GRAMATICA AVANÇADA EM LINGUA INGLESA - Pro-forms and Ellipsis

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Pro-forms and Ellipsis
Professor Diego Candido Abreu
Description
You will gain a theoretical overview of the notions of pro-form and
ellipsis, highlighting the concepts of coreference, substitution and the
different types of ellipsis.
Purpose
Understanding of the different types of linguistic tools that allow users
of language to condensate the message within the text, as well as the
grammatical, semantic and pragmatic implications of the employment
of those linguistic resources.
Goals
Section 1
Pro-form substitution
To identify the different types of pro-form substitution.
Section 2
Substitution for noun phrases and clauses
To distinguish the different forms of substitution for noun phrases
and clauses.
Section 3
Ellipsis
To recognize the different forms of ellipsis and their functions.
Warm up
- Is Marcia, that works with you at the grocery store, coming to our
party that is going to happen tonight?
- Yes. Marcia, that works with me at the grocery store, is coming to
our party that is going to happen tonight.
- But does Marcia, that works with you at the grocery store, who is
coming to our party that is going to happen tonight, have the
correct address to your house, where the party that is going to
happen tonight is going to happen?
- Yes, Marcia, that works with me at the grocery store, who is
coming to our party that is going to happen tonight, has the correct
address to your house, where the party that is going to happen
tonight is going to happen.
The dialogue presented above was made up. In a real
conservation, unless moved by some comic spirit, people would
never talk to each other in this repetitive, and tiresome manner.
This piece of conversation could be easily replaced by this shorter
and more efficient version:
- Is she coming to our party tonight?
- Yes, she is.

- Does she have the address?
- Yes, she does.
The more realistic version of the dialogue conveys basically the
same informational content, but in a more economical and faster
way. It shows us that not all elements inserted in a certain
message are mandatory. Some of them can also hinder
communication, making it more confusing and ambiguous.
We will discuss some tools the English language offers to
summarize our utterances and make them more dynamic and
meaningful. As we will see, there is reason in this process: not
every word can be omitted; and even the ones that can, cannot be
omitted in whatever way.
1 - Pro-form substitution
By the end of this section, you will be able to identify the different types of pro-form
substitution.
De�nition, main properties and
different types
We are going to present different types of lexical, phrasal and clausal
substitution that are performed by pro-form elements. In order to clarify
the issues related to this topic, we will define both forms of substitution
in English (coreference and substitution), as well as the main
characteristics of both types of construction.
Considering that our goal here is to understand in some depth the array
of linguistic phenomena related to the notion of pro-form substitution,
our first step in this journey must be presenting a definition for this
object.
Pro-forms are a specific type of word or expression
that replaces another element within a text, having its
meaning as an extension to the meaning of the
replaced word-phrase-clause.
Some pro-forms may be almost absolutely deprived of meaning,
performing only a grammatical role. Other pro-forms may convey some
vague or more precise notion, having its meaning fulfilled by its referent.
Regarding these properties, read the sentences:
Mary drove 10 hours to go to Mexico, but, after she arrived there, it was
worthy.
The sentence contains three pro-form elements, highlighted in bold,
whose meaning can be seen as an extension of their referents. The word
she refers back to Mary; there, to Mexico; and it, to drove 10 hours.
Although those words may convey some vague notions (she – a
feminine person; there – a place away from here), they have their
meaning filled by the substitution they perform, embodying the semantic
and syntactic roles of the original words they represent.
Sum up
There are basically two different types of pro-form replacement in
English. They are coreference and substitution.
As highlighted by Quirk et al. (1985), although there are a series of
important differences between both notions, they also intertwine in a
variety of ways. In a nutshell:
Coreference
It means cross-reference, a situation in which two distinct words
refer to the same entity or set of entities in the world. Cross-
referent words, par excellence, are personal pronouns (I, me, their
etc.), demonstrative and space-related words like this, that, there
etc.
Substitution
It occurs when a pro-form element replaces another word or
expression, taking its place in a certain clausal context. Usually,
the main rule to establish whether a certain correlation is based
on pro-form substitution is the replacement of the pro-form by its
antecedent. If it fits accordingly with no loss in meaning, it is
considered a pro-form substitution.
Once introduced the notion of pro-form substitution, as well as its main
properties and different types, in the following lines we will cover in more
detail the two kinds of pro-form substitution in English.
What are pro-forms?
What are pro-forms? Which functions do they have? Stick around to learn
more about pro-form substitution.
Coreference
Coreference (or reference) stands for the replacement of a
word/expression for an analogous pro-form that overlaps with the
antecedent in meaning, by relating to the same element in the world. As
pointed out by Halliday and Hasan (1976), there are fundamentally three

types of reference: personal, demonstrative and comparative. Let’s see
next those three kinds of reference in more detail:
Personal reference
According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), personal reference is the type
of reference established through the category of person. This category
can be performed by a variety of different types of pronouns and
determiners. Check the following list:
Let’s check some examples of those pro-forms being employed in real
sentences:
Laura lives near my house. Every day, she jogs with me.
Peter seems a little wacky. He is all the time talking to himself.
The car I have bought is giving me a lot of trouble. My previous car was so
much better.
Demonstrative reference
 Personal pronouns
I, you, he, she, it, we, they, me, her, him, it, us, them,
myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves,
yourselves, themselves.
 Possessive and adjective pronouns
My, your, his, her, its, our, their, mine, yours, hers,
ours, theirs.
 De�nite pronoun
Such.
Demonstrative reference is established through the employment of
words whose meaning is related to the notion of proximity.
Demonstrative reference is, therefore, based on deixis, Greek word that
means pointing at something. As so, demonstrative reference relies on a
sense of location, relating the antecedent word to the speaker/writer and
interlocutor in a scale of spatial distance. The words that perform the
idea of demonstrative reference are:
Demonstrative pronouns
That, those, this, these.
De�nite adverbs
Here, there (place) and then (time).
Check below some examples of these words being employed in real
sentences:
Michael is a very lazy boy. I don’t want to see you hanging around with
that lad.
My weekend at the mountains was awesome. I just can’t wait to go there
again.
Brazil is way different from the USA. From here it is so hard to understand
what happens there.
Comparative reference
Comparative reference, different from its analogous, is established
through an indirect relation between the compared elements. The
comparative pro-forms construe an interface of identity or similarity
among items within the clause, connecting them in meaning and
grammar.Below, we have a list of words that play the role of comparative
referencing:
As we can infer by the meaning of these elements, comparative pro-
forms do not replace directly elements of the clause, but they create a
link among such elements based on the specific sense or notion evoked
by each particular comparative word. Let’s check some examples:
My mother’s dress is so similar to yours.
My football playing skills are way better than Mike’s dumb stunts.
I just think you look just as fine as your sister.
Types of coreference
In this video you will learn all about coreference.
 General comparison
Same, identical, akin, alike, likewise, identically,
similar etc.
 Particular comparison
Better, worse, as-as, best, worst etc.
 Difference
Unequal, different, otherwise, else, differently etc.

Substitution
Substitution vs coreference
As we have already defined, substitution is a type of relationship
established between two elements within the clause (antecedent and
pro-form), in which the latter replaces the former in a certain context.
Therefore, there is a clear link of homology (same meaning) that
encompasses both intertwined items.
Quirk et al. (1985) understand substitution as a
grammatical mirroring of a certain word/expression: it
is the repetition of the same idea through a neutral
word that embodies the meaning of its antecedent.
The best way to figure out whether a replacement can be characterized
as substitution is through the literal exchange of the pro-form by its
antecedent. Take a look:
My sister had a shinbone fracture due to playing football. I also had one
when I was a kid.
My sister had a shinbone fracture due to playing football, I also had a
shinbone fracture when I was a kid.
Regarding the substitution process illustrated, notice that, although the
pro-form one refers clearly to the antecedent a shinbone fracture, both
elements do not refer to the same entity in the world (the fractures were
different).
To sum up the differences between substitution and coreference:
Coreference
It traces back to the same item represented by its antecedent.
Substitution
It allows the speaker/writer not to repeat a certain
word/expression in a text.
Due to this characteristic, pro-form and referent words may vary in
number and form. Their link is fundamentally grammatical, instead of
semantic. This situation is exemplified next:
My wife doesn’t know how to prepare pasta. The ones I do are so much
better.
Another important feature of the substitution is that the
pro-form words that perform this role, unlike the
coreference, are not necessarily pronouns or pronoun-
related words.
Lexical items (like so and do) replace nominal elements, verbs or clausal
structures. This is a relevant difference between substitution and
reference, since the latter has its syntactic function usually fulfilled by
pronominal items.
Anaphoric and cataphoric substitution
One of the main features of the pro-forms engaged in the process of
substitution is its recoverability, that is, the fulfilment of their meaning
depends on the existence of an antecedent to be recovered.
This type of semantic relationship (one word
depending on another to have its semantic function
performed) is called anaphora. Pro-form substitution
is, in most of the cases, construed in an anaphorical
manner.
Let’s see some examples of this type of structure:
She told me that she believes I will get a raise next month, but I really
don’t think so.
My girlfriend is really striving to learn how to dance the way I do.
Although less common, pro-form substitution may also
happen through means of cataphora. Cataphoric
replacement occurs when a meaning-dependent
substituting item precedes the word whose meaning it
is based on.
Therefore, instead of recovering an antecedent, cataphoric substitution
announces the advent of an upcoming referent word, avoiding repetition
of the same structure. Let’s check some examples of cataphoric pro-
form substitution:
If you want one, we still have napkins on the tables.
Just by doing it, our marriage recreated a sense of affect within our
family.
What is substitution?
Are substitution and coreference similar processes? How do they differ?
This video will address those issues and many others. Stay tuned!
You are very close to reaching your goals.
Let’s practice!
Question 1
Reference (or coreference) stands for a textual cohesion resource
through which the same referent can be represented by different
words. It is, thus, a semantic relationship established between two
(or more) elements that traces back to the same entity in the world.
Based on this definition of coreference, read the following
sentences:

Marcia jogs everyday by the beach. She really strives to keep herself
fit.
Which of the options below presents a proper classification for the
type of reference relationship performed by the highlighted words?
Parabéns! A alternativa D está correta.
References constructed with the use of personal pronouns or
pronoun-like words establish a relationship of personal reference.
Question 2
The process of substitution of words, phrases and clauses for pro-
forms can occur in basically two different fashions. In anaphoric
substitution, the replaced element appears first and the substitute,
afterwards. In cataphoric substitution, on the other hand, the
substitute precedes the meaningful element. Bearing this distinction
in mind, read the following sentences and mark the option that
presents an example of cataphoric substitution:
A Comparative reference
B Demonstrative reference
C Pro-form substitution
D Personal reference
E Anaphoric substitution
A
Stop talking to her, otherwise, your mother will get
mad at you.
B
If you really want to try the new one, I can talk to my
manager to see if we can bring down that Les Paul
guitar.
Parabéns! A alternativa B está correta.
The only example of sentence in which the pro-form substitute
precedes the meaningful element is in B, since the word one (pro-
form substitute) precedes Les Paul guitar, the meaningful element.
2 - Substitution for noun phrases and clauses
By the end of this section, you will be able to distinguish the different forms of substitution for
noun phrases and clauses.
One and Inde�nite or quanti�er
pronouns
One as a noun phrase substitute
C Laura loves movies. She watches at least five
movies per week.
D
I quit smoking, but, unfortunately, my wife still does
it.
E If you do it, I will have to do it as well.
When we talk about pro-form substitution within a sentence or a text, it
is important to distinguish two types of structure that can be replaced:
nominal elements and clausal unities. The main difference between
both components is the presence of a verb in the latter, which demands
a different kind of replacing item.
We will cover in detail such substitutions, paying close attention to the
pro-form words and expressions employed in them.
The pro-form one can replace indefinite and definite
noun phrases. It differs from the numeral one by the
fact that it can flex in number according to the referent
it is substituting. As highlighted by Quirk et al. (1985),
although written using the same word, in fact, that are
two different kinds of pro-forms conveyed by one.
The first presentation of the pro-form one is indefinite, prescinding of
modifiers or determiners. Its plural form is some. It is employed in
replacement of an indefinite noun phrase. Next, we have some examples
of this pro-form being used:
I have a few extra matches. Do you want some?
Spare me a pill of headache medicine. I’m really in need of one.
In the sentences presented, both uses of one/some are indefinite, not
demanding the employment of any article, determiner nor modifier
before the pro-form.
Attention
Therefore, indefinite one replaces generic noun phrases, in which the
referent element is neither precise nor specific.
There is, yet, another type ofone. This pro-form works as a substitution
resource for definite noun phrases. Two are the main distinctions
between the definite one comparing with its indefinite form. The first
important difference is that the definite one requires the use of some
modifier/determiner in order to appear in the clause. Therefore, the
element being replaced is regarded as something specific: it is my car,
the car, this car; instead of a car.
The second relevant difference lies in the plural of this pro-form. Instead
of using some as the plural, definite one requires the word ones to refer
to more than one entity. This distinction is due to the definiteness of the
pro-form, that clashes with the imminently generic nature of some.
Next, we have some examples of the definite one being employed in real
sentences:
We have plenty of dresses here. Which ones would you like to try?
In our show room, there is a variety of cars. The ones on the left side are
automatic while the ones on the right side are manual.
As we can see, the cars and dresses referred by the pro-forms are
specific, demanding the substitute word tracing back to them to be
specifying as well.
Inde�nite or quanti�er pronouns as substitutes
When using one as a replacement for a noun structure, we are employing
a word that fully substitutes the antecedent. In other situations, when
some specific pronouns and quantifiers fulfill the role of pro-forms, there
is doubt about whether the replaced word was actually substituted by
the pro-form or was concealed by the clause. The following sentence
exemplifies this issue:
When the cars aligned, each was sprayed with an ink jet.
In the sentence, it is crystal clear that the pro-form each replaces the
noun cars. The doubt dwells in whether the word each fully replaces its
referent or works as a quantifier of an elliptical element. In other words,
is each a pro-form or not?
Despite the possibility of debate, we will consider all cases analogous to
the one displayed in the example as substitution.
Below we have a list of pronouns or quantifiers that are traditionally used
as pro-forms:
 None
 Any
 Few (fewer, fewest)
Next, we have some sentences in which those pro-forms are employed.
I tried to call several of my customers, but none have called me back.
Many passengers were inside the airplane that went out of the runway.
Several got injured.
My wife told me to choose between beer and fries. I can’t do this, because
I like both.
The sentences presented above could be easily rewritten with the
addition of some sort of complement to the highlighted pro-form. Let’s
check:
I tried to call several of my customers, but none of them have called me
back.
Many passengers were inside the airplane that went out of the runway.
Several of those got injured.
My wife told me to choose between beer and fries. I can’t do this, because
I like both of them.
Among all the pro-forms presented, none is the only
example of quantifier that does not work as a
determiner as well – it is replaced by its analogous no.
The other quantifiers can also play the semantic role of determiner, as
we can see in following sentences:
- Do you want some coffee? (determiner)
- I really need some. (quantifier)
 Many (more, most)
 Little (less, least)
 Enough, much, several, each, either, neither, all, both,
half
Therefore, as highlighted, the use of quantifiers and pronouns as pro-
forms falls in a grey zone between substitution and ellipsis, in which
replacing words/expressions also encompasses elliptical elements.
Noun phrases substitutes
What should be used in replacement for noun phrases? One? Indefinite
pronouns? Quantifiers? Give this video a watch for more on substitution.
Referential pro-forms
Demonstrative pronouns work fundamentally as referential pro-forms,
that is, pro-forms that perform the function of making reference to
another element within the text. In some situations, however, some
specific demonstratives can perform as substitutive pro-forms.
The demonstratives that can play the role of
substitution pro-forms are that and those. The change
in semantic function is possible due to their capacity
of, besides working as modifiers (that car, those cars),
having the same meaning of the one and the ones.

Let’s see some examples of the use of demonstratives as substitution
pro-forms:
I’d rather buy this car with the silver painting than that painted in blue.
She always prefers to bring her drumsticks from home to using those
given to her in the venues.
The sentences above could be reformulated without any change in their
meanings by replacing the demonstratives that and those for the one
and the ones.
I’d rather buy this car with the silver painting than the one painted in blue.
She always prefers to bring her drumsticks from home to using the ones
given to her in the venues.
Attention
Although that and those may borrow the meaning from the one and the
ones incorporating their function, there are some important restrictions
to their use as substitution pro-forms.
One of the situations in which that/those cannot be employed is before
wh-words, such as that, which¸ and who, as we can see next:
When I look for a bar, I always prefer those that have live music.*
When I look for a bar, I always prefer the ones that have live music.
My favorite contestant in this competition was that who entered the venue
waving his flag.*
My favorite contestant in this competition was the one who entered the
venue waving his flag.
Another important restriction to the use of
demonstratives as substitution pro-forms occurs when
they precede finite clauses.
Examples of this restriction are given in the following sentences:
This year’s drought was as bad as that the region faced in 1915.*
This year’s drought was as bad as the one the region faced in 1915.
Sum up
Basically, the limitation in use of that and those as substitution pro-
forms lies on their incapacity of introducing clauses, whether they are
introduced by wh-words or not.
The same as noun-phrase substitute
In some specific situations, the same can be used as a noun phrase
substitute when making reference to another element of the same kind
in the world. In this sense, the same works as a mix between
coreferential and substitute, because it not only replaces grammatically
a previously mentioned item (substitution), but also relates to the same
entity (or an entity of the same kind) in the world. Next, we have
examples of the same as a noun phrase pro-form:
- Which T-shirt would you like to buy?
- The same you are wearing.
In the sentence, we have an example of the expression the same being
employed concomitantly as reference and substitution pro-form. As
referential element, the same refers to the same entity (or kind of entity)
as the noun phrase T-shirt. As substitution pro-form, the same replaces
integrally the word T-shirt.
In many situations, the same can be replaced by so,
displaying an additive meaning. In those situations, the
referred pro-form can either substitute a clausal
element or a nominal phrase.
Let’s see an example of this use of the same:
She did her errands in the morning. I also preferred to do the same.
She did her errands in the morning. I also preferred to do so.
Pro-forms: referential and the same

Referential pro-forms and ‘the same’ can be used as noun phrase
substitutes. Do you want to know how? Then, give this video a watch!
Substitution for clauses
Previously, you were introduced to the different types of pro-form
replacement within a text and described the distinct resources employed
in the substitution of nouns and noun phrases. Now, our focus will be
steered towards clausal substitution, highlighting the structures of pro-
forms used in the replacement of entire clauses.
In this effort, two specific grammatical elements become relevant: do
and the adverbial so. We are going to look at them more profoundly in
the following lines.Do as a pro-form
The understanding of the function of do as a substitution pro-form relies
on two key distinctions:
Between do as a dummy auxiliary and do as the main verb.
Between do as a transitive main verb and an intransitive one.
As a dummy auxiliary, the use of do in clausal replacement is considered
as integrated in a form of ellipsis since the same function performed by
do can be performed by any other auxiliary. Examples of this
employment are presented next:
I bought a car and my sister did too.
I should quit smoking and you should too.
Therefore, we will consider only the uses of do as a main verb, situations
in which this operator functions actually as a pro-form. In this case, the
second distinction mentioned becomes relevant: do as an intransitive
verb and do as a transitive one. We will talk about both structures
separately.
Do as an intransitive verb
The employment of do as an intransitive verb tends to be restricted to
the British variety of English. British English, differently from the
American variety, allows the use of do as a main verb in its intransitive
form. Let’s check some examples of this use:
My father told me he is going to buy a new car. Let’s see if he does.
Differently from the dummy do, the examples presented would not
preserve their structure if the do operator were replaced by another
auxiliary. Take a look at the following sentences:
My father told me he is going to buy a new car. Let’s see if he can.
My father told me he is going to buy a new car. Let’s see if he can do.
In cases where the do-operator works as a main verb, it cannot be
replaced by auxiliaries. They can be conjugated with the do in a verbal
phrase, but they cannot replace it.
Do as a transitive verb
One of the most common presentations of the main verb do as a clausal
substitute is combined with the adverb so. The structure do so presents
do as a transitive verb and so as its complement in a regular verb +
object fashion. Next, we have examples of the use of do so as a pro-
form substitute:
They were planning to go to Japan this year, but nobody knows if they
actually have done so.
The doctor told him to stop eating junky food. Thus, he cannot do anything
if Bob doesn’t do so.
The examples presented show a substitution of clauses that were
already displayed in the preceding sentence. Without the pro-forms, the
sentences would look like this:
They were planning to go to Japan this year, but nobody knows if they
actually have gone to Japan.
The doctor told him to stop eating junky food. Thus, he cannot do anything
if Bob doesn’t stop eating junky food.
Another possible manifestation of the do-operator as a
pro-form within the structures do it and do that. In this
particular case, there is a fusion between both kinds of
pro-forms employment. While do works a substitute for
the predicative, it and that function as referential pro-
forms for previously uttered elements.
Next, we have examples of this structure being used as a clausal
substituting resource:
My father will go this week to the hospital to treat his back pain. He does
it at least twice a year.
Jeremy told me he would fix his fence, but we are still waiting for him to
do that.
Both sentences could be replaced by do so. However, considering that
both of them, besides substituting a clause, also refer to specific entities
in the world, the use of do it and do that sounds more precise than do
so.
So as a pro-form
As Quirk et al. (1985) stress, so is a versatile pro-form, working to
replace various types of structure: adjectives, adverbs, noun phrases as
well as complements. Let’s see some examples of this operator being
employed as a pro-form:
She has remained faithful to him and will continue so.
My grandfather fought in WWII in an honored manner. After the war years,
he continued living and fighting so.
So can also be replaced by the negation adverb not, performing the
same function, but with a negative meaning. Usually, not is used as a
substitution operator when replacing a that-clause, that is, a clause
introduced by the relative that. Let’s see some examples of this kind of
function:
He left school earlier in order to play soccer, but he hasn't told me so (that
he left school earlier in order to play soccer).
My son believes his grades will be enough for him to enter college, but I’m
afraid not (that his grades will not enough for him to enter college).
As a that-clause substitute, so and not usually appear after some
specific verbs; verbs that tend to demand this type of that-clause
complement. Here is a non-exhaustive (but representative) list of them,
based on Quirk et al. (1985):
Appear
Hope
Tell
Suspect
Seem
Reckon
Think
Expect
Presume
Believe
Guess
Imagine
Suppose
Understand
Do and so as pro-forms
Let’s learn how do and so can function as clausal substitutes. A must-
see video!
You are very close to reaching your goals.
Let’s practice!
Question 1

As a noun phrase substitute, the word one may fill in the place of
both indefinite and definite nominal elements. The main difference
between both forms lies in its plural, because definite one has its
plural as ones while indefinite one has its plural as some. Bearing
this definition in mind, read the sentences below and highlight the
one that presents one as an indefinite substitution pro-form:
Parabéns! A alternativa E está correta.
One of the most efficient ways to figure out whether a certain word
is definite, or indefinite is checking whether it is preceded by a
determiner or not. In the options given, the only pro-form that is not
introduced by a determiner is alternative E.
Question 2
Do can be used as clausal substitute pro-form when it appears in a
sentence as a main verb instead of a dummy auxiliary. In those
cases, whether it is transitive or intransitive, do has the ability of
replacing clauses or predicative structures. Read the sentences
below and mark the option that presents the verb do as a pro-form
clausal substitution operator:
A What about the ones in the left corner?
B
I finished cleaning all rooms in this building except
that one with lots of mold built up.
C
If you don’t want to drink this beer, just go to the
fridge and grab yourself another one.
D One of my pets is so sad today. I’m afraid it is sick.
E
Your snacks are so delicious. I would love to have
one.
A
I hope she cleans her room and, afterwards, finishes
doing the laundry.
Parabéns! A alternativa C está correta.
The only sentence in which do appears as a main verb and as a
substitution pro-form operator replacing a clause (‘study more’) is in
C. The other options present cases in which no replacement can be
observed, as do performs its function as a regular auxiliary or main
verb.
3 - Ellipsis
By the end of this section, you will be able to recognize the different forms of ellipsis and their
functions.
B I know they live in San Diego, but do they really live
the Mexican border experience?
C
The Math Professor told Steve he has to study more.
He will fail his Algebra Course if he doesn’t do so.
D
Everybody thinks my daughter eats only healthy
food. They would be surprised to know that she
does not like anything without sugar and fat.
E
I bought this new bike so I don't need to walk to work
anymore.
Criteria for ellipsis
Quirk et al. (1985, p. 893) define ellipsis as “grammatical omission”.
Halliday and Hasan (1976), on the other hand, characterize ellipsis as a
specific kind of substitution: the replacement of a certain clausal
element by nothing. We will dive deeper into the domain of ellipsis,
discussing in detail the different criteria one may use in order to classify
any type of omission as ellipsis, as well as the distinct kinds of ellipsis
that take place in English.
Since it involves entanglement among different elements throughout
different clauses and sentences, ellipsis can be sometimes hard to spot
and to characterize. Therefore,it is relevant to establish criteria for
classifying a certain word/clause omission as ellipsis.
The larger the number of criteria met by a certain
elliptical construction, the stricter the classification of
this ellipsis.
The different criteria employed in this characterization are presented in
the following.
Recoverability
Recoverability stands for the possibility of tracing back to the word
omitted in the ellipsis process. As Quirk et al. (1985) highlight, if a
certain ellipted word can be easily and with no ambiguity recovered in
the near context of the text, it can be assumed to have recoverability and,
by doing so, to fulfill one of the most important criteria for ellipsis. Check
some examples of easily and clearly recoverable ellipsis in a sentence:
She wasn’t invited to come to his party; so she won’t.
If the students don’t come to class, I don’t have to.
Both examples presented can be precisely recoverable within the
sentence structure. They are clearly elliptical. The omitted word appears
in the preceding clause, being their repetition unnecessary and
wearisome. Therefore, in this situation, ellipsis not only cuts off a
facultative element of the sentence, but also makes the entire message
more economical and efficient.
Defectivity
Defectivity means deficiency. Ellipsis is based on the assumption that
some grammatical structures constructed through omission of elements
may be slightly deficient, that is, they may lack some structural clausal
elements. Take a look at the following sentence:
Don’t call me if you don’t want (to do it).
Formally, the verb want requires the presence of an object as a
complement. The absence of this element can be considered as a
deficiency in the form of the sentence. However, the sentence cannot be
seen as ungrammatical, since it follows the general criteria for the use of
ellipsis, as well as the pattern of employment of this resource among
other transitive verbs.
Therefore, one of the criteria for the establishment of
ellipsis is the existence of defective but still grammatical
structures.
Exactness
Not only must the elements ellipted in a sentence be recoverable from a
preceding moment of the text, but they also need to maintain their exact
form as they were previously presented in the utterance. Thus, ellipsis
can be seen, in this sense, as a kind of substitution. Ellipsis does not
necessarily trace back to the same referent in the real world (as
reference does), but grammatically replaces (as a zero element) a
previously mentioned item. The way exactness works in terms of ellipsis
is exemplified in the following sentence:
My mother never drinks alcohol. I don’t think she will (drink alcohol)
tonight.
The ellipted element is exactly the same that was previously brought
about (drink alcohol). The referents may not even be the same (the
beverage my mother has never drunk obviously is not the same she may
drink tonight), but the grammatical structure of the element is precisely
the same.
Ellipsis or substitution?
Ellipsis and substitution may seem at first similar processes. However,
there are different criteria that help tell them apart. Watch this video for
more on ellipsis.

Types of ellipsis
Regarding the elements being omitted, there are basically three different
types of ellipsis:
Nominal ellipsis
Verbal ellipsis
Clausal ellipsis
Let’s see the three types in more detail.
Nominal ellipsis
According to Halliday and Hasan (1976, p. 147), nominal ellipsis is
“ellipsis within the nominal group”. In order to understand how ellipsis
works within the nominal phrase, we must recall how this type of
structure is formed.
Nominal phrases are made up of two elements: the head and the
modifiers. The latter, according to their position within the phrase, can be
either premodifier or postmodifier.
Premodi�ers
Introduce words and
expressions that
change the meaning of
the head noun and are
located before the head.
Postmodi�ers
Words that change the
meaning of the head
and, by their turn, are
located after the head.

The scheme below illustrates this structure:
Understood the general structure of the nominal phrase, it is easier to
comprehend how nominal ellipsis works.
In terms of operation, nominal ellipsis promotes the
upgrade of a modifier within the nominal phrase to the
status of the head of the phrase. The nucleus of the
phrase is, therefore, replaced by a modifying word.
Examples of how this type of ellipsis is formed are given next:
- Which of those dresses is more expensive? The red one or the green
one? - The green is usually more expensive.
Seven bodies were found in the car accident scene. Two days later, six
more followed them.
In both groups of sentences, the modifiers (green and six) are upgraded
to become the head of the noun phrase, promoting the ellipsis of the
prior heads (dresses and bodies).
Friendly reminder
Bearing it in mind, as Halliday and Hasan (1976) point out, that an
important condition for the ellipsis within the nominal phrase to occur is
the closeness of the elliptical element. That is, the elliptical item must be
easily recovered from the near context of the ellipsis, usually, from the
preceding sentence.
Verbal ellipsis
Verbal ellipsis refers to the kind of ellipsis that occurs inside the verbal
group or phrase. Just like nominal ellipsis, it consists of the occultation
of an element easily recoverable from a near context, whose presence in
the clause becomes facultative to avoid repetition. Let’s see some
examples of verbal ellipsis:
- Have you found the things you were looking for?
- Yes, I have many of them
- How is she doing?
- Well.

In both examples, we have cases of verbal ellipsis. In the first one, the
verb found gets omitted. In the second one, the finites is doing are
concealed.
Based on the examples presented, two main characteristics of the
verbal ellipsis become clear:
1. Firstly, verbal ellipsis requires the existence of a compound verbal
phrase to which verbal ellipsis traces back. In the first group of
sentences, the verbal group is have found. In the second one, is
doing.
2. Another important feature of verbal ellipsis is its defectivity, that is,
its deficient structure. By deficiency, we mean the lack of some
elements that fulfill the verbal phrase, like the finite or the modals,
for instance. Defectivity is only possible due to the nearness of the
recoverable expression that sheds light on the missing items
within the elliptical verbal phrase.
Clausal ellipsis
In order to understand the operation of clausal ellipsis, we have to be
familiar with the structure of the clause in English. As Halliday and
Hasan (1976) point out, the English clause is divided into two distinct
parts: the modal and the propositional part. The former stands for the
subject and the finite within the sentence. The latter, for the main verb
plus its complements and occasional adjuncts. Next, this structure is
exemplified:
Ellipsis in the clausal level occurs by the suppression of one of these
parts of the clause. In some cases, the modal element is omitted when
the main focus lies on the propositional content of the sentence. In other
cases, the propositional content has already been presented in a
previous moment of the near context of the sentence. Therefore, it can
be omitted with no loss in meaning, as the entire message can be easily
understood. In the following sentences, we have examples of both types
of ellipsis:
Modal ellipsis

- What were they doing?
- Painting the fences.
Propositional ellipsis
- Were they actually painting the fences?
-Yes, they were.
Both forms of ellipsis depend on the recoverability of the omitted
element from the near context. They also demand the non-omitted part
of the clause to be presented in full; whether it is the modal part or the
propositional part.
Nominal, verbal and clausal ellipsis
Let’s learn about the different types of ellipsis!You are very close to reaching your goals.
Let’s practice!
Question 1
In terms of function, there are basically three types of ellipsis:
nominal ellipsis, verbal ellipsis and clausal ellipsis. This
characterization is based on the elements ellipted in the sentence:
the nominal group, the verbal group or part of the entire clause.
Bearing this in mind, read the sentences below and mark the one
that presents an example of nominal ellipsis:

A Are they coming home tonight? Yes, they are.
Parabéns! A alternativa C está correta.
The only sentence in which some element of the nominal group is
omitted in order to avoid repetition or to make the utterance more
dynamic is in C, as the heads of the noun phrases – caps and
collars – are omitted.
Question 2
Clausal ellipsis can occur through the suppression of the modal part
of the clause or the omission of the propositional part. Based on
this distinction, read the sentences and mark the option that
contains a clausal ellipsis in which the modal structure is omitted:
B No way she could do it without my help.
C
The red caps and blue collars are playing tonight.
Although I go for the reds, I would bet my money on
the blues.
D Are they swimming or just pretending?
E
Where is she buying the groceries? At the nearest
supermarket.
A - Have you called your sister yesterday?- Yes, I have.
B What about the new clerk? Working pretty well?
C Is the pretty awake?
D
- Have you finished your errands?
- Some, yes!
E Stop please! Just stop!
Parabéns! A alternativa B está correta.
The only sentence in which clausal ellipsis omits the modal element
of the clause is the sentence in B. The full version of the sentence
should include the modal “is he”, which is ellipted from it.
Final issues
We have discussed here some of the key concepts and ideas that
constitute the theoretical framework for different types of textual
cohesion resources, namely, pro-form substitution and ellipsis, as well as
the discursive and semantic features that characterize those linguistic
tools. Different kinds of pro-form substitution were covered: noun phrase
substitution, verbal substitution and clausal substitution. The same is
true for ellipsis, whose main types (nominal, verbal and clausal) were
discussed in detail.
Understanding in depth the way cohesion is constructed throughout
texts through the employment of these resources is key to being able to
produce coherent and elegant texts, avoiding unnecessary repetition,
while maintaining the utterances grammatical and understandable. On
top of that, being able to spot and characterize the different cohesive
tools offered by the English language equips us with theoretical
knowledge that is fundamental for our global comprehension of the
entire engine of the language so that one can become a more competent
language user.
Podcast
In this podcast, we will revise the main topics studied here. Give this
podcast a listen for more on pro-forms and ellipsis!

Go Further
To proceed with your studies regarding the different resources for
building up cohesion in English, read the unit 29 of Angela Downing’s
English Grammar: A University Course. The name of the unit is “The
distribution and Focus of Information”. The author highlights, in a simple
and pedagogical way, a theoretical explanation regarding both cohesive
resources studied here (substitution and ellipsis), presenting different
views about both phenomena.
References
HALLIDAY, M. A. K.; HASAN, R. Cohesion in English. London: Longman
PUB group, 1976.
QUIRK, R. et al. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language.
London: Pearson Longman, 1985.
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