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Index Abrasive wear, 488 Accelerated corrosion testing, 375-376 Accelerated current cycling tests, 489 Accelerated stress-cycling testing, 516 Accelerated temperature-humidity-ionic conta- mination testing, 381 Acceleration factor (AF), 24-25, 212-214, 225. See also Arrhenius acceleration factor; Linear acceleration factors; Solder; True acceleration factors; Voltage accelera- tion factors. Accumulation, 63 Acoustic imaging, 596 Acoustic impedance, 597 Acoustic microscopy, 598 Acoustic waves, 595 Activation energies, 213, 214, 224, 225, 245, 268, 274, 308, 577. See also Stress- reduced activation energy. Activation free energy, 20 Activation-energy values, 497 Adhesion force, 147 Adhesive wear, 488 Advisory Group on Reliability of Electronic Equipment (AGREE), 15 Aerodynamic drag, 151 AES, 615, 617-618 Age softening, 437 Ag-fiUed epoxies, 420 Airborne contamination sources, 360-363 Al alloy metallizations, 278, 376 Al interconnect, 270, 275 Al-Cu precipitation hardening alloys, 279 AlGaAs lasers, 90, 540 AlGaAs/GaAs heterostructures, 540 Alkah ion contaminants, 70 Alloy spiking, 347 Alpha particles, 394, 401 Al-Si phase diagram, 250 Aluminum-Silicon (Al-Si) contacts, 248-252 Anodic polarization, 370 Anomalous dopant-diffusion effects, 110 Antenna ratio-dependent damage, 325 Antisite defects, 109 APDs. See Avalanche photodiodes. Application-specific ICs (ASICs), 5 Arcing, 51 Arrhenius, 20, 25, 214-215, 218-219, 321 acceleration factor, 219 Asperities, 479, 492 Atmospheric contamination, 359, 360-366 Atom movements, 20-24, 480. See also Solids. Atom transport. See Electromigration; Stresses. Atomic diffusion, 18, 21, 238 Atomic displacement, 393-395 Atomic fluorescent X-rays, 605 Atomic force microscope (AFM), 578, 581, 604, 605 Atomic velocities, 23 Au-based gate metallizations, 256 Au-Cr ohmic contact metallization, 274 Auger electrons, 395, 618 spectrometer, 607 Au-Si eutectic alloy solder, 418 AvailabiHty, 17 Avrami equation, 209-211, 663 B Backscattered electron-diffraction pattern, 280 Backscattered electrons, 607 Backscattered ions, 620 Ball grid array(s) (BGA), 449, 462, 593, 654 Ball limited metallurgy (BLM), 426, 427 interface, 444 Ball-wire interface, 422 Bamboo grain structure, 289 Band diagrams, 46 Band-gap energy, 48 Base current gain, 60 Basquin's exponent, 500 Bathtub curve, 29-31, 219-222 Bathtub failure, 29-31 Beam deflection, 136, 484 Beams, 528-529 Biaxial stress distribution, 286 675 676 Index BiCMOS, 72 Bicrystal semiconductors, 122 Bidirectional tunneling, 55 Bilayer film-substrate structure, 127 Bimetallic strip structures, 452 Bimodal failure behavior, 201 Binary diffusion, 242-248 Binary switching step, 659 Binomial distribution, 158, 178 Bipolar devices, 221 Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs), 59-62 Bipolar memories, 398 Bipolar transconductance, 72 Bipolar transistors, 4, 59-62, 71-72, 75 BIR approach, 667 Black's equation, 277, 281 Blanket metallizations, 270 Blanket-film grain size, 645 BLM. See Ball limited metallurgy. Boltzmann, acceleration factor, 324 expression, 108 factor, 20, 253, 291, 383, 486, 659 Boltzmann-Matano analysis, 242 Bond breaking, 99, 119 Bonding, 247, 557-559. See also Flip-chip bonding; Tape automated bonding; Wire bonding. pads, 195 Boron diffusion, 112 Borophosphosilicate glass, 401 Breakdown energy of metal (BEM), 283 Breakdown fields, 316 Bright field imaging, 611 Brittle cracking, 427 Brittle fracture, 571 Broad-band MMICs, 274 Brownian diffusive motion, 148 Buried-heterojunction (BH) lasers, 88 Bum-in, 175, 543 Burnout, 82. See Junction burnout; Metallization. Cable-jacket defects, 569 C-AM, 596 Capacitance-voltage (C-V) characteristics, 65, 66 Capacitive coupling voltage contrast (CCVC), 625 Capacitor failures, 196 Capillarity theory, 270 Capillary action, 558 Capillary adhesion, 147 Capillary force, 149, 151 Card edge connector, 482 Catastrophic optical damage (COD), 550, 551 Catastrophic-degradation mode, 548 Cathodoluminescence (CL), 609-610, 613 Cavitation bubbles, 151 Cavitation effects, 287 Cd-plated screw fasteners, 135 Ceramic dual-in-line package (CERDIP), 431, 599 Ceramic packages, 400, 461-462 Ceramic substrates, 388-390, 458 Ceramic-glass-ceramic structure, 462 Ceramic-to-ceramic joints, 461 CERPACs, 431 Channel hot-electron (CHE) injection, 331 Channeled-substrate buried heterostructure (CSBH) laser degradation, 551-554 Charge-coupled device (CCD), 74, 76-77, 121, 398 Charged-device model (CDM), 341, 342 Chemical decapsulation station, 599 Chemical vapor deposition (CVD), 52, 93, 95, 96, 97, 127, 135, 142-143. See also Low pressure CVD; Plasma-enhanced CVD. tungsten, 380 Chemical-mechanical polishing (CMP), 96, 140 planarization, 138 Chip contact pads, 97 Chip encapsulation, 428^35 Chip solder bumps, 449 Chip yields, 141 Chip-level failiures, 27 Chip-level interconnections, 411 Chip-level processing, 91-100, 416, 418 introduction, 91-92 Chip-substrate separation, 427 Circuit design, 4-5, 8, 9, 157, 415^35, 642-654 chips, 6, 7. See also High-device-density IC chips. Circuit-board distortion, 511 Cleaning, 151-152 Clearing point, 630 Cleaved surface melting point energy flux, 564-565 Cluster-tool modules, 154 Coble creep, 495 Index 677 COD. See Catastrophic optical damage. Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), 128, 515 Coffin-Manson approaches, 526 equation, 501 frequency-modified version, 505 relationship, 524 Cohesive bond strengths, 488 Cohesive energy, 570 Cold-spared assembly, 205 Conmion base configuration, 60 Complement Rule, 203 Complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS), 69-70, 71, 72, 91, 114, 119, 383, 398, 432, 622, 625, 645 circuits, 591 mobile ion contamination, 390-391 integrated circuits, 199 Complex instruction set computer (CISC), 6 Compliant bumps, 426 Compound formation, 238, 242-248. See Flip- chip structures, reactions, 441^43 Compound semiconductors, 4 7 ^ 8 , 79-80, 116, 248 Compound-semiconductor electronic devices, 557 Compound-semiconductor field-effect transis- tors, 56 Computer-aided integrated reliability optimiza- tion (CAIRO), 665 Computerized image analysis, 152 Conduction band, 45, 48, 50 edges, 305, 330 electrons, 40 Conductive adhesives, 426 Conductors, 39, 49-51. See also Powered con- ductors. Constant failure rate modeling, 185-187 Constant light output-power testing, 541-544 Constant-current testing, 544-547 Constant-voltage testing, 320, 321-323, 324 Constriction resistance, 477-479, 478, 481 Contact resistance, 491 Contact-degradation effects, 254, 648 Contact-resistance, 492 Contacts, 55-57, 557. See also Aluminum- Silicon (Al-Si) contacts; GaAs devices; Ohmic contacts; Schottky contacts; Silicon. degradation, 475^76, 482-492, 531-535 electromigration, 212-214 force, 481-482 geometries, 476 mass transport effects, 479^81 mechanics. See Spring contacts. nature, 476-482 normal force reduction, 486-487 reaction, 238 reliability, 556-559 resistance, 248, 482 Contact-semiconductor interfaces, 556 Contaminants, 105-174 limits, 650 sources, 142. See Airborne contamination. trends, 650 Continuous attachments shear stresses, 454-458 Copper, corrosion, 381-382 Core-electron transitions, 395, 615-619 Corrosion, 27, 28, 127, 254, 292, 370, 382-385, 388, 418, 488, 490. See also Aluminum; Atmospheric corrosion; Copper; Electronics; Fretting corrosion; Galvanic corrosion; Gold; Magnetic disks; Metals; Nickel; Pitting corrosion. cracking. See Stress corrosion cracking. products, 489 testing. See Accelerated corrosion testing. Cosmic rays, 400-401 Crack growth/fracture, 571, 574-577 Crack nucleation, 524 Crack propagation rates, 519-526 Cracked solder joints, 530 Crack-growth mechanism, 579 Creep, 26, 476. See also Mechanical creep; Solder. constitutive equations,494-495 deformation, 294, 438, 493 fatigue, 415 motion, 497 overview, 493-494 Crevice corrosion, 372 Crystalline solids/semiconductors defects, 107-125 Crystallographic defects, 105, 106, 418 Crystal-melt growth interface, 93 C-SCAN mode, 596 Cumulative distribution function (CDF), 178, 182, 196, 198, 199, 203, 204, 281. See also WeibuU CDF Cumulative failure distributions, 215 678 Index Current-confinement problems, 90 Current-induced Joule heat, 177 Current-induced migration, 274 Curve fitting, 160 Cu-Sn intermetallic compounds, 518 C-V curves, 144 Cyclic dislocation displacements, 498 Cyclic electrical stressing, 52 Cyclic loading effects, 499 Cyclic rubbing, 372 Cyclic softening, 504-505 Cyclic stressing, 526, 488, 499 Cyclic thermal stressing, 518 CZ grown crystals, 92, 113 Czochralski growth, 92, 493 D Damage, 259-273, 431 feedback loop, 567 mechanisms, 281 Damage-resistant materials, 30 Dark line defect, 89, 547-550, 564, 565 Dark spot defect, 89, 548-550 Darkneld imaging, 611 Decapsulation, 592-602 Deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS), 109 Deep-trench capacitor, 405 Defect density-area product, 160 Defect-density functions, 159 Defect-related failures, 311, 318, 573 Defects, 11, 13, 31, 105-173, 587-588 Degradation, 25, 31, 82, 229, 281 Delamination wear, 488 Denuded zone, 115 Depackaging, 599 Depletion layer, 402 mode MOSFETs, 68-69 regime, 63 Deposited films, 95-96 Deuterium-tritium reaction, 393 Device isolation trenches, 135 Devices, 37, 587-640, 660-662 chemical characterization, 615-621 electrical stress, examination, 621-635 failure analysis, 587-640 nonuniform scaling, 79 radiation hardening, 404-405 scaling, impUcation, 656-658 voltage contrast techniques, 625-630 Dewet solder, 450 Dewetting, 440 Die attachment, 418-421, 654 Die cracking, 418, 420 Die-attach materials, 421 Dielectric constant, 118, 652 Dielectric failures, 316 Dielectric films, 134, 373 coverage, 137-140 CVD deposition, 155 Dielectric materials, 416 Dielectric properties time-dependent changes, 79 Dielectric-breakdown, 27, 196, 209, 227, 308, 310-329, 312, 313, 319, 648 linear electric-field models, 657 phenomena, 187, 303 reciprocal-field models, 657 testing, 316-319, 320-321 times, 350 Differential polishing rates, 140 Differential thermal expansion, 134 Diffraction, 607-609, 611 Diffraction-limited IR microscope, 635 Diffused emitter, 111 Diffusion, 21, 24, 82, 99, 148-149, 238-242, 243, 256, 403, 443, 480, 646, See also Atomic diffusion; Binary diffusion. Diffusional activation energy, 494 Diffusional degradation, 273 Diffusional penetration, 240 Diffusional profiles, 243 Diffusion-barrier films, 275 Diffusivity, 366 Diffusivity systematics, 279 Diode i-V characteristics, 57 Diodes, 53-58 Direct band-gap semiconductors, 47 Direct-gap materials, 47 Directional solidification, 93 Discharges, 328-329 Discontinuous attachment, 458-459 Discrete transistors, 61 Dislocations, 51, 105, 115-121, 610 Burgers vector, 133 core, 240 defects, 45 ghde, 496 loops, 548, 556 motion, 24 Dissolution, 441^W3, 442 Distance-to-fail, 316 Distributed feedback (DFB) lasers, 89 Index 679 Dopant diffusion profiles, 112 Dopant-bearing contaminants, 650 Doped n-channel, 74 Doped p-layers, 74 Doping concentration, 110 Dormancy, 16 Dose rate, 392 Double diffused drain (DDD), 338 Double-heterojunction lasers, 88 Drag, 147 Drain avalanche hot carrier (DAHC), 331 Drain depletion region, 68 Drain regions, 66 Drain-source current, 72 Driving forces, 20-24 Dual in-line package (DIP), 411, 428, 448, 599 Dynamic random access memory (DRAM), 10, 74, 75, 77, 106, 123-125, 135, 138, 146, 401, 403, 405, 630, 642, 647, 650 Dynamic-loading effects, 526 E Early-life reliability prediction, 226 Edge dislocation, 115 Edge-emitting diodes (EED), 86-87 EEPROM, 75, 77, 119 Elastic strain/plastic strain, 510-511 Electric field-induced metal migration, 254 Electrical overstress (EOS), 28, 29, 228, 339-352, 556 introduction, 339-341 Electrical stress failures, 27, 28 Electrode area-dependent breakdown effects, 325 Electrode sinking, 557 Electrode-solder interface, 557 Electroluminescence (EL), 548 Electrolytic corrosion, 441 Electromagnetic limits, 660 Electromagnetic waves, 2 Electromigration, 50, 51, 82, 136, 187, 254, 259-273, 273-284, 281-283, 288-289, 376, 435, 479, 480, 588, 656. See Con- tacts; Grain boundaries; Interconnects; Vias. Electromigration-induced damage, 284 Electromigration-induced spiking, 557 Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), 280, 607 Electron beam testing (EBT) methods, 625, 626 Electron beam-induced current (EBIC), 610, 613, 624, 626-630 Electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS), 611 Electron microscopy, 604-610, 613 Electron saturation velocity, 81, 661 Electron-atom interactions, 303 Electron-beam source, 137 Electron-defect centers, 580 Electron-hole pairs, 396, 397, 404, 560, 609 Electron-hole recombination, 48, 53, 116, 580 Electronic charge-induced damage, 303-357 exercises, 352-355 introduction, 303-304 Electronic devices, 1-36, 212 fabrication process, 37-104 radiation damage, 391^05 Electronic equipment, 218 dynamic loading effects, 526-531 introduction, 526-527 unreliability, 14 vibration, 527-531 Electronic packaging, 488, 495 Electron-metal interactions, 303 Electro-optical applications, 47 Electro-optical devices, 84-91, 221, 340, 393, 398, 539-540, 554, 569, 582-585 degradation/failure, 539-586 Electro-optical effects, 49, 560 Electro-optical materials, 539-540, 582-585 degradation/failure, 539-586 Electro-optical systems, 540 Electrostatic adhesion, 147, 151 Electrostatic damage, 339-341 Electrostatic discharge (ESD), 28, 29, 89-90, 228, 303, 308, 339-352, 591, 600, 622, 631 Electrothermomigration-induced mass trans- port, 347 Electrotransport, 267 Emission microscopy, 621-625, 623. See also Light emission microscopy. Emitter-push effect, 112 Encapsulants, 431 Encapsulated ICs, 596 End-of-life (EOL), 544 Energy barriers, 20, 21. See also Lattice energy barriers. Energy gap, 45, 50 Energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX), 607, 611, 615-617 Enthalpies, 19, 20 Environmental factors, 29 680 Index Environmental SEM (E-SEM), 610 Epitaxial bipolar transistors, 119 Epitaxial films, 132, 133, 603 Epitaxial InGaAs films, 613 Epitaxial lateral overgrowth (ELO), 405 Epitaxial mismatch, 452 Epitaxial semiconductor films, 93 Epitaxy, 93-94 Epoxy encapsulant-flame retardants, 429 Equilibrium vacancy concentration, 268 Erasable programmed read only memory (EPROM), 75, 77 Error function (Erf), 110, 191, 198, 239 Etched dielectric films, 95-96 Etching, 99, 125 Europium thenoyltrifluoroacetonate (EuTTA), 604 Eutectic solder, 425, 523 Eutectic solidification, 435 Eutectic systems, 435, 437 Eutectic temperature, 420 Evaporation, 98 Exponential distribution, 176, 184-189 Exponential law, 575-577 Exponential PDF, 185 Extreme-value distributions, 317 Extrinsic diffusion coefficient, 109 Extrinsic failures, 27 Extrinsic gettering, 113-114 Extrinsic stacking fault (ESP), 120 Eyring model, 215-218 Fabry-Perot cavity, 87 Facet degradation, 540, 550-551 Failed states, 18, 32 Failure, 17-18, 24-25, 28-29, 30, 31, 32, 175-236, 229-230, 231-234, 283, 288-291, 293, 491, 588-591, 635, 664-665. See also Devices; Materials, distribution functions, physical significance, 208-222 freak behavior, 199-202 mode analysis (FMA), 588 power-density thresholds, 346 Failure physics, 17-31 Failure-rate-reliability prediction procedures, 189 Faraday's law, 370, 389 Fatigue, 476, 493, 498-503, 514, 515, 574, 578. See Solder; Static fatigue. Fermi distribution, 330 energies, 150 levels, 60, 63, 87, 314 equilibration, 63 Ferroelectrics, 642 Pick's law, 238 Field effect transistors (FETs), 52, 59, 62-74, 116. See also GaAs FETs;Metal oxide semiconductors; Silicon FETs. Field-aged cable, 581-582 Field-emission cathodes, 605 Film deposition, 99, 125, 279 Film mask, 100 Film stress, 98 Film-growth processes, 452 Film/substrate bilayers, 452 Film-substrate interface, 48, 133 Filtration, 360, 362 Finite-element modehng, 524, 531 Finite-source concentration profiles, 239 First-level contact pads, 428 First-level electrical interconnection, 418^28, 432 First-level packaging structures, 413, 414 FITS, 8, 184, 187, 192, 193, 205, 219, 668 Fixed oxide charge, 308 Flat-band voltage, 391 Flip-chip array mounting, 654 Flip-chip bonding, 426-428, 432, 450 Hip-chip interconnections, 497 Flip-chip solder ball connections, 495 Flip-chip solder connections, 449 Hip-chip structure, 428 Hip-chip structures, 443^447 Hip-flop devices, 622 Hoating avalance MOS (FAMOS), 77 Fluorescent microthermographic imaging (FMI), 604 Huorescent tracers, 604 Fluxes, 440 Focused ion beams (FIB), 612-614 Force-relaxation kinetics, 486 Forward-biased junctions, 60, 348 Fowler-Nordheim tunneling equation, 315 Fracture mechanics, 517-519, 525, 526 Freak failures, 227-229 Frenkel defects, 109, 580 Frenkel-Poole emission, 306 Fretting, 372, 490, 489^92, 493 Frictional effects, 527 Index 681 Fringe pattern, 462, 464 Fundamental limits, 658-662 introduction, 658-659 Funneling, 402 Fuse-like breakdown, 312 Future directions, 641-672 GaAs devices, 79-84, 253-259, 397, 404 GaAs FETs, 397 GaAs integrated circuits, 82-84 GaAs LEDs, 541 GaAs MESFETs, 81, 257, 381 GaAs technology, 432 GaAs-based HEMTs, 259, 338 GaAs-based lasers, 88, 566-567 GaAs-based MESFETs, 338 GaAs-based surface LEDs, 557 GaAs-type lasers, 90 Galvanic corrosion, 366, 371, 425 Gamma distribution, 160 Gamma-radiation levels, 392 Gang bonding, 423 GaP-based LEDs, 610 Gas-phase reactions, 95 Gate, 62, 63, 65, 70, 95, 144, 207, 309, 315, 325-326, 351, 648 oxide-trapped holes, 397 sinking, 81, 84, 257 Gate-oxide capacitance, 72 Gate-oxide dimensions, 647 Gate-source-drain combination, 72 Gaussian distributions, 160, 176, 317, 518 Gaussian function, 191, 239 Gaussian spread, 182 Generation-recombination centers, 115 Gettering, 113-114. See also Extrinsic getter- ing; Intrinsic gettering Gibbs free energy, 19 Glass frits, 431 Glass optical fibers, 574 Glass-frit adhesives, 420 Gold, 380-381 Gold-based eutectic alloys, 458 Goldthwaite plot, 192, 205 Grain boundaries (GBs), 51, 107, 122-123, 240, 241, 270, 279, 494, 610, 645 diffusion, 557 diffusion coefficients, 242 electromigration, 267-268 grooving, 271-273 paths, 268, 497 tensions, 271, 291 Grain-boundary diffusivity contributions, 278 Grain-boundary steps, 646 Grain-boundary voids, 288 Ground benign conditions, 187 Growth kinetics, 244 Growth processes, 253 Growth-controlled damage regimes, 210 Growths, 263 Gull-wing leads, 530 H Half-cell electrode reactions, 367 Half-vacancies, 262 Hamaker constant, 150 Hazard functions, 205. See also Wear-out haz- ard functions; WeibuU hazard function. Hazard rate, 182, 189, 195, 222, 223 Heat sinks, 415, 462, 540, 556 Heat-age testing, 486 Heat-sensitive plastic packages, 450 Heat-sinking contacts, 254 Heat-treated glass, 127 Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 659 Hermetic packages, 431^32 Heteroepitaxy, 93 Heterogeneous void nucleation site, 269 High electron mobility transistor (HEMT), 82, 224, 226, 253, 540, 556. See also GaAs-based HEMTs. High-cycle fatigue, 502 High-density interconnect (HDI) MCMs, 434 High-density plasma, 325 High-device-density IC chips, 7 High-frequency circuits, 74 High-frequency filters, 362 High-frequency images, 596 High-frequency phonons, 330 High-intensity sound waves, 151 Highly accelerated stress tests (HAST), 376 High-power contacts, 477 High-reliability appHcations, 192, 228 High-resolution imaging, 604 High-temperature sealing, 421 High-temperature superconductor, 19 High-toughness solder glasses, 462 High-voltage ceramic/polymer insulation, 303 High-voltage stress, 657 Hillocks, 127, 133, 135-136, 263 Hole-induced oxide breakdown, 313 682 Index Holes, 52, 59, 308-310 Holography techniques, 152 Homoepitaxy, 93, 132 Homologous-temperature arguments, 497 Hooke'slaw, 128,515 Hot electron transport, 303, 308 Hot electrons, 27, 70 Hot-carrier, 69, 330-337, 338-339, 350, 648, 657, See Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor. Hot-electron degradation, 336, 622 Hot-electron lifetime ratio, 648 Hot-spared assembly, 205-206 Hot-spared failure rate, 206 Hot-wall reactors, 142 Human-body model (HBM), 341, 343, 554 Hybrid technology, 432 Hydrodynamic drag, 151 Hydrogen-producing bacteria, 579 Hydrophobic/hydrophilic interactions, 149 Hydrostatic stress-state, 287 Hysteresis loops, 499, 502, 504, 512, 515 I IDDq, 591 Impact ionization, 334 Impact-ionization avalanche, 331, 338 Implantation, 153 Impurity diffusion coefficient, 109 Impurity-induced corrosion, 428 Incandescent lamps, 2, 293-295 In-circuit failures, 27 Indirect band-gap semiconductors, 47 Indium-base solder layers, 557 Inertial-confinement fusion applications, 559 Infant mortality, 30 Infrared (IR) laser, 625 Infrared (IR) radiation, 632 Infrared (IR) spectral range, 634 Infrared (IR) temperature measurement, 632 Infrared (IR) thermography, 632-635 InGaAs/InP photodiodes, 627 InGaAsP devices, 545 In-line monitors, 666 Inner lead bonding, 424 Inner lead bonding (ILB), 423 InP bandgap, 635 InPLEDs, 541 Input/output connections, 449 Input-output protection circuits, 622 Input-output terminal count, 652 Input-protection circuitry, 352 In-service stress, 577 Insulators, 39,52, 113 conduction aspects, 304-310 current-voltage relationships, 304-307 dielectric constant, 416 electric-field dielectric breakdown, 18 Integrated Circuits (ICs), 2, 4-9, 16, 28, 50, 74, 100, 105, 125, 127, 128, 131, 153, 211, 224, 246, 273, 303, 351, 363, 377, 385, 411, 413, 415, 423, 425, 434, 507, 594, 612, 621, 642, 656, 666. See Applica- tion-specific ICs; Digital MOS ICs. Integrated processing, 154-155 Integrated transistor-capacitor unit, 75 Integrated-injection logic (I^L), 62 Integration yields, 159 Intel Pentium microprocessor, 72 Interatomic bonds, 326 Interconnect microstructure, 656 Interconnect stripe widths, 270 Interconnections, 492, 653, 655 Interconnects, 99, 238, 261, 273, 276-279, 283, 492, 653, 655. See also Aluminum interconnects. Interdendritic spacing, 436, 523 Interdiffusion, 242-243, 254, 256, 480 Interdiffusion-related reliability, 244 Interface-state generation, 312 Interfacial bond strengths, 488 Interfacial charge, 70 Interfacial delamination, 428 Interfacial film-substrate atomic bonds, 132 Interfacial intermetallic compounds, 519 Interfacial migration, 245 Interfacial oxide charge, 309 Interfacial stress, 113 Interlayer shorts, 631 Intermetallic compound formation, 490, 556, 557 Intermetallic compounds, 247, 447 Intermetallic-compound particles, 444 Internal stress(es), 127, 129, 526 Interstitial cations, 580 Intrinsic breakdown, 311 Intrinsic conduction, 306 Intrinsic defects, 107 Intrinsic diffusivity, 109 Intrinsic failures, 27, 186, 221 Intrinsic gettering, 114-115 Intrinsic internal stress, 133 Intrinsic residual strains, 132 Index 683 Intrinsic stacking fault (ISF), 120 Intrinsic-oxide failure-mechanism, 318 Inversion, 65, 68, 331 Inverter circuits, 75 I/O contacts, 654 I/O pads, 427 Ion-beam techniques, 619 lon-beam-sputtered atoms, 143 Ionization, 312, 395 Ionizing radiation device degradation, 395-398 Ions, 308-310 bombardment-induced defect production, 137 collisions, 144 concentration, 387 dose, 94 drift velocities, 390 implantation, 94-95, 99, 113, 131, 143-144 species, 143 Irradiated fibers, 580 Irradiation, 550 Isothermal cyclic life, 512 i-V behavior, 57, 58 Joining reliability, 438 Josephson devices,662 Joule. See Current-induced Joule heat. heating, 50, 51, 88, 276, 479, 630 Junction, 57-58 burnout, 347-348 depths, 94, 112 field effect transistor (JFET), 63, 72-74, 81 heating effects, 489 leakage currents, 93 spiking, 274 Junction-breakdown voltages, 113 K Killer defects, 10, 105, 106, 140, 157, 647 Kinetics, 20, 244, 253, 443, See also Grooving; Growth kinetics; Logarithmic kinetics; Parabolic kinetics. Kink characteristics, 88 Kirkendall Effect, 245-246 porosity, 247, 425 voids, 248 Kirkendall-like interdiffusion, 256 Large angle tilt implanted drain (LATID), 338 Large scale integration (LSI), 4 Lasers, 539, 540-541. See also Channeled-sub- strate buried heterostructure lasers beam heating, 113 degradation, 90 degradation kinetics, 542 destruction, 558 electrostatic discharge (ESD) damage, 554-556 failure/reliability, 540-559 ionization mass analysis (LIMA), 619, 621 microscopic mechanisms, 547-554 reliability testing, 541-547 scanning microscope (LSM), 604 thermal degradation, 559-568 Latchup, 70-71, 625, 631 Latch-up paths, 405 Latent failures, 349-351 Latent reliability defects, 163 Lattice defect nucleation sites, 146 Lattice defects, 41, 51, 107 Lattice imaging, 611 Lattice match, 84, 86 Lattice mismatch, 132 Lead frames, 653 Leaded joints, 515,516 Leadless joints, 512-514, 515, 516 mean cyclic life, 514 Leakage current, 121, 307-308, 381, 557 Lever Rule, 436 Light emission microscopy (LEM), 621, 630 Light-emission phenomena, 622 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs), 47, 84, 86-87, 212, 254, 398, 539, 540-559 Light-guiding core region, 579 Lightly doped drain (LDD), 338 LIMA, 621 Linear acceleration factors, 213 Linear circuits, 59 Linear diffusion, 110 Linear electric-field model(s), 313, 316 Linear stress analysis, 454 Liquid crystal(s) (LC), 85, 539, 630, 631 Liquid-crystal imaging (LCI), 630-632 Liquid-crystal probing, 630 Liquid-state diffusivities, 347 Lithographic errors, 105 684 Index Lithography, 99-100, 106, 125, 136, 144-146, 145, 146, 154, 647, 650-651. See also Photolithography. Load-locks, 142. See also Vacuum load-locks. Load-strength interference, 25-27, 518 Logarithmic kinetics, 336 Logic chips, 10 Lognormal analysis, 573 Lognormal distributions, 176, 189-193, 205, 211-212,281,320,322 WubuU distribution, comparison, 196 Lognormal PDF, 189 Lognormal plot axes, 198 Long-term failure rates, 8, 658 Long-term fiber life, 573 Long-term nonoperating reliability, 16-17 Lorenz number, 264, 479 Low pressure CVD (LPCVD), 142, 154 Low-cycle fatigue, 502 Low-dose rate environments, 580 Low-melting-point solders, 412 Low-power logic ICs, 70 Low-resistance electrical contact, 49, 481 Low-temperature joining, 435 M Macroscopic mechanical systems, 23 Macroscopic plastic-flow effects, 492 Magnetic disks, 382 Magnetic-sector mass filter, 620 Magneto-optical recording media, 539 Majority electrons, 60 Mass depletion, 263 Mass divergence, 275 Mass transport, 289 Mass transport-induced damage, 285 Mass transport-induced failure, 237-302 Mass-transport driving forces, 28, 266 Mass-transport induced reliability problems, 238 Mass-transport mechanisms, 557 Matthiessen's rule, 51 Maxwell-Boltzmann factor, 20, 149, 187, 212, 214, 281, 304 Mean time between failures (MTBF), 24 Mean time to failure (MTTF), 24, 25, 199, 213, 214, 217, 222, 224, 225, 277, 278, 283, 289, 294, 315, 335, 345, 387, 389, 516, 544, 545, 551, 648, 656, 657, 663 Mechanical abrasion, 113 Mechanical creep, 23 Mechanical deformation, 135 Mechanical fracture, 208 Mechanical reUability, 529 Mechanical wear, 475, 477 Medium scale integration (MSI), 4 Medium-power contacts, 477 Memories, 74-79 reliability problems, 77-79 structure/operation, 76-77 Memory charge-storage node, 403 Memory chips, 10, 70, 652 Mesa structures, 86 MESFETs, 254, 540, 556. See also GaAs MES- FET. Metal contamination, 146-147 Metal epitaxial semiconductor (MES), 81. See also GaAs MESFET. Metal migration, 254, 380, 385-391. See also Ceramic substrates; Porous substrates, introduction, 385-386 Metal migration-accelerated testing, 385 Metal oxide semiconductor (MOS), 48, 63-66, 75,76,206,221,304,316,318, 396-397, 642, 657, 660 field effect transistor (MOSFET), 4, 66-69, 70-71, 77, 82, 91, 147, 187, 330, 331, 334, 338, 396, 405, 635, 656, 660 gate array circuit, 207 logic, 662 threshold-voltage drift, 143 transfer device, 405 transistors, 71, 308, 344, 360, 390 Metal silicides, 27, 98-99 Metal-dendrite formation, 441 Metal-interdiffusional reactions, 556 Metallic precipitates, 121 Metallic resistivities, 39 Metallizations, 37, 96-99, 105, 137, 144, 252, 276, 285-287, 347-349, 382, 399, 624, 644,645 Metal-oxide-silicon (MOS), 4 Metal-semiconductor contacts, reactions, 248-259 Metal-semiconductor diodes, 55 Metal-semiconductor interdiffusion effects, 248 Metal-semiconductor interface(s), 55, 480 Metal-solder reactions, 438^47 Metal-to-ceramic joints, 461 Microcracking, 127, 135 Microcracks, 569 Index 685 Microelectronics, 123, 147, 363, 368 applications, 252 chip manufacturers, 141 devices, 411 packages, 382 processing equipment, 94 technology, 106 Microprocessors, 206 chip, 260 power, 646 Microscopic defects, 30, 418 Microstructure, 240-242 Microwave applications, 80-81 Microwave devices, 79 Mie scattering, 152 MIL-HDBK-217. See Military Handbook 217. Military Handbook 217 (MIL-HDBK-217), 15-16, 187, 189, 207, 218, 219. See Reliability; System reliability. Minority carrier diffusion length/lifetime, 118 Minority carrier recombination, 146 Mirror facet, 554 Misfit dislocations, 132, 551 MMICs. See Monolithic microwave integrated circuits. Mobile ion contamination, 620. See Comple- mentary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) Mobility, 40. See also Carrier mobility. values, 41 MODFETs, 254 failure, 257-259 Moire interferometry techniques, 462 Moisture, 360-366, 389, 421 Moisture-induced corrosion, 427^28, 430 Moisture-induced swelling, 28 Molecular-contamination limits, 650 Monolithic microwave integrated circuits (MMICs), 82, 84, 206, 610. See also Broad-band MMICs. Moore's Law, 6, 644 Multichip modules (MCMs), 432-435, 652. See also High-density interconnect MCMs. Multidimensional space, 18 Multilayer metallizations, 620 Multilevel DRAMs, 624 Multiplication Rule, 203 N n-channel devices, 66 n-channel enhancement mode MOSFETs, 68 n-channel transistor, 69, 334 Negative resist, 100 Nemst equation, 367, 368 Nemst-Einstein equation, 23, 24, 263, 288, 387 Neutron flux, 402 Neutron-silicon interactions, 402 Nickel corrosion, 381 Nitride films, 112 n-MOSFET, 330, 648 Nomarski differential interference-contrast method, 603 Nondestructive examination, 592-602 Nondestructive testing (NDT), 596 NonUnear conduction behavior, 52 Non-radiative recombination centers, 627 Nonrandom defects, 164 Non-steady-state diffusion, 239 Non-steady-state heat flow equation, 264, 344 Non-steady-state mass transport, 263 Nonuniformly heated solder joints, 511 Normal distribution, 176, 177-180, 184 Normal failures, 227, 228 Normal stresses, 459-460 Normalized degradation rate (NDR), 544 n-p-n base, 71 n-p-n collector, 71 n-p-n devices, 59 n-p-n junction depths, 61 n-p-n narrow-base, 112 n-p-n parasitic bipolar transistors, 70 n-type dopant donor states, 45 n-type MOS (NMOS), 66, 77, 114, 391, 398 n-type MOSFETs, 69 n-type semiconductors, 55 Nuclear particles, 399^01 Nucleation, 209, 253, 292 Nucleation-controUed damage regimes, 210 Numerical aperture (NA), 595 o Ohmic contacts, 55, 252, 254, 256-257, 557 On-chip protection structures, 351 On-off digital logic circuits, 59 Operating/nonoperating reliabilities, 17 Optical beam-induced current (OBIC), 624-625, 630 Optical coatings, 561-562 Optical communications, 80, 84, 86 Optical components, 559-568 Optical degradation, 580Optical fibers, 568-582 686 Index Optical microscopy, 603-604 Optical scattering techniques, 152 Optical thin films, 561 Optical-communication systems, 568, 569 Optoelectronic applications, 80 Optoelectronic devices, 28 Orientation imaging microscopy (OIM), 607 Outdiffusion, 115 Outer lead bonding (OLB), 424 Out-of-focus blur, 604 Oval defects, 133 Oxidation, 153 Oxidation-enhanced diffusion, 113 Oxidation-induced stacking fault (OSF), 121 Oxidation-induced structural defects, 309 Oxide, 113. See Gate oxide; Superconductors. breakdown, 657. See also Hole-induced oxide breakdown. charge, 70 conduction band edge, 63 currents, 622-624 films, 488 interface, 312 precipitates, 121 punch-through, 347, 349 shorts, 631 thicknesses, 657 valence band, 314 Oxide-failure probability, 325 Oxygen penetration, 112 Oxygen-induced stacking faults, 146 Ozone cleaning, 152 Packaging, 27, 32, 37, 411-473, 492, 529-531, 558, 592, 651-654. See Second-level packaging technologies. Palmgren-Miner linear cumulative damage rule, 503 Parabolic kinetics, 259, 443 Parasitic bipolar transistors, 70-71 Parasitic capacitances, 647 Particle, 147-152 Particle current-flow-induced damage, 144 Particle flux, 148 Particle Impact Noise Detection (PIND) parti- cles analysis, 598-599 Particle-induced defects, 152 Pass-fail limits, 229 Pass/fail screening, 543 Passivating films, 135 Passivation, 257, 620, 625, 653-654 Pb-Sn solders, 438, 458 p-channel enhancement mode MOSFETs, 68, 69 Peaked kinks, 88 Peeling stresses, 459-460 Pentium microprocessor chip, 155 Phase diagram(s), 242-244 Phase-shift methods, 650 Phosphorous dopants, 144 Phosphosilicate glass films, 377 Photo-bleaching, 580 Photodiode detectors, 539 Photo-enhanced oxidation, 550 Photolithography, 163 Photoluminescence (PL), 548 Photon absorption processes, 548 Photon emission, 623 Photonics, 4 Photoresists, 143, 145, 146 pH-sensitive fluorescent dyes, 604 Physical Umits, 659-660 Physical vapor deposition (PVD), 98 Physical vapor deposition techniques, 52 Piezoelectric crystals/resistors, 28 Piezoelectric transducer, 594, 610 Pin grid array (PGA), 448 PIN photodiodes, 85-86 Pinch-off state, 68 Pin-pin shorts, 653 Pin-socket arrangement, 447 Pitting corrosion, 371-372 Planar bipolar transistor, 61-62 Planar semiconductor/adhesive/substrate assem- blies, 460 Planck equation, 48 Plasma, 99, 144, 154, 562 Plastic-deformation effects, 18 Plastic-strain accumulation, 512 PMOS transistors, 391 p-MOSFETs, 330, 336, 648 p-n diodes, 56 p-n junction, 109, 627 degradation, 540 p-n junctions, 48, 53-55, 59, 60, 121, 146, 405, 547 diode, 55 p-n-p junction depths, 61 p-n-p parasitic bipolar transistors, 70 Point defects, 105, 113 Poission ratio, 130 index 687 Poisson approximation. See Binomial distribution. distribution, 319 Poisson's equation, 116 Polar amorphous regions electro-oxidation, 329 Polarization, 631 Polycrystalline films, 95 Polycrystalline semiconductors, 122 Poly crystalline-grain structure, 561 Polyimide film, 424 Polyimide-Al interface, 435 Polymers, 52 degradation, 329 Polysilicon, 95 Polysilicon gate, 622 layer, 77 Polysilicon patterns, 144 Popcorn cracking, 364, 429^31, 449, 596 Porous oxidized Si (FIPOS), 405 Porous substrates, 386-387 Position-sensitive detector, 137 Positive resists, 99 Pourbaix diagrams, 367-370 Power-delay product, 655 Precipitates, 45, 115, 610 Precipitation reactions, 238 Prediction confidence, 222-229 Pressurized fluid jets, 151 Primary creep, 493 Printed circuit board (PCB), 340, 352, 382, 412,431,447-450,462 Printed wiring boards (PWB), 412, 507, 511 Probability, distribution function (PDF), 179, 182, 184, 196-199. See also Exponen- tial PDF; Lognormal PDF. Probability-density distributions, 664 Process-induced contamination, 142-147 Processing. See Chip-level processing; Plastic packages defects, 125-140 extrinsic residual stress, 128-133 internal stress, 128, 133-137 intrinsic residual stress, 131-133 Processing defects, 107 Product yield, 31 PROM, 75 Propagation delay time, 659 p-type MOSFETs, 69 p-type semiconductors, 45, 76 p-type silicon, 66 Punch-through. See Junction behavior. Purge test, 543 Purple plague, 246-248 Purple plague formation, 423 PZT, 642 Quad flat-pack (QFP), 464, 516 Quahty control, 588 Quantum-mechanical limit, 659 Quantum-mechanical well, 82 Quantum-well lasers, 540 Quaternary lasers, 550, 567 Quaternary semiconductors, 47, 79 R Radiation, 264, 308, 392-393, 399, 560 Radiation-damaged matrix, 393 Radiation-induced fiber degradation, 580 Radiation/matter interaction, 393-395 Radioactive atoms, 399^00 Radio-frequency interference, 339 Radio-frequency (RF) plasmas, 99 Radiography, 592-594 example, 592 Ramp voltage, 316-319 Ramp-voltage breakdown, 317-319 Ramp-voltage tests, 317, 320, 321-323 Random access memory (RAM), 74-76, 400 Random failures, 30 Rayleigh distribution, 195 RBS, 620-621 RC time constant, 50, 646, 647 RCL circuit response, 343 Reaction-controlled oxidation, 245 Reactive ion etching, 155 Read only memory (ROM), 74-76 Reciprocal electric-field model, 313-316 Recombinant radiation, 622 Rectifier circuits, 58 Reduced instruction set computer (RISC), 6 Reflow processes, 449^51 Relative humidity (RH), 363, 375, 387, 389 Reliability, 3, 13-17, 29, 31, 163, 165, 175-236, 432, 588, 641-642, 662-668, 669-671. See also Latent reliability defects; System Reliability. Reliable states, 18 Reliable/failed states, 17-18 Rent's Rule, 651-652 688 Index Residual stresses, 127, 133 Residual surface particles, 140 Resistivities, 268 Resistor surface, 345 Resistor temperature, 342 Retention time, 123 Reverse currents, 57, 58 Reverse-bias dark current, 86 Reverse-biased diode, 58 Reverse-biased p-n junction, 63, 348, 622 Reverse-biased Schottky barrier, 81 Risky reliability modeling, 224-227 Roller coaster curve, 221 Rome Air Development Center (RADC), 187 Room-temperature mechanical properties, 437 Rutherford back scattering, 619 Scaling, 655-658. See also Devices. Scanning acoustic microscropy (SAM), 594-598 Scanning electron microscope (SEM), 587, 603-605, 607, 609-613, 625-626. See also Environmental SEM. Scanning electron microscopy, 605-610 Scanning light microscopy (SLM), 603-604 Scanning tunneling microscope (STM), 578, 604 Schottky barrier, 122, 627 contacts, 252, 557 heights, 257 behavior, 56 contacts, 57, 254-256, 257 defects, 580 diodes, 253 gate contact, 81 Schottky-barrier diodes, 55, 56 Screw dislocation, 115 Sea-level cosmic rays, 399 Secondary cosmic rays, 400 Secondary creep, 493 Secondary electron (SE) emission, 625 Secondary ion-mass spectrometry, 619 Second-level interconnection, 428 Second-level packages, 413, 414, 447 Second-order kinetics, 581 Semiconductor-laser failure modes, 547 Semiconductors, 21, 39-49 band-gap energy, 550 bands, 41, 44-46 bonds, 41-44 carrier dynamics, 566 contact(s), 242, 244 devices, 27-28, 92, 225 electrical/optical function, 48-49 electronics, 157 energy-momentum representation, 46-47 junction, 106 laser diodes, 564 lasers, 87-91, 544 point defects, 113 structure, 3 9 ^ 1 Semi-insulating GaAs, 39 Semi-insulating GaAs substrate, 81 Separation by ion implantation of oxygen (SIMOX), 405 Sessile loops, 551 Shear modulus, 495 Shear stresses, 494, 496. See Continuous attachments; Discontinuous attachment. Sheet resistance, 254 Short-channel effects, 70, 648 Short-time creep response, 543 Short-wavelength lasers, 559 Si stacking faults, 316 SiC LEDs, 541 Signal-to-noise search ratio, 622 Silicides, 134 Silicon crystal growth, 92-93 dioxide, 308-310 energetic particle damage, 402-404 FETs, 187 interstitials, 121 hthography, 418 metal silicide contacts, 252-253 nitride mask, 112 ribbon solar cells, 118 Silicon on insulator (SOI), 405 Silicon-oxygenbonds, 305 SIMS, 619-620 Single bipolar transistors, 61 Single event latchup (SEL), 398 Single event upset (SEU), 395, 398, 400 Single-crystal Al stripes, 268 Single-crystal seed, 92 Singly-charged acceptor point defect, 109 Si-OH bonds, 575 Si02-metal interface, 314 Si02-Si interface, 309, 310, 316 Si-Si02 interfacial trap, 338 Six Sigma, 180-182 Index 689 Slip dislocations, 551 Slip planes, 498, 499 Small scale integration (SSI), 4 Small-outline packages, 531 S-N curves, 500 Socket connectors, 476 Soft errors, 398^04, 657-658 Soft fails, 398 Soft solders, 558 Solar cells, 84-85 Solder bonds, 556 bumps, 426 contacts, 476 creep, 492-507 defects, 475 fatigue, 492-507, 516-517 fluxes, 440-441 isothermal fatigue, 504-507 joint structures, 462-467 joints, 238, 242, 435-447, 451-452, 507-526. See Nonuniformly heated sol- der joints. Solder-ball-grid array, 462 Solder-base metal interfaces, 519 Solder-joint failure, 504, 519 Solder-metal interfaces, 244 Solid-solution systems, 242 Solid-state diffusion-controlled junction spik- ing, 347 Solid-state electromigration, 385 Solid-state transformations, 436 Source-gate-drain electrodes, 81 Spatial filtering, 650 Splicing, 581 Spring contacts mechanics, 482-485 Sputtering, 98, 154 Stacking faults, 113, 121, 127, 133 Standard wafer-level electromigration accelera- tion test (SWEAT), 283, 588, 667 Static fatigue, 574-577, 575 Static random access memory (SRAM), 74, 75 Steady-state creep, 493, 495 Step coverage, 137-140 Stimulated absorption, 48 Stimulated emission, 49 Stoke's law, 147 Stoney formula, 452 Stress corrosion cracking (SCC), 372-373 Stress-corrosion cracking, 575 Stress-enhanced diffusional motion, 497 Stresses, 288-291, 411-473. See also Normal stresses; Peeling stresses. amplitude, 503 concentration, 517 distribution, 525 intensity, 519 intensity factor, 571 introduction, 411-415 relaxation, 493 reversals, 500, 501 spatial distribution, 461 triaxial state, 286 voiding, 17, 284-293, 288, 646. See Vias. voiding failure, 291-292 Stress-induced mass backflow effects, 266, 279 Stress-induced nodular ejection, 562 Stress-induced plastic flow, 135 Stress-induced voiding, 624 Stressors, 664 Stressor-susceptibility interactions, 664-665 Stress-reduced activation energy, 577 Stress-voiding effects, 291 Substrates bonded chips, 454-460 oxides electrical damage, 98 wafer, 94 Subsurface delamination, 632 Superconductors. See High-temperature super- conductor; YBCO superconductors. oxides, 19 Supersaturation, 437 Surface accumulation rate, 362 asperities, 477 diffusion mechanisms, 241 etching, 578 hotspots, 632 ion concentration, 273 ion effects, 308 migration, 292 moisture accumulation, 363-364 mount technology (SMT), 448 mounting, AA1-AA9 oxidation, 82 pits, 250 topography, 273, 582 Surface-energy gradient, 480 Surface-mount assembly, 464 Surface-mount packages, 411 Surface-mount (SM) solder joints thermal-stress cycling, 512-515 690 Index Surface-mount (SM) solder joints thermal-stress cycling, (continued) scope, 512 Surface-mounted components, 451, 512 Surface-roughening reaction, 579 Survivability, 17 Survival function, 182 Switching energy^ 659 System bias, 23 failure rate, 203 reliability, 202-207 TAB. See Tape automated bonding. Tantalum capacitors, 213 Tape automated bonding (TAB), 423-426. See also Inner lead bonding. bonding, 427 leads, 425 Temperature creep, 294 cycling, 30 dependence, 146, 276-279, 505-507 distributions, 481, 511 gradients, 23, 263 transients, 219 Temperature-acceleration factors, 324-325 Temperature-dependent diffusivity, 257 Temperature-dependent nucleation/growth, 210 Temperature-ramp resistance analysis to char- acterize electromigration (TRACE), 281 Temperature-time-environment history, 476 Tensile strength levels, 26 Tensile stresses, 130, 136 Terminal velocity, 148 Ternary alloys, 79 Ternary semiconductors, 47 Terrestrial solar cells, 85 Tertiary creep, 494 Thermal annealing, 155 Thermal breakdown, 310 Thermal conductivity, 46, 264, 558 Thermal cychng, 427, 437, 492, 497, 507, 510, 512 distortion. See Solder. Thermal degradation. See Lasers; Optical com- ponents. Thermal expansion, 454 Thermal expansion coefficients, 452 Thermal expansion mismatch, 461, 507 Thermal fatigue, 415 Thermal mismatch, 28, 128, 456 Thermal resistivities, 557 Thermal runaway, 312, 564, 565-568, 566, 568 Thermal shock, 26, 511 Thermal stress(es), 127, 133, 291, 454, 456, 460-467, 492, 495, 512. See also Solder. Thermal wave imaging, 610 Thermal-cycling phenomena, 493 Thermal-expansion mismatch stresses, 556 Thermal-mismatch damage, 526 Thermionic emission, 304 Thermochemistry, 19 Thermocompression bonding, 421 Thermodynamics, 18, 108, 237, 266, 430, 659 Thermography, 630-635. See also Infrared thermography. Thermomigration, 479, 480-481 fluxes, 480 Thermoplastic molding compounds, 599 Thermosetting molding compounds, 599 Thermostat strip structures, 452 Thin-film deposits, 142 Thin-film dielectric breakdown data, 215 Thin-film IC interconnections, 261 Thin-film metaUizations, 348, 359, 381 Thin-film multilayers, 559 Three-electrode vacuum tube, 3 Threshold currents, 89 Threshold voltage, 66, 94, 325, 330 Threshold voltage shifts, 79 Through-hole mounting, 447-449 Through-hole packages, 411 Through-hole PCBs, 450 Thyristor, 71 Time dependence. See Reliability. Time-dependent conduction, 312 Time-dependent corrosion failures. See Bond- ing pads. Time-dependent degradation, 334, 571 Time-dependent destructive testing, 176 Time-dependent dielectric breakdown (TDDB), 70, 320, 321, 323, 325, 588 Time-dependent failure, 186, 263, 415 Time-dependent learning curve, 211 Time-dependent nucleation/growth, 210 Top surface metallurgy (TSM), 427 interface, 444 Transconductance, 72, 82, 325, 397. See also Bipolar transconductance. Transient temperature behavior, 265 Transistors, 59 Index 691 operating voltage, 339 punch-through, 622 Transistor-transistor logic (T^L), 62 Transmission electron microscope (TEM), 123, 253, 551, 555, 604, 605, 611-612 Transport mechanisms, 244 Traps, 308-310 Trench dislocations, 135 Trench technology, 77 Triaxial tensile stress-state, 287 Triboelectric effects, 339, 340 Tribology, 488-489 Trilayer die-attach geometry, 421 Triply-charged acceptor point defect, 109 True acceleration factors, 213 Tungsten plugs, 97 Tunneling current, 325 Tunneling current-field characteristics, 305 Tunneling phenomena, 305 Twin stacking fault (TSF), 120, 121 Two-dimensional electron gas, 82 deconfinement, 259 Two-laser system, 205 Two-system failure rates, 206 u Ultra large scale integration (ULSI), 5, 70, 72, 95, 630 Ultrasonics, 151 vibration, 422 Ultraviolet cleaning, 152 Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, 75, 395 Uniform corrosion, 371 Vacancies, 21, 51, 108, 121, 245, 288-291 buildup, 246 defects, 45 electromigration flux, 289 lifetimes, 268 subsaturation, 269 supersaturation, 269 transport, 289 Vacancy-interstitial pairs, 109, 393 Vacuum chucks, 136 Vacuum electronics, 2 Vacuum load-locks, 154 Vacuum-tube electrodes, 381 Valence band, 44, 45, 48, 50 edges, 305 bonds, 44 electrons, 40 Valence-band electrons excitation, 395 van der Waals (vdW) adhesion, 147, 150 forces, 149, 150 interactions, 151 Vapor-borne particulates, 142 Very large scale integration (VLSI), 187 chips, 141 circuits, 70 plasma etching, 325 regime, 249 VHSIC, 187 Via-conductor geometry, 275 Via-hole contact resistance, 624 Vias, 97, 275-276, 292-293 Vibrating mass, 527-528 Vibration analysis, 527 Vibrational frequencies, 529 Video applications, 74 Viscoelastic solid Maxwell model, 511 Visco-plastic strain energy, 515 Viscous-deformation effects, 527 VLSI. See Very large scale integration. Void cavitation, 494 Voiding phenomena, 267 Void/matrixinterfacial properties, 246 Voids, 238, 284, 288-291 incubation time, 270 nucleation, 269, 287, 288 Voltage acceleration factors, 320 Voltage contrast (VC). See Scanning electron microscope. focused ion beams, 630 techniques. See Devices; Materials. Voltaic cells, 1 von Hippel, 311 von Mises stress, 291 w Wafer bow, 136-137 decontamination method, 152 diameters, 123 692 Index Wafer (Continued) fixtures, 143 process yield, 157 substrates, 93, 414 surface damage sites, 121 surfaces, 147 test yield, 157 warpage, 114, 136 Wafer-cleaning techniques, 151 Wafer-level electromigration tests, 667 Wafer-level tests, 588 Water trees, 328-329 Wave soldering, 451 processes, 449-451 Wave vector, 47 Weak-link defect, 572 Wear. See Abrasive wear; Adhesive weeir; Cor- rosive wear; Delamination wear; Fret- ting wear. Wear scars, 489 Wear-out, 30, 206, 312, 314 failure regime, 221 hazard functions, 211 Wedge-shaped voids, 290 WeibuU behavior, 663 CDF, 211 cumulative failure distribution, 516 distribution function, 253 distributions, 176, 193-195, 209-211, 320, 322, 573 comparison. See Lognormal distributions. failure rate, 194,517 form, 384 function, 223 hazard function, 219 model, 224 plot, 318 axes, 198 scaling parameter, 572 statistics, 572 Weidemann-Franz law, 264 Wet chemical cleaning, 152 Wetting, 438-UO, 439, 440 Whisker formation, 135-136 Wire bonding, 256, 421-423, 432, 653 Wire bonds, 432, 460, 461 Wire deformation, 653 Wire-bond lift-off, 429 Work functions, 63 Worm-like defect, 554 Wunsch-Bell form, 561 regime, 347 relationship, 345 Wunsch-Bell-like failure model, 346 XPS, 615, 618-619 X-radiography, 592, 598 X-ray absorption, 593 X-ray diffraction, 136 X-ray fluorescence, 395 X-ray microradiography, 593 X-ray photons, 616 X-ray spectroscopy, 611 YBCO superconductors, 19 Yield, 105-106, 155-171, 587-588, 614 Yield-limiting defect, 119 Young's modulus, 40, 438, 484, 501, 511 Zener diodes, 58 Zero-level packaging, 411 Zone melt recrystallization (ZMR), 405
