EJPSB_1136-43

Prévia do material em texto

Received: 23 February, 2007. Accepted: 22 March, 2007. Invited Review 
The European Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology ©2007 Global Science Books 
 
Diplotaxis tenuifolia: Biology, Production and Properties 
 
Rosario Nicoletti* • Francesco Raimo • Gaetano Miccio 
 
Tobacco Experiment Institute, CRA, Via Vitiello 108, 84018 Scafati, Italy 
Corresponding author: * rosario.nicoletti@entecra.it 
 
ABSTRACT 
Perennial wallrocket (Diplotaxis tenuifolia (L.) DC) is a perennial herbaceous plant belonging to the Brassicaceae native of the 
Mediterranean area and western Asia, but has now become cosmopolitan. Once harvested as a spontaneous herb, today it is a crop species 
whose importance is increasing especially in Europe after the diffusion of ready-to-use salads. Leaves present interesting nutritional 
properties depending on their content in glucosinolates and some antioxidant compounds, such as vitamin C and flavonoids, and their 
consumption is recommended in the prevention of cancer and cardiovascular diseases. Italy is the main producer country in the world 
with over 1100 hectares cropped in 2003. However, production in home gardens and harvesting from the wild are still quite significant, 
which makes figures concerning the overall production underestimated. It is cultivated both in open fields and under plastic tunnels, 
mostly in rotation with other vegetable crops in areas of intensive horticulture. Besides its relevance as a food crop, it is also thought to 
possess therapeutic properties that have stimulated its use in the traditional medicine of several peoples in the Mediterranean and the Near 
East areas. An oil rich in erucic acid can be extracted by the seeds, introducing possible relevance for industrial applications. Aspects 
concerning biology, diffusion, cultivation, crop protection, industrial processing, nutritional properties and uses of perennial wallrocket 
are considered in this review. 
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 
 
Keywords: Brassicaceae, nutritional properties, perennial wallrocket, ready-to-use salads 
 
CONTENTS 
 
INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................................................................................ 36 
BIOLOGY, TAXONOMY, DIFFUSION ..................................................................................................................................................... 36 
BIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES .................................................................................................................................................................. 37 
USES OF PRODUCT .................................................................................................................................................................................. 38 
CROPPING.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 38 
DISEASES AND PESTS ............................................................................................................................................................................. 39 
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSING..................................................................................................................................................................... 41 
REFERENCES............................................................................................................................................................................................. 41 
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 
 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
Diplotaxis tenuifolia (L.) DC is one of a group of taxono-
mically related species belonging to the Brassicaceae col-
lectively known as ‘rocket’ or ‘arugula’. In Italy the trivial 
name of ‘rucola selvatica’ (wild rocket) is prevalent, in 
contrast to the name of ‘rucola coltivata’ (cropped rocket), 
which refers to the species Eruca sativa Miller (syn. E. ve-
sicaria (L.) Cav.). The specific trivial name of ‘perennial 
wallrocket’ is currently preferred to discriminate it from 
other species in the genus Diplotaxis, while the name of 
‘Lincoln weed’ or ‘sand rocket’ is more commonly used in 
Australia where the species is mainly known as a proble-
matic weed (Parsons and Cuthbertson 1992). 
The economic interest in cropping perennial wallrocket 
is growing due to the progressive diffusion of ready-to-use 
salads, the so-called ‘fourth generation of vegetables’, 
better known in Italy as ‘IV gamma’. This commercializa-
tion technique preserves the freshness and typical scent of 
the leaves, thus increasing their shelf life and market avai-
lability. Until a few years ago E. sativa was the only rocket 
species to be cropped, while D. tenuifolia was mostly har-
vested as a spontaneous herb. Recently, in most cropping 
areas the latter is more and more replacing the former 
thanks to its smoother and more succulent leaves that have 
encountered a higher preference of consumers. Aspects 
concerning biology, properties, cultivation, processing and 
uses of the product are reviewed in this paper. 
 
BIOLOGY, TAXONOMY, DIFFUSION 
 
The genus Diplotaxis (tribe Brassicae, subtribe Brassicinae), 
phylogenetically close to the genus Brassica (Warwick and 
Sauder 2005), includes about 30 species mainly originating 
from the Mediterranean area, especially from the western 
part of the basin which is considered its centre of diversity 
(Martinez-Laborde 1996). Species of Diplotaxis are quite 
similar morphologically, and all of them present leafy to 
subscapose stems bearing entire to pinnately lobed or 
toothed leaves. Distinctive features for D. tenuifolia and a 
few related species are represented by brochidrodromous 
yellow petals and siliques with a seedless beak. Moreover, 
unlike most species that are annual, D. tenuifolia is charac-
terized by a perennial growth habitus which makes it more 
suitable as a crop plant in that novel foliage can develop 
after repeated harvestings by the adventitious buds scattered 
on its roots. The taxon D. cretacea, formerly considered a 
subspecies of D. tenuifolia more widespread in Ukraine and 
southern Russia (Sobrino Vesperinas 1996), is now recog-
nized as a separate species (Martin and Sanchez-Yelamo 
2000). The species Diplotaxis muralis (L.) DC is also edible, 
but it is mainly collected from the wild and has not spread 
The European Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 1(1), 36-43 ©2007 Global Science Books 
 
in cultivation so far; its trivial name of ‘wall rocket’ is indi-
cative of a close similarity with D. tenuifolia, from which it 
can be distinguished by more oval cotyledons, thinner 
leaves, pale yellow flowers with smaller petals and the pre-
sence of bristly hairs on the lower part of the stem (Bianco 
1995; Martinez-Laborde 1996). The two species also differ 
in their breeding systems (Eschmann-Grupe et al. 2004b), 
and their caryotype: D. tenuifolia is diploid (n=11), while D. 
muralis (n=21) is an allotetraploid deriving from hybridiza-
tion between D. viminea (L.) DC (n=10) and D. tenuifolia 
itself (Eschmann-Grupe et al. 2004a). The allotetraploid 
condition is also supported by observations on the seed coat 
pattern (Koul et al. 2000) and by studies concerning the 
photosynthetic type, which is C3 in D. viminea and C3-C4 
intermediate in D. tenuifolia (Ueno et al. 2006). The latter 
system is more efficient and allows an enhanced potential 
for CO2 assimilation (Apel et al. 1996). 
D. tenuifolia is well adapted to harsh and calcareoussoils and in Italy, unlike E. sativa which is more widespread 
in the inner regions, it spontaneously thrives along coastal 
areas at altitudes below 400 m (Pignone 1996). Sensitivity 
to excess boron in alkaline soils has been reported, as 
symptoms of toxicity were observed at a concentration of 
12.2 mg kg-1 (Choi et al. 2006a). Data concerning diffusion 
of perennial wallrocket as a crop plant are fragmentary 
since it is often included in statistics concerning the quite 
heterogeneous category of ‘salads’, and rarely considered 
separately by E. sativa. Moreover, incidence on the overall 
production by cultivation in home gardens and small plots, 
other than harvesting from the wild, is still quite notable. 
Italy is the most important producer country in the world 
with 1,178 ha cropped in 2003, 1,100 of which are under 
plastic tunnels; Campania is the leading region with almost 
3/4 of the total surface (850 ha), mostly concentrated in the 
Piana del Sele area, followed by Veneto with 120 ha (Pim-
pini et al. 2005). 
Besides cropping reasons, the current cosmopolitan dis-
tribution of D. tenuifolia is the result of its capacity to adapt 
and ease of propagation, and its invasive behaviour has 
been regarded as a case study (Hurka et al. 2003). Its strong 
competitive ability in floristic communities is also related 
to the production of allelopathic substances, such as S-glu-
copyranosyl thiohydroximate (Giordano et al. 2005). In 
Australia the species has become particularly widespread in 
some areas and is now considered a noxious weed, as it has 
invaded and dominates poor pastures in such a way to be 
retained responsible for possibly poisoning livestock (Par-
sons and Cuthbertson 1992). Similar problems have also 
been reported from Argentina (Caso 1972; Ziller et al. 
2005) and in north America, where its spread in New York 
city and vicinities in connexion with ship trading from Eu-
rope was reported since the nineteenth century (Brown 
1879). The relevance as a weed also determines a reason-
nable concern for risks about the possible transfer of genes 
for herbicide resistance which have been introduced in 
some cultivated Brassicaceae known to be able to hybridize 
with D. tenuifolia (Rieger et al. 1999; Siemens 2002). 
 
BIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES 
 
Leaves of perennial wallrocket are characterized by a bitter 
or pungent taste depending on their content of glucosino-
lates, and a strong acrid aroma which probably derives by 
the release of volatile isothiocyanates, such as methyl-thio-
butyl-isothiocyanate (Delaveau and Paris 1958). Many 
other volatile compounds are known to contribute to the 
scent of leaves of E. sativa (Jirovetz et al. 2002), while no 
additional data are available for D. tenuifolia. The volatile 
compound 5-dimethylsulphonium pentanoic acid, charac-
terized for the first time from flowers of D. tenuifolia (Lar-
her and Hamelin 1979), has been actually proven to be an 
extraction artefact (Hanson et al. 1993). 
Glucosinolates are a class of β-thioglucoside-N-hydro-
xysulfates typical of the Brassicaceae including about 120 
compounds which differ by the chemical structure of their 
side chain and release isothiocyanates upon enzymatic hy-
drolysis (Fahey et al. 2001). D. tenuifolia is reported to 
contain high amounts of 4-mercaptobutylglucosinolate (glu-
cosativin) and lower levels of 4-methylthiobutlyglucosi-
nolate and 4-methylsulfinylbutylglucosinolate, respectively 
also known as glucoerucin and glucoraphanin; the latter is 
more abundant in the flowers, while roots contain 4-hydro-
xybenzylglucosinolate (sinalbin) (Bennett et al. 2006, 2007). 
Other minor compounds are 3-butenylglucosinolate (gluco-
napin) and some indolylglucosinolates (Nitz and Schnitzler 
2002). The aglycone breakdown product of glucoraphanin, 
named sulforaphane (Fig. 1), has a recognized cancer che-
mopreventive activity (Zhang et al. 1992). However, gluco-
erucin may also convert to glucoraphanin (Iori et al. 1999), 
and glucosinolates themselves typically possess some extent 
of anticancer activity (O’Hare et al. 2005). Glucosinolate 
content of rocket leaves depends on genetic traits, but it is 
also influenced by cropping practices. In particular the total 
content of glucoerucin and glucoraphanin increases signifi-
cantly with the number of cuts (Nitz and Schnitzler 2002). 
Therefore the physiological nutrient value of the product 
evaluated under this aspect improves in the successive har-
vest rounds. Isothiocyanates released by the glucosinolates 
upon their enzymatic degradation are known to protect the 
plant against many biological adversities. This process has 
stimulated to exploit the potential of crop residues of cruci-
ferous species as biofumigants (Kirkegaard and Sarwar 
1998). In the case of D. tenuifolia these properties do not 
seem to be consistent, since there is an experimental evi-
dence that suppression of mycelial growth of the pathogenic 
fungus Rhizoctonia solani only occurs when soil is amended 
with very high amounts of green manure (10% w/w) (Yuli-
anti et al. 2006). 
The nutrient content of perennial wallrocket is similar to 
other salads, except in that dry matter and fibre content are 
slightly higher. Leaves present high levels of potassium (4.7 
g kg-1 fresh product), calcium (3.1 g kg-1) and iron (52 mg 
kg-1) (Pimpini et al. 2005). The content of some vitamins, 
particularly vitamin A (7.4 g kg-1) and ascorbic acid (vita-
min C) (1.1 g kg-1), is also notable (Bruno et al. 1980; Pim-
pini et al. 2005). The latter substance and flavonoids confer 
antioxidant properties; therefore nutritionists more and more 
recommend the inclusion of rocket leaves in diets as an aid 
for preventing cardiovascular and cancer diseases (Salvatore 
et al. 2005). With the exception of roots, all D. tenuifolia 
tissues contain polyglycosylated flavonoids whose core 
aglycon is quercetin, kaempferol, or isorhamnetin (Maldoni 
et al. 1988; Sanchez-Yelamo 1994; Bennett et al. 2006); be-
sides a role in protection from UV-radiation, their biological 
function is thought to be primarily related to resistance to 
pathogens and pests (Treutter 2005). Therefore, increasing 
flavonoid content, that expectantly represents one of the pri-
mary objectives in perennial wallrocket breeding, is likely 
to have beneficial side effects for plant protection. There is 
a seasonal influence on flavonoid content, being higher in 
spring-harvested leaves (di Venere et al. 2000). Antioxidant 
properties also characterize the alkaloid sinapine (4-hydro-
xy-3,5-dimethoxy-cinnamic acid choline ester) contained in 
D. tenuifolia seeds, which however is better known as an 
antinutritional factor (Boucherau et al. 1991; Bennett et al. 
2006). 
Potential pharmaceutical interest relies on some com-
pounds that have been recently extracted by perennial wall-
rocket leaves, such as some nortropane alkaloids derived 
from pseudotropine known as calystegins, especially calys-
tegin A5 (Brock et al. 2006), and an essential oil containing 
5-methylthiopentanenitrile possessing antifungal properties 
S N
O
C S
Fig. 1 Molecular structure of sulforaphane. 
37
Diplotaxis tenuifolia. Nicoletti et al. 
 
(Rodriguez et al. 2006). 
 
USES OF PRODUCT 
 
The use of perennial wallrocket as a vegetable is known at 
least since the 19th century in France and Italy (Martinez-
Laborde 1996). Besides being an ingredient of salads, it is 
now used for many dishes as a garnish, and as a pizza top-
ping. Older leaves are too piquant to be consumed raw, but 
can be added to soups or sauces. As for other cruciferous 
species, breeding may allow the regulation of glucosinolate 
content to obtain a product that can adapt to the different 
consumer tastes. So far the number of cultivated varieties 
seems quite low if compared to the increasing market 
demand. Therefore some efforts have been made, or are in 
progress, to collect new germplasm throughout the Mediter-
ranean area, in the awareness that a targetedgenetic im-
provement may provide very profitable results (Pignone 
1996). A liquor prepared in some areas of Campania is 
claimed to have digestive and diuretic properties and is also 
to be considered within the food uses. 
Other potential uses of perennial wallrocket pertain to 
the oil extracted from its seeds in a yield of about 36%. It 
contains 12.6% oleic acid, 22.3% linoleic acid, 38.9% lino-
lenic acid and 11.8% erucic acid (Dolya et al. 1972; Agullo 
et al. 1987). Although being lower than those reported in 
the oil extracted from other cruciferous crops, the high le-
vels of erucic acid are counter to its use for human con-
sumption. Properties are similar to the oil extracted by E. 
sativa (jamba oil) that, especially in the Indian subcontinent, 
is employed as a lubricant in industries, and in the prepa-
ration of soaps or as an illuminating agent (Pignone 1996). 
Besides the previously discussed beneficial effect for 
human health related to the content in sulphoraphane, glu-
cosinolates and flavonoids, the use of D. tenuifolia as a me-
dicinal plant is widely documented in the tradition of se-
veral peoples and cultures, and even nowadays it is still re-
commended somewhere, mainly as an aphrodisiac or an 
anti-diarrhoeic herb (de Feo et al. 1992, 1993; Bianco 
1995; Pignone 1996; Pieroni et al. 2004). Mucolytic effects 
are also reported (Caudron 2005). 
 
CROPPING 
 
D. tenuifolia can be cultivated in open fields, or more com-
monly under plastic tunnels (Fig. 2), even as a soilless or 
hydroponic crop. In open cultivation soil must be ploughed, 
or better spaded in the case of sandy soils, reaching a depth 
of about 30 cm. Harrowing usually completes the soil pre-
paration, but excessive pulverization should be avoided. 
Soil preparation ends with the formation of ridges (1-3 m in 
width). A seed quantity of 4-6 kg ha-1 is used, depending on 
the sowing period and modality. Rolling should follow 
seeding in light soils. The sowing period varies from spring 
to early autumn depending on commercial requirements. In 
summer, preliminary irrigation is suggested before starting 
the preparation which improves soil structure and facilitates 
rapid germination and uniform emergence, besides contri-
buting to the control of weeds (false sowing). Alternatively, 
the crop can be transplanted (Fig. 3), with an ensuing re-
duction of the cycle that generally implies a better weed 
and pest management and an improved quality of the pro-
duct. Plantlets are reared for a period of 20-30 days in alve-
olar containers filled with a peat-vermiculite seedling me-
dium (about 10 seeds per hole). Transplanting can be ope-
rated after mulching with a black polyethylene film under 
which a sprinkler is placed in alternate rows. As for other 
vegetable crops, monosuccession is not advisable; plants 
such as bean, celery, cucurbits and solanaceous crops are 
also not considered a good precession since they have a de-
trimental effect on yield (Bianco 1995; Pimpini and Enzo 
1996). 
Nutritional requirements of perennial wallrocket are 
modest, as 100 kg of product remove estimated amounts of 
0.28 kg of nitrogen, 0.11 kg of phosphoric anhydride and 
0.34 kg of potassium oxide (Pimpini et al. 2005). Of course 
fertilization must be operated considering the soil conditions, 
as well as its content of organic matter and macroelements, 
which can be also administered by fertirrigation. Several 
studies have shown that nitrogen supplying should never 
exceed 100 kg ha-1 (Bianco and Boari 1996; Pimpini and 
Enzo 1996). In fact, leaves of D. tenuifolia can accumulate 
large amounts of nitrate, up to 10 g kg-1 fresh weight (Santa-
maria et al. 2001), as their nitrogen use efficiency is quite 
low (Santamaria et al. 2002). Moreover, excessive nitrogen 
worsens the quality of the product during storage; therefore 
its administration must be strictly avoided in proximity of 
the harvesting time, especially in soilless cropping. 
Perennial wallrocket is adapted to harsh and arid soils, 
and the presence of a well-developed taproot reaching up to 
40 cm in depth suggests a limit to irrigation; in fact, excess 
water may worsen the sanitary status of the crop, parti-
cularly with respect to the incidence of fungal diseases. 
However, it must be also considered that a good availability 
of water is essential to ensure an optimum quality of leaves, 
which otherwise become too fibrous and less succulent. Ir-
rigation is commonly based on a sprinkling system opera-
ting at medium volumes (120 L h-1) and ranges (3-5 m), but 
dripping systems are more indicated to safeguard the foliage 
sanity and to avoid contamination by microbes dangerous 
for human health. 
As discussed above, D. tenuifolia is known to be a good 
competitor; however weed development can be very detri-
mental to the quality of the product, as the absence of con-
tamination by other herbs is regarded as a fundamental re-
quisite. Therefore an onerous selection operation must be 
effected in case weed management is not adequate. Means 
Fig. 2 Cropping under plastic tunnel is the most widespread system in 
Campania. 
Fig. 3 Plantlets 1 week after transplantation. 
38
The European Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 1(1), 36-43 ©2007 Global Science Books 
 
other than the use of herbicides should be preferred, since 
very few active principles are registered in all countries by 
reason of the short crop cycle, and their range of action and 
selectivity are not consistent. Treatments with benfluralin 
are usually effected before seeding in protected crops in 
Campania (Nicoletti et al. 2007). However the product is 
unable to control some problematic weeds such as shep-
herd’s purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris), and a manual opera-
tion before harvesting is often necessary. 
The cultivation cycle has a quite variable duration, and 
harvesting time cannot be established in advance, depen-
ding on various and independent factors, such as the clima-
tic conditions and the necessity to fulfil the market demand. 
These factors, together with the phytosanitary status of the 
crop, also determine the number of possible successive har-
vests. Therefore it is quite difficult to make previsions con-
cerning yield. In 2006 an average yield of 27 ton ha-1 has 
been estimated in the Piana del Sele area, where four har-
vests were effected on average (Raimo and Miccio, unpu-
blished). Leaves can be cut manually (Fig. 4) or by oppor-
tunely adapted mowers, and the most appropriate timing 
must be decided according to local conditions; in fact, mor-
ning harvests are preferable in spring and summer consider-
ing the lower temperature and the higher relative humidity, 
while afternoon is suggested in case there is a concern 
about nitrate concentration. After harvesting, the product is 
placed in plastic boxes to be carried to the processing plant. 
For the preparation of ready-to-use salads leaves must be 
refrigerated and conditioned in a due time to ensure an 
adequate shelf-life. Quality control is effected on pesticide 
residues, heavy metals and nitrate content, and microbial 
contamination; reference standards concerning the latter pa-
rameter are particularly restricted considering the possibi-
lity of a postponed consumption. 
In soilless cropping a better uniformity of the foliage is 
obtained, and production can be programmed by oppor-
tunely managing the most relevant environmental para-
meters (temperature, humidity, fertilization, etc.). In Italy, 
floating system is the most widespread technique employed 
for D. tenuifolia; it allows a substantial reduction of the in-
cidence of foliar diseases and weed contamination, and the 
product is almost clean of any kind of foreign bodies and 
may only require a quick washing before packaging. A tho-
rough account concerning the various implications of this 
cropping system is beyond the scopes of this paper and we 
address the reader to appropriate publications for further 
documentation. 
 
DISEASESAND PESTS 
 
The development of the demand for ready-to-use vegeta-
bles has led to a remarkable intensification of cropping, 
with ensuing increasing problems concerning diseases and 
pests. Most reports on biological adversities of perennial 
wallrocket concern observations effected in Italy; neverthe-
less they represent a valuable reference for other countries 
with similar climatic conditions where the crop has been in-
troduced more recently. 
Particularly, soil-borne pathogens represent a wide-
spread problem in all Italian regions (Fig. 5). In fact, their 
inoculum accumulates in the soil and real outbursts may oc-
cur in a few years. Repeated cropping is regarded as the 
main causal factor for the epidemics of crown and root rot 
recently observed in the Piana del Sele area, caused by Rhi-
zoctonia solani AG-4 (Nicoletti et al. 2004). Infected plants 
undergo either an acute (damping-off) or a chronic course, 
with necrotic lesions developing on one side of both crown 
and taproot, and leaf yellowing. Sclerotinia sclerotiorum is 
also a reported agent of crown and stem necrosis (Garibaldi 
et al. 2005; Minuto et al. 2005), but it can be easily recog-
nized because infected tissues become soft and watery, and 
are covered by white mycelium and dark sclerotia. Unlike R. 
solani, this pathogen has a higher incidence at lower tempe-
ratures (15°C) and high relative humidity conditions. Out-
bursts of Fusarium wilt in plastic tunnels were recorded in 
northern Italy after 3 years during which crop yield had pro-
gressively declined (Garibaldi et al. 2002, 2003). Disease 
symptoms consist in reduced development, leaf chlorosis, 
epinasty and wilting, and a necrosis of vascular tissues of 
taproot is evident at an advanced stage. The causal agent, 
Fusarium oxysporum, is quite heterogeneous since isolates 
from diseased plants were found to belong to two different 
formae speciales, conglutinans and raphani (Catti et al. 
2007). A similar onset of the disease was observed in distant 
farms in the same area that is indicative of the ability of the 
pathogen to propagate through the seeds (Garibaldi et al. 
2002). 
Seeds are also a vehicle for the diffusion of downy mil-
dew caused by Hyaloperonospora parasitica, the fungal pa-
thogen that is possibly to be regarded as a limiting factor for 
perennial wallrocket. H. parasitica commonly affects winter 
cruciferous crops in Italy without causing relevant damages. 
In the case of D. tenuifolia, the protected environment re-
presents a favourable micro-climate that often determines its 
rapid spread (Minuto et al. 2004). Symptoms appear as 
small, irregular, dark brown speckling on the upper surface 
of the leaves. The speckled areas usually expand into larger 
spots and fruiting structures appear as a whitish mould on 
both the leaf surfaces. Leaves undergo a sudden yellowing, 
and rot in the case of high infestations. The disease may be 
quite underhand, as its signs can appear after harvesting on 
the market shelves; in fact the pathogen continues deve-
loping even at low temperatures that have the only effect to 
prolong its incubation period, otherwise lasting no more 
than 12 days in favourable conditions (Garibaldi et al. 2004). 
Therefore an economic threshold is often reached and con-
trol practices are recommended. Another foliar disease that 
Fig. 4 Manual harvesting. 
Fig. 5 Missing plants is one of the visible effects of damage caused by 
soil-borne fungal pathogens. 
39
Diplotaxis tenuifolia. Nicoletti et al. 
 
is quite common on winter cruciferous crops in temperate 
countries is white rust caused by Albugo candida. It is quite 
a heterogeneous pathogen (Choi et al. 2006b) that causes 
local infections on the leaves resulting in the appearance of 
white pustules on the lower surface corresponding to tan-
yellow pustules at the upper surface. Tissues around the 
pustules may become necrotic and bring leaves to sense-
cence. This species is particularly noxious in India on oil-
seed crops since it can cause systemic infections of the in-
florescence, often in association with H. parasitica (Gupta 
et al. 2004). Other fungal diseases occasionally observed in 
Italy are powdery mildew caused by Erisyphe cichoracae-
arum, and Alternaria leaf spot (Nicoletti et al. 2007). The 
latter disease is mainly caused by Alternaria brassicicola, 
as some degree of resistance has been described toward the 
other species infecting Cruciferae, A. brassicae and A. ra-
phani (Klewer et al. 2002; Sharma et al. 2002). Resistance 
has also been reported toward blackleg caused by Lepto-
sphaeria maculans (Delourme et al. 2006), while some 
concern exists for another disease of general occurrence on 
cruciferous crops, clubroot caused by Plasmodiophora 
brassicae (Voorips 1995). Its first visible symptom is usu-
ally wilting, particularly during hot-dry weather. Diseased 
plants are generally stunted, and the foliage may be dif-
ferent in colour from healthy plants. Infected roots show 
characteristic swellings or knots, and in case of severe in-
fections taproots of young plants form a single-clubbed root. 
On D. tenuifolia the disease has been reported from New 
Zealand (Pennycook 1989), and more recently from Swit-
zerland (Buser and Heller 2006); its possible occurrence is 
to be particularly considered in other central and northern 
European countries, where the pathogen is quite widespread. 
Among bacterial diseases, a special consideration de-
serves black rot caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. 
campestris, that is reported on most weedy crucifers (West-
man et al. 1999) and has been recently found on D. tenui-
folia in Campania (Raio and Giorgini 2005). Infected 
leaves typically stand out for their yellow colour at the 
upper surface, while the lower surface turns dark, almost 
black. Symptoms diffuse along the main vein, and necrosis 
may even reach the stem. The pathogen spreads through the 
seeds and irrigation. Phytoplasms (Amici 1972) and a num-
ber of viruses, such as cucumber mosaic cucumovirus 
(CMV), turnip yellow mosaic tymovirus (TYMV), turnip 
mosaic potyvirus (TuMV) and cauliflower mosaic caulimo-
virus (CaMV) (Stavolone et al. 1998; Nicoletti et al. 2007), 
are also reported to be able to infect D. tenuifolia, but no 
substantial damage caused by these pathogens has been re-
ported so far. Latent infections reported on other Diplotaxis 
species may confer to perennial wallrocket an epidemiolo-
gical role in the spread of other viruses too, such as tomato 
spotted wilt tospovirus (TSWV) and Pelargonium zonate 
spot anulavirus (PZSV) (Lupo et al. 1991; Parrella et al. 
2003; Gallitelli et al. 2004). 
After the recent phasing out of methyl bromide, control 
of cryptogamic diseases has become quite problematic on 
several vegetable crops. On perennial wallrocket the prob-
lem is even more complicated by the fact that no resistant 
cultivars have been selected toward any particular biologi-
cal adversity yet. Chemical products currently available for 
soil disinfestations, such as metham sodium and dazomet, 
are reported not to be as effective. Dichloran is active 
against S. sclerotiorum, but treatments must be operated 
early in the cropping cycle considering its long persistence 
(20 days). Besides paying more attention to certain crop-
ping practices, such as rotation and irrigation, farmers 
should consider any possible action to avoid the accumu-
lation of pathogen inoculum in the soil. Solarization is an 
effective technique to be proposed in the subtropical and 
temperate countries, provided that it does not impair the 
farm organization and the rotation programs. The use of 
biological control products based on mycoparasites, such as 
Coniothyrium minitans against S. sclerotiorum and Clono-
stachys rosea against F. oxysporum or R. solani, is cur-
rently being proposed and is particularly convenient when 
the crop is transplanted since these micro-organisms can be 
administrated in advance and, once established in therhizo-
sphere, may be able to prevent the pathogen infestation in 
the field. It may be advisable to use such products even in 
the case of a low disease incidence because the mycopa-
rasites can exert their antagonism also in the absence of the 
crop against both the resting structures of the pathogens (e.g. 
S. sclerotiorum sclerotia) and their saprophytic development 
on the organic matter and crop residues (Nicoletti et al. 
2007). Another environmentally friendly practice to be con-
sidered consists in the use of phosphites for leaf fertiliza-
tion; in fact they are known to stimulate phytoalexin pro-
duction whose effectiveness in plant protection against fun-
gi is well-known (Guest and Grant 1991). Chemical control 
may be operated against downy mildew by using metalaxyl 
M + copper oxychloride, but iprovalicarb + copper oxychlo-
ride is generally preferred since it presents a very short in-
terval (7 days, or slightly longer at low temperatures). Other 
products reported to have the same reduced persistence are 
tolylfluanid and azoxystrobin. Copper salts, especially tetra-
ramic sulphate, present the shortest interval and are effect-
tive against the black rot agent, but their use is not sug-
gested since stains persist on the foliage. Another product 
occasionally used is thiram, which is also effective against 
Alternaria leaf spot and can be used for seed treatment. 
Seed disinfection is not a routine practice; however, the de-
finition of a protocol for their sterilization would be ex-
tremely useful, considering the number of pathogens which 
propagate by such means. Seed immersion in vinegar for 15 
min followed by drying at 25-30°C is effective against dow-
ny mildew and recommended in Switzerland (Buser and 
Heller 2006). 
Pest reports on D. tenuifolia generally refer to insect 
species common on other Brassicaceae, such as aphids 
(Brevicoryne brassicae, Myzus persicae, Lipaphis erysimi), 
flea beetles (Phyllotreta spp.), click beetles (Agriotes spp.), 
cabbage butterflies (Pieris spp.), and cutworms (Mamestra 
brassicae, Autographa gamma, Spodoptera littoralis) (Bi-
anco 1995; Nicoletti et al. 2007). Other Lepidoptera that 
have recently caused economic damage in Italy are the dia-
mondback moth (Plutella xylostella) (Ciampolini et al. 
Fig. 6 Leaf riddling caused by springtails (S. viridis). 
40
The European Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 1(1), 36-43 ©2007 Global Science Books 
 
1998) and the cabbage webworm (Hellula undalis) (Ciam-
polini et al. 2001a). Flea beetles, also indirectly injurious as 
vectors of TYMV, can be particularly harmful in mild cli-
mates, where infestations start to occur early in spring. In 
fact leaf erosions are caused by adults, which represent the 
overwintering stage, while larvae only feed on roots 
without causing a consistent damage (Ciampolini et al. 
2001b). The milder climatic conditions occurred in winter 
in the past few years in the Piana del Sele area have also 
determined a noticeable spread of springtails (Sminthurus 
viridis) (Raimo et al. 2005), whose feeding habit also cau-
ses riddling and erosion of leaves that become unmarket-
able (Fig. 6). Besides representing a direct economic loss, 
the presence of damaged leaves requires a quite onerous 
choice operation. Control practices must focus on an accu-
rate weed management, especially in the surrounding ridges 
which represent an ideal micro-environment for springtail 
pullulation. As anticipated above, the use of pesticides on 
perennial wallrocket is quite problematic due to a very 
short interval between subsequent harvestings, and highly 
toxic or persistent chemicals cannot be used. Therefore py-
rethroids (e.g. deltamethrin, bifenthrin), that have proved to 
be very efficacious against aphids, flea beetles, springtails 
and cutworms, are mostly employed. However their indis-
criminate use can be deleterious, since it may favour the 
proliferation of spider mites (Bryobia spp.) that have been 
reported to be injurious to the crop in several Italian areas 
(Giorgini 2001; Laffi 2001). An alternative is represented 
by spinosad or etophenprox which present a 3- and a 7-day 
interval respectively. The low toxic product azadirachtin, 
also active against aphids and Lepidoptera, has showed a 
substantial antifeedant effect on flea beetles (Ciampolini et 
al. 2001b), and its use is suggested when they occur as the 
key pest. Products based on Bacillus thuringiensis are effi-
cacious against Lepidoptera, and allow to respect some pa-
rasitoids, such as Angitia tibialis and Apanteles spp., whose 
ecological role as control agents may spontaneously esta-
blish (Ciampolini et al. 1998). Slugs (e.g. Deroceras reticu-
latum, Arion spp.) are also occasionally injurious and 
should be particularly considered in subtropical countries 
for their ability to transmit a number of human parasitic 
Trematodes (e.g. Fasciola hepatica). Baits treated with me-
thiocarb or methaldeyde are usually efficacious against 
these pests (Nicoletti et al. 2007). 
 
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSING 
 
After harvesting, rocket leaves undergo a leakage of cell 
juices that support microbial growth. Many enzyme sys-
tems are activated which are responsible of the loss of nu-
tritional properties and other modifications in flavour and 
consistency. Respiratory activity also increases, and CO2 is 
produced at levels reaching 42 and 113 mL kg-1 h-1 at 0°C 
and 5°C respectively; ethylene develops in low amounts, 
that is less than 0.1 mL kg-1 h-1, but leaves are highly sen-
sitive and soon undergo chlorophyll degradation and yel-
lowing (Cornacchia et al. 2006). Therefore storage at low 
temperatures (at least 5°C) must be operated soon after har-
vesting, as any delay results in a reduction of the shelf life 
(Sinigaglia et al. 1999). Perennial wallrocket is resistant to 
coldness, and temperatures of 0-2°C can be borne for peri-
ods up to 10 days (Cornacchia et al. 2006). 
As for other leaf vegetables, there is a great concern for 
possible microbial contamination. Microbiological analyses 
of the product provide for the absence of human pathogenic 
bacteria, such as Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., 
Yersinia enterocolitica, and a presence of Staphylococcus 
aureus, Escherichia coli and other coliforms under the limit 
of 100 cfu g-1 (Galli and Franzetti 1998; Aruscavage et al. 
2006). Aeromonas spp. have also been found on D. tenui-
folia leaves (Villari et al. 2000). Therefore a greater atten-
tion must be paid to the quality of water for both irrigation 
and washing. Sanitization can be operated by accurate wa-
shing with cold tap water supplemented with a disinfectant. 
Chlorine products are prevalently used (Marchetti et al. 
1992), but good effects have also experimentally resulted by 
treatments with lactic acid (20 mL L-1) and peroxyacetic 
acid (300 mg L-1), which inhibited the microbial growth 
throughout the shelf life (Martinez-Sanchez et al. 2006a). 
As introduced above, the technology of the fourth gene-
ration of vegetables aims at preserving the visual quality of 
the product and its organoleptic properties for a prolonged 
period, that is at least a week. The product is packaged with 
appropriate films presenting differential permeability to-
ward oxygen and carbon dioxide; in fact, low O2 or high 
CO2 levels are capable to reduce ethylene biosynthesis and 
chlorophyll loss (Kader 1986). A controlled atmosphere 
may be also artificially created in the plastic bags with even 
higher CO2 and a lower O2 concentrations; however, a 
weight loss is inevitable and has been documented for pe-
rennial wallrocket after 10 days storage under 3% O2 and 
15% CO2 (Cornacchia et al. 2006). Experimental data con-
cerning modifications in the nutritional value are contro-
versial; in fact, a decrease in ascorbic acid, flavonoid and 
glucosinolate content was determined under a low O2 (1-3 
kPa) and high CO2 (11-13 kPa) atmosphere (Martinez-San-
chez et al. 2006a), while the total flavonoid contentwas not 
affected, or even increased, under a controlled atmosphere 
of 5 kPa O2 and 10 kPa CO2 (Martinez-Sanchez et al. 
2006b). Further studies are therefore necessary for a more 
definitive conclusion about the efficacy of storage of peren-
nial wallrocket leaves under controlled atmosphere and the 
most appropriate levels of CO2 and O2. 
 
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 /AutoPositionEPSFiles true
 /AutoRotatePages /All
 /Binding /Left
 /CalGrayProfile (Dot Gain 20%)
 /CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
 /CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2)
 /sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
 /CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Warning
 /CompatibilityLevel 1.4
 /CompressObjects /Tags
 /CompressPages true
 /ConvertImagesToIndexed true
 /PassThroughJPEGImages true
 /CreateJDFFile false
 /CreateJobTicket false
 /DefaultRenderingIntent /Default
 /DetectBlends true
 /DetectCurves 0.0000
 /ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged
 /DoThumbnails false
 /EmbedAllFonts true
 /EmbedOpenType false
 /ParseICCProfilesInComments true
 /EmbedJobOptions true
 /DSCReportingLevel 0
 /EmitDSCWarnings false
 /EndPage -1
 /ImageMemory 1048576
 /LockDistillerParams false
 /MaxSubsetPct 100
 /Optimize true
 /OPM 1
 /ParseDSCComments true
 /ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true
 /PreserveCopyPage true
 /PreserveDICMYKValues true
 /PreserveEPSInfo true
 /PreserveFlatness true
 /PreserveHalftoneInfo false
 /PreserveOPIComments false
 /PreserveOverprintSettings true
 /StartPage 1
 /SubsetFonts true
 /TransferFunctionInfo /Apply
 /UCRandBGInfo /Preserve
 /UsePrologue false
 /ColorSettingsFile ()
 /AlwaysEmbed [ true
 ]
 /NeverEmbed [ true
 ]
 /AntiAliasColorImages false
 /CropColorImages true
 /ColorImageMinResolution 300
 /ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
 /DownsampleColorImages true
 /ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
 /ColorImageResolution 300
 /ColorImageDepth -1
 /ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1
 /ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
 /EncodeColorImages true
 /ColorImageFilter /DCTEncode
 /AutoFilterColorImages true
 /ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
 /ColorACSImageDict <<
 /QFactor 0.15
 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
 >>
 /ColorImageDict <<
 /QFactor 0.15
 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
 >>
 /JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict <<
 /TileWidth 256
 /TileHeight 256
 /Quality 30
 >>
 /JPEG2000ColorImageDict <<
 /TileWidth 256
 /TileHeight 256
 /Quality 30
 >>
 /AntiAliasGrayImages false
 /CropGrayImages true
 /GrayImageMinResolution 300
 /GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
 /DownsampleGrayImages true
 /GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
 /GrayImageResolution 300
 /GrayImageDepth -1
 /GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
 /GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
 /EncodeGrayImages true
 /GrayImageFilter /DCTEncode
 /AutoFilterGrayImages true
 /GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
 /GrayACSImageDict <<
 /QFactor 0.15
 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
 >>
 /GrayImageDict <<
 /QFactor 0.15
 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
 >>
 /JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict <<
 /TileWidth 256
 /TileHeight 256
 /Quality 30
 >>
 /JPEG2000GrayImageDict <<
 /TileWidth 256
 /TileHeight 256
 /Quality 30
 >>
 /AntiAliasMonoImages false
 /CropMonoImages true
 /MonoImageMinResolution 1200
 /MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
 /DownsampleMonoImages true
 /MonoImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
 /MonoImageResolution 1200
 /MonoImageDepth -1
 /MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
 /EncodeMonoImages true
 /MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
 /MonoImageDict <<
 /K -1
 >>
 /AllowPSXObjects false
 /CheckCompliance [
 /None
 ]
 /PDFX1aCheck false
 /PDFX3Check false
 /PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
 /PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
 /PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
 0.00000
 0.00000
 0.00000
 0.00000
 ]
 /PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
 /PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
 0.00000
 0.00000
 0.00000
 0.00000
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 /PDFXOutputIntentProfile ()
 /PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
 /PDFXOutputCondition ()
 /PDFXRegistryName ()
 /PDFXTrapped /False
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 /NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken voor kwaliteitsafdrukken op desktopprinters en proofers. De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 5.0 en hoger.)
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 /ENU (Use these settings to create Adobe PDF documents for quality printing on desktop printers and proofers. Created PDF documents can be opened with Acrobat and Adobe Reader 5.0 and later.)
 >>
 /Namespace [
 (Adobe)
 (Common)
 (1.0)
 ]
 /OtherNamespaces [
 <<
 /AsReaderSpreads false
 /CropImagesToFrames true
 /ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue
 /FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false
 /IncludeGuidesGridsfalse
 /IncludeNonPrinting false
 /IncludeSlug false
 /Namespace [
 (Adobe)
 (InDesign)
 (4.0)
 ]
 /OmitPlacedBitmaps false
 /OmitPlacedEPS false
 /OmitPlacedPDF false
 /SimulateOverprint /Legacy
 >>
 <<
 /AddBleedMarks false
 /AddColorBars false
 /AddCropMarks false
 /AddPageInfo false
 /AddRegMarks false
 /ConvertColors /NoConversion
 /DestinationProfileName ()
 /DestinationProfileSelector /NA
 /Downsample16BitImages true
 /FlattenerPreset <<
 /PresetSelector /MediumResolution
 >>
 /FormElements false
 /GenerateStructure true
 /IncludeBookmarks false
 /IncludeHyperlinks false
 /IncludeInteractive false
 /IncludeLayers false
 /IncludeProfiles true
 /MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings
 /Namespace [
 (Adobe)
 (CreativeSuite)
 (2.0)
 ]
 /PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /NA
 /PreserveEditing true
 /UntaggedCMYKHandling /LeaveUntagged
 /UntaggedRGBHandling /LeaveUntagged
 /UseDocumentBleed false
 >>
 ]
>> setdistillerparams
<<
 /HWResolution [2400 2400]
 /PageSize [612.000 792.000]
>> setpagedevice