (Humb. ex Roem.
& Schult.) T.D. Penn.
3 0 8
Solanum tuberosum L. 1 0 0
Ximenia americana L. 3 2 3
Table 5
The percentage of the main preferred medicinal species, and the salience values in the co
Community Preference Va
Cachoeira Cnidoscolus quercifolius 31
Anacardium occidentale 26
Sideroxylon obtusifolium 15
Ximenia americana 15
Maytenus ri gida 15
Amburana cearensis 15
Barrocas Anacardium occidentale 33
Amburana cearensis 33
Ximenia americana 16
Mentha piperita 16
Lippia alba 16
Bauhinia cheilantha 16
Bom Sucesso Lippia alba 41
Cymbopogon citratus 25
Chenopodium ambrosioides 20
Anacardium occidentale 16
Plectranthus amboinicus 16
Ximenia americana 16
nopharmacology 127 (2010) 674–684
plants (p < 0.05) in each community. Regarding the number of shrub
species, no significant differences were observed. Although trees
were the predominant habit of native medicinal plants, these val-
ues were not statistically different from the diversity of exotic tree
plants (p > 0.05); there was an exception for the Cachoeira commu-
nity (Fig. 2).
Native species were often cited to treat different disorders than
those indicated for treatment by exotic species, but there are some
exceptions. From this perspective, and in relation to Fig. 3, it was
possible to identify the higher prevalence of native species that
were cited as treatments for genitourinary system disorders, ner-
vous system and musculoskeletal tissue, injuries, poisoning and
other externally caused disorders, such as infectious and para-
sitic diseases and skin and subcutaneous cellular tissue diseases.
Exotic plants were mainly cited for the use in the treatment of
disorders of the respiratory system, indefinable disorders, diges-
tive system disorders, nervous and circulatory systems disorders
(Fig. 3). It should also be noted that only plants of exotic origin were
cited for treatment of sensory system disorders (eyes and ears). The
data in Table 6, which presents the exclusive indications to native
and exotic plants, demonstrated that there was no strong redun-
dancy between the number of therapeutic uses of exotic and native
species.
3.2. Effect of socio-economic factors on the knowledge of
medicinal plants
When the knowledge about medicinal plants among women
and men in the total informants in three communities was com-
pared, there was no significant difference in the number of species
listed (H = 1.81, p > 0.05) and the number of indications given to the
species (H = 1:40, p > 0.05).
There was a significant relationship between number of plants
cited and family income for informants in the Barrocas (rs = 0.67,
p < 0.05) and Bom Sucesso (rs = 0.59, p < 0.005) communities, which
indicated that higher income levels had higher knowledge about
medicinal plants (Fig. 4). The same relationship was not significant
for respondents of the Cachoeira community. In the analysis of the
same variable (family income) and the number of indications cited,
the correlation was significant only for Barrocas (rs = 0.63, p < 0.05),
which demonstrated that people with higher income levels in this
community also knew more therapeutic indications (Fig. 4).
In the evaluation of this parameter, we did not observe a signifi-
cant, but weak, relationship between number of plants cited and the
informant’s age in Cachoeira community (rs = 0.45, p > 0.05), Barro-
mmunities of Cachoeira, Barrocas and Bom Sucesso (NE, Brazil).
lue Salience Value
.58% Sideroxylon obtusifolium 0.467
.32% Cnidoscolus quercifolius 0.417
.79% Lippia alba 0.411
.79% Myracrodruon urundeuva 0.363
.79% Ximenia americana 0.352
.79% Anacardium occidentale 0.305
.33% Ximenia americana 0.405
.33% Anacardium occidentale 0.404
.67% Myracrodruon urundeuva 0.400
.67% Mentha piperita 0.371
.67% Plectranthus amboinicus 0.317
.67% Sideroxylon obtusifolium 0.270
.67% Lippia alba 0.478
.00% Sideroxylon obtusifolium 0.385
.83% Ximenia americana 0.365
.67% Amburana cearensis 0.337
.67% Myracrodruon urundeuva 0.292
.67% Mentha piperita 0.290
C.de.F.C.B.R. de Almeida et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 127 (2010) 674–684 681
Fig. 2. The origin of medicinal plants with the life forms of the species that were lis
Fig. 3. Main body systems that were related to the medicinal plants that were
cited in the communities of Cachoeira, Barrocas and Bom Sucesso (NE, Brazil).
DMC: Diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissues; GI: General
inflammations; DGS: Diseases of the genitourinary system; IPO: Injury, poisonings
and certain other infirmities with external causes; AND: Affections and pains not
d
(
D
c
w
c
T
k
4
4
e
i
o
c
s
w
u
a
a
r
s
w
body systems (Janni and Bastien, 2004). Another association was
that exotic plants are often used to treat problems that involve spe-
cific diseases (Lozada et al., 2006).For example, Sternberg (2004)
reported that children in some African tribes learned to recognize
Table 6
Indications that were cited for treatment exclusively by native and exotic plants,
according to the informants interviewed in the communities of Cachoeira, Bom
Sucesso and Barrocas/PB (NE, Brazil).
Exclusive indications for Exotics plants Exclusive indications for
Natives plants
To open child appetite Appendicitis
Antiabortive Cyst in the chest
Hemorrhoid To fight the internal cancer
To fight the prostate cancer To unswell cut
Heart Collision pain
Thrombosis Muscular pain
Spill Pain in the legs
Ear pain Pain in the body
Stomach ache Hemorrhage in teeth
Migrane Swell
Gastric ulcer Swell in the legs
Liver Collision, inflammation
Flatulence Inflammation in the lung
Child grippe To clean teeth
Hepatitis Skin spot
Hair fall Behind menstruation
Giddiness Laxative
Thrombosis facial Burning
Bloated Cooled
To take off spot in the skin
To take off lice
Thin blood
Loss
efined; PMD: Physical and mental debility; PSE: Problems of the sensorial system
eye); DNS: Diseases of the nervous system; DCS: Diseases of the circulatory system;
DS: Diseases of the digestive system; PSA: Problems of the sensorial system (ear).
as (rs = 0.19, p > 0.05) and Bom Sucesso (rs = 0.30; p > 0.05). When
e analyzed this same variable and the number of indications
ited, the correlation was not significant for these communities.
his correlation indicated that people’s ages did not relate to their
nowledge about medicinal plants.
. Discussion
.1. The importance of native and exotic species
Currently, many studies have discussed the important role of
xotic plants within traditional medical systems, and some have
ndicated that the replacement of the use of native species for plants
f exotic origin is occurring (see Silva and Andrade, 2005). The most
ommon explanation in the literature is that changes in traditional
ystems are occurring as a consequence of acculturation processes,
hich are promoted by the growth and closeness or rural areas to
rban centers, and by their own development (Voeks, 2004; Case et
l., 2005). In the specific case of exotic plants, Albuquerque (2006)
rgued that their introduction can diversify the local therapeutical
epertoire (see Albuquerque and Oliveira, 2007).
There was a great diversity of exotic herbaceous plants in this
tudy, which was represented by the fact that most of these plants
ere reported as preferred by the population investigated. Many
ted in the communities of Cachoeira, Barrocas and Bom Sucesso (NE, Brazil).
respondents commented that their parents were taught to use
exotic plants, and it was through their parents that they have
come to know and use these sources. Understanding the under-
lying causes to explain the increase of new plants within a culture
was not easy because it was influenced by many factors (Stepp and
Moerman, 2001). The work of Salik et al. (1997) with the Indians
of the Peruvian Amazon documented that the maintenance of the
diversity of exotic plants was influenced by local healers. This fact
might have caused the increased dissemination of knowledge of
exotic plants.
It has been observed in indigenous groups that the exotic species
were used to treat diseases that were related to a vast number of
Hemorrhage
Mouth sores
Prostate inflammation
Inflammation of the vagina
Inflammation in the tooth
682 C.de.F.C.B.R. de Almeida et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 127 (2010) 674–684
F tion to
m
t
u
o
f
b
n
t
t
a
m
i
2
p
p
ig. 4. Dispersion diagram of the species cited and therapeutical indications in rela
edicinal plants after the onset of a disease, which was one fac-
or that was responsible for the wide distribution of exotic plants
se.
The research data provides an indication that the introduction
f exotic species in the studied communities involves the need
or therapy diversification (Albuquerque, 2006), or the desire to
roaden the spectrum of diseases that are treated in the commu-
ities (see Alencar et al., 2009). Thus, it must be observed that
here have been some biased conclusions, which seek to explain
he presence of exotic species within traditional medical systems
s a passive process of acculturation. The increase of these species
ay promote a greater diversity of uses, in some cases by treat-
ng diseases that native species have not treated (see Albuquerque,
006).
Another factor to consider is that the vast majority of the exotic
lants in the rural communities studied are herbaceous, and these
lants grow more easily near homes. Consequently, this occurrence
income in the communities of Cachoeira, Barrocas and Bom Sucesso (NE, Brazil).
streamlines the collection process, and it may have influenced the
informants’ preferences for the species that they use.
Stepp and Moerman (2001) conducted a survey and assessed the
potential of medicinal plants in different regions, finding that most
medicinal plants are from disturbed areas, and that the most com-
mon life form is the herbaceous. For Stepp and Moerman (2001)
medicinal plants need to be abundant and accessible, thus the
species that are close to these communities will be preferred, or
will be brought to grow near residences, being the reason why the
herbs and exotic species (grass weeds) would have greater repre-
sentation in different medicinal floras. These authors argue that
even papers that discussed the importance of primary forests for
traditional peoples to gather medicinal plants, have shown that
disturbed habitats also have importance for this purpose.
In the work by Almeida et al. (2005) on the medicinal flora of
the Caatinga in communities within the region of Xingó (North-
east Brazil), it was observed that in general, shrubs and trees are
of Eth
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C.de.F.C.B.R. de Almeida et al. / Journal
ore versatile in terms of use and seem to be the most important
lants for rural communities (Albuquerque et al., 2005; Santos et
l., 2009). Indeed, medicinal plants represent a category of very spe-
ial use. Many ethnobotanical studies relate the “use” of such plants,
ut in fact the data was collected mainly from interviews. Then, any
onclusion about the actual use of a medicinal plant, based on this
ype of data collection must be relative, since people tend to cite
uch more plants than they actually use (Albuquerque, 2006).
At least for one of the studied communities, Bom Sucesso, Alves
t al. (2008) reported the use of 23 species of animals to treat
5 health problems, especially diseases of the respiratory system
expectorant, cough, flu, sore throat and coryza), followed by exter-
al causes and morbidity (e.g., bite snake) and diseases of the
ervous system. Concerning the use of medicinal plants in the
ommunity of Bom Sucesso, this study also had a more promi-
ent highlight regarding indication for treating respiratory diseases
cough, flu, take catarrh, and sore throat), followed by digestive
iseases (diarrhea, poor digestion, and bloating) and genitourinary
uterine inflammation and kidney inflammation).
.2. Effect of socio-economic factors on the knowledge of
edicinal plants
In general, the knowledge of medicinal plants did not vary
etween the different communities; this similarity was due pos-
ibly to the spatial approximation between the communities, and
he fact that the same type of vegetation grew in the region. Simi-
arly, the knowledge of men and women about medicinal plants did
ot differ as well. Some studies that were performed in Brazil dis-
ussed the difference in the division of knowledge between women
nd men (Begossi et al., 2000; Voeks and Leony, 2004). These studies
rgued that because women were more involved in the household
are, they were more responsible for collecting food and medicinal
lants, while men were more responsible for collecting plants for
onstruction and fuel. The division of responsibilities would act as a
actor inherent to thisquestion; women take care of the homes and
hildren. Consequently, they are responsible for the use and indi-
ation of medicinal plants, which are used mainly to treat minor
nd routine illnesses (Voeks, 2007; Pereira et al., 2005).
Some studies have reported that men tend to experience a
reater number of plant species in relation to women, because they
re responsible for pasture management and the collection of plant
esources for building, firewood and others (Ramos et al., 2008). On
he other hand, women’s roles primarily focus on animal products
o cook meals for their families (Ayantunde et al., 2008). However,
n some communities, this gender differentiation was reversed
ecause some women were actively involved in pasture manage-
ent (Breman and Wit, 1983). It is possible that the knowledge
f men and women in these communities were not differentiated
ecause there was no division of tasks and both participated in the
ctivity of collecting medicinal plants. Still, regarding gender, Sá
Silva et al. (2009) reached different conclusions about the use
f firewood in the same communities studied here. In a commu-
ity of Bom Sucesso men differ from women to what concerns the
nowledge of such resources, but the same did not happen in other
ommunities where knowledge was found to be similar.
In regard to the influence of income on individuals’ knowl-
dge about medicinal plants, a significant relationship between
ncome level and a better understanding of medicinal plants has
een observed. In the literature, some studies focused on this issue,
ut contrary to what we found, a higher knowledge was associated
ith people of lower income levels (Voeks and Leony, 2004; Voeks,
007).
Although age was correlated with knowledge of a higher num-
er of plants, this relationship was weak when compared to a focus
n family income. The age factor has been extensively investi-
nopharmacology 127 (2010) 674–684 683
gated and it has been demonstrated that older people are generally
knowledgeable about a greater diversity of plants (Voeks, 2007).
Such information was often incorrectly used to infer a relationship
between lack of knowledge and acculturation. However, this infer-
ence must be dealt with carefully because it is clear that individuals
with advanced age may have a greater knowledge of plant resources
due to their greater life experience and contact with the environ-
ment around them. In addition, it is also interesting to observe that,
as verified by Quinlan and Quinlan (2007), older people had fewer
outside influences than the young, and this was the reason that
they were knowledgeable and protective of local knowledge.
Exotic plants represented an important medical resource for the
people studied. They were cited by all the interviewed residents,
who reported having learned about their use through the genera-
tional passage of knowledge. Thus, the transmission of knowledge
of exotic plants has been relatively efficient, and the inclusion of
such knowledge within the local culture may be related to the need
to diversify the uses of plants (see Alencar et al., 2009), and the
desire to promote the healing of diseases which could not be treated
using native plants.
The socio-economic data analyzed reinforced the notion that
knowledge is unevenly distributed among informants. However,
gender, for example, did not markedly influence knowledge acqui-
sition in the studied communities, unlike the influences of income.
It is important to emphasize that even when a social variable is
important, like advanced age, it does not mean that this knowl-
edge can be generalized or even seen as superior. When studying
medicinal plants, it is necessary to investigate each group of people
because they may develop a unique and interesting knowledge.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank CNPq for financial support to the PhD student
Cecilia de Fatima C.B.R. de Almeida and CNPq for the financial sup-
port (Edital Universal) and productivity grant to Ulysses Paulino de
Albuquerque; Iana Moura and Reinaldo Lucena for help in ethnob-
otanical data collection in Soledade and the study participants from
Cachoeira, Barrocas, Bom Sucesso and Três Ladeiras for participat-
ing in this study and for valuable exchange of knowledge.
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http://www.ibge.com.gov.br/
	A comparison of knowledge about medicinal plants for three rural communities in the semi-arid region of northeast of Brazil
	Introduction
	Methods
	Study area
	Collection of ethnobotanical data
	Categorization of species
	Categorization of uses
	Data analyses
	Results
	The importance of native and exotic species
	Effect of socio-economic factors on the knowledge of medicinal plants
	Discussion
	The importance of native and exotic species
	Effect of socio-economic factors on the knowledge of medicinal plants
	Acknowledgments
	References