Aspectos Morfossintáticos inglês tecnico

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Estudo Dirigido 
 
DISCIPLINA: LÍNGUA INGLESA- ASPECTOS MORFOSSINTÁTICOS 
AULA 3 - TIPOS DE VERBOS: LEXICAL E AUXILIAR. DIFERENÇA ENTRE MODO E ASPECTO. 
. 
 
In this class you are going to: 
 Recognize the differences between “lexical” and “auxiliary” verbs. 
 Learn the differences between “mood”, „tense” and “aspect”. 
 
 
 Introdução da aula 
 
 
 
Aren't verb tenses wonderful? No? Well, okay. Maybe not. But while they may not exactly be 
wonderful, they are certainly useful. After all, research tells us that studying verb tenses is a great way 
to learn the fundamental aspects of language. For example, take the English verb, "to be." Almost 
ubiquitous in our language, this verb is very simple yet very useful. That's why we start with this verb 
in the list of worksheets on this page - we know how useful it is to beginning learners. Hey experts! Do 
you know the past participle form of drink? "I have drunk a lot of water today." Or what about the 
simple past tense form of the verb, cost? "My shoes cost $65." Yes, that's right, it doesn't change! And 
hey, and let's not forget about that pesky subjunctive mood. If I were you, I would study with English 
for Everyone! 
 
Verbs show actions or states of being and form the core of a complete sentence. All other words in a 
sentence serve to modify the core (i.e., the verb) in some way, either directly or indirectly. Verbs are the 
center of attention! Because of their importance, they are a very good place for us to start. 
The only way everyone knows what everyone else is talking about with any degree of certainty is with verb 
tenses. Verb tenses are absolutely necessary to fluency in English. If you are a native speaker, they add 
validity to your diction, story-telling, and opinions. If English is your second language, verb tenses are the 
most important things to master before you can call yourself fluent in the most widely-spoken language on 
earth 
So, let‟s “verb” it! 
 Livro 
 
Usar o capítulo 9 da “The Grammar Book‟ – capítulo 9. “Tense, aspect and mood”. 
capítulo 7 - The Tense and aspects system - 28 páginas. 
 
 
Aprenda mais! 
 
 
CORDER, S. Pit. An Intermediate English Practice Book. Longman House, 1987. 
DIXSON, Robert J. Graded Exercises in English. São Paulo: Ao Livro Técnico, 1987. 
GREENBAUM, Sidney .The Oxford Reference Grammar. Oxford University Press, 2000. 
QUIRK, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Grammar of 
Contemporary English. Essex, UK: Longman, 1972. 
 
 
 
STAUDOHAR, Lucia Gianotti. English Grammar: reading, enjoying and learning. Book II: exercises 
with answers. São Paulo: El- Edições Inteligentes, 2008. 
SWAN, Michael. Practical English Usage. Oxford University Press., 1995. 
THOMSON, A.J., and A.V. Martinet. A Practical English Grammar. Oxford, England: Osford 
University Press, 1986. 
YULE, George. Oxford Practice Grammar: advanced with tests. Oxford University Press, 2012. 
WALDHORN, Arthur, and Arthur Zeiger. English Made Simple. New York: Doubleday, 1981. 
http://www.grammar-quizzes.com/sent-auxiliary.html 
 
 
In this class, you: 
 Recognized the differences between “lexical” and “auxiliary” verbs. 
 Learned the differences between “mood”, „tense” and “aspect” 
 
 
 
Próxima aula 
 
 
Next, class we are going to study: 
 Form and use of the present tense verbs: The Present Simple, The Present Progressive, The 
Present Perfect Simple and The Present Perfect Progressive. 
 Common time expressions related to the present tense verbs. 
 
 
 
 
 
1. In which alternative the highlighted verb is AUXILIARY? 
a) Where does your brother work? 
b) He does his homework on the way to school 
c) It is very peaceful here 
d) I will have the soup 
e) Police are investigating the incident 
Gabarito: A 
 
2. In which alternative the highlighted verb is LEXICAL? 
a) They have decided to advertise your job 
b) Police are investigating the incident 
c) Most have succeeded in explaining complex ideas in simple ways. 
d) When do we use the past tense, and when can we use the past perfect? 
e) English, like all languages, is full of problems for the foreign learner. 
Gabarito: E 
 
3. I _______________ visit my parents every Sunday; now I visit them twice a month. 
a) Must 
b) Ought to 
http://www.grammar-quizzes.com/sent-auxiliary.html
 
 
 
c) Used to 
d) Need 
e) Can 
Gabarito: C 
 
4. In the sentence: “If I am to help you, throw away that old grammar book and get a new one”, the 
highlighted verb phrase is formed by: 
a) modal + infinitive 
b) auxiliary + infinitive 
c) auxiliary + bare infinitive 
d) auxiliary+ auxiliary 
e) none of the above 
Gabarito: B 
 
5. In the sentence: “Why don't we all be a little more tolerant.” 
a) auxiliary + auxiliary 
b) auxiliary + copular verb 
c) auxiliary + lexical verb 
d) modal+ lexical verb 
e) modal + copular verb 
Gabarito: C 
 
 
 
 
 
VERBS 
A verb is a word that expresses an action ( to run), 
occurrence ( to happen), or state of being ( to appear). 
It is one of the nine parts of speech in English 
grammar. Non-action verbs are also referred to as 
linking or stative verbs, such as to be, to seem, to 
sound. Verbs comprise the third largest group of 
words in English (about 10%) and appear in any 
sentence as a major mandatory element tying the 
subject and predicate together. Verbs indicate time 
(past, present, future) and are used in English in 
relatively many verb tenses. The verb can be thought 
of as the center, heart, or anchor of an English 
sentence. 
Verbs of... Examples 
action Maria dances at the studio and performs every Sunday. 
occurrence occurrence Maria became a professional dancer. 
state of being Maria's studio has stood there ever since she was a child. 
 
English verbs have 6 principal parts with which other forms are derived using verb auxiliaries: 
base/stem, simple past/preterit, past participle, present participle and the infinitive (the “name” of the 
verb). Some also include the third person singular in the present tense as a principle part, as it is the 
only verb form that kept its inflectional ending in Modern English. 
Grammatical term Symbol Regular Verb Irregular Verb 
Infinitive to + V1 to watch to see 
Base Form / 
Stem 
V1 watch see 
Present Simple third person 
singular 
V1+s watches sees 
Past Simple / 
Preterit 
V2 watched saw 
Past Participle V3 watched seen 
Present Participle Ving watching seeing 
 
Verb Rap Song 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ineCCpqpZrM 
 
I.TENSE – ASPECT - MOOD 
Tense–aspect–mood, commonly abbreviated TAM and also called tense–modality–aspect or TMA, is the 
grammatical system in a language that covers the expression of tense (location in time), aspect (fabric of 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ineCCpqpZrM
 
 
 
time – a single block of time, continuous flow of time, or repetitive occurrence), and mood or modality 
(degree of necessity, obligation, probability, ability). 
Although some grammars identify anywhere between twelve and sixteen English tenses, the nineteen 
finite, or conjugated, verb forms in English express more than just tense. To be more precise, English has: 
 Two tenses: present and past 
 Four aspects: simple, progressive, perfect, perfect-progressive 
 Four moods: indicative, subjunctive, conditional and imperative 
I.1 TENSE 
Tense is the expression of location in time of an action or state. Grammatical tense only roughly relates to 
time. English has only two verb tenses: present and past. Unlike many other widely-spoken Indo-European 
languages such as Portuguese, the English verb system is largely periphrastic. Periphrasis, in contrast to 
inflection, is "a phrase of two or more words used to express a grammatical relationship that could 
otherwise be expressed by the inflection of a single word." All English verb forms except for the simple 
present and simple past are periphrastic. 
Despite popular belief, English DOES NOT have a future tense(for didactic purpose we are going to study 
it is a tense). Futurity is, instead, expressed through modal verbs, specifically will and shall. 
Present Tenses: 
• The Present Simple states that a constant, unchanging, or repeated action, state, or habit exists in 
the present. Adding s to verbs in the third person singular is one of the most basic English grammar 
rules that must always be followed. For all other persons, simply use the base form of the verb. 
The sun always rises in the east. 
 
• The Present Progressive describes an incomplete ongoing present action that is in the middle of 
happening, but will finish at some point. This tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb be 
(am/is/are) with the present participle verb form ending in ing 
Dona is studying hard for her test right now. 
 
• The Present Perfect Simple is a tricky grammar topic as it can be regarded as both a present and 
past tense. As a present tense, it signifies that an action started in the past and continues up to 
present time, in which it is completed. This tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb have 
(have/has) with the past participle form of the verb. 
Ron has worked in the same company for 20 years. 
 
• The Present Perfect Progressive also describes an action that began in the past and continues up 
to present time, in which it is (or most of it) is completed. Moreover, it stresses that the action has 
been going on incessantly and may also continue into the future. This tense is formed by using the 
auxiliary verb have (have/has) together with the auxiliary verb been and the present participle form of 
the verb ending with ing. 
Ron has been working on the same document without a break for hours. 
 
Past Tenses: 
• The Past Simple states that an action or situation was finished in the absolute past and bears no 
connection with the present. The point of time in the past in which the action occurred is well defined. 
Most Past Simple verbs end in ed (regular verbs). Others very useful verbs have different Past 
Simple forms and must be learned (irregular verbs). 
I visited my uncle in Paris last summer. 
 
 
 
 
• The Present Perfect Simple has quite a few grammar rules you need to follow, as it can be 
regarded as both a present and past tense. As a past tense, it states that an action has been 
completed in the past, but without reference to the time of occurrence. The action may have an 
influence on the current state of affairs in the present. This tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb 
have (have/has) with the past participle form of the verb. 
I have already done my homework (so now I am free to go out). 
 
• The Past Progressive describes an action which went on during a stretch of time in the past and 
finished. Other actions may have happened at the same time (short and immediate or ongoing). This 
tense is formed by using the verb be (was/were) with the present participle form of the verb ending in 
ing. 
While I was walking down the street yesterday, I suddenly met my boss. 
 
• The Past Perfect Simple states that an action was completed in the past before another point in 
time or action in the past (the latter expressed in the Past Simple), or that the action happened in the 
very distant past. This tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb have (had) with the past participle 
form of the verb. 
By the time Dona had saved enough money, she bought a new car. 
 
• The Past Perfect Progressive describes an ongoing action that began in the past, continued 
incessantly, and was completed before another point in time in the past or before another more 
recent past action. This tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb have (had) together with the 
auxiliary verb been and the present participle form of the verb ending with ing. 
We had been walking the streets of Paris for hours until we finally took a break. 
 
Future Tenses: 
• The Future Simple states or predicts that an action or situation will take place in the future. This 
tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb will with the base form of the verb. Under “Future Simple”, 
we can put three more future forms that convey different nuances in meaning, as the following 
examples show: 
1. I think we will eat out tomorrow evening 
[unsure future prediction, future with will] 
 
2. We are going to eat out tomorrow evening. 
[sure and intended future plans, future with be going to] 
 
3. We are eating out tonight. 
[arrangement for the near future, using the Present Progressive] 
 
4. Our dinner at Chez Paul starts at 20:00 tomorrow evening, so be there on time! 
[preset future schedule, using the Present Simple] 
• The Future Progressive describes an ongoing action that will be in process around a point of time 
in the future. This tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb will together with the auxiliary verb be 
and the present participle form of the verb ending in ing. 
Tomorrow at 12 o‟clock I will be giving a lecture at the university so I will not be answering any calls. 
 
• The Future Perfect Simple states that a future action will be completed before a point in time or 
before another action in the future. This tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb will together with 
the auxiliary verb have (have) and the past participle form of the verb. 
Dona will have graduated from university by the end of June. 
 
• The Future Perfect Progressive describes an ongoing future action that will continue incessantly 
and be completed before a point in time or before another action in the future. This tense is formed by 
using the auxiliary verb will, the auxiliary verb have (have), and the auxiliary verb been together with 
the present participle form of the verb ending in ing. 
 
 
 
By 14:00 the cake will have been baking for 90 minutes (so don‟t forget to take it out of the oven). 
 
I.2 ASPECT 
Aspect is the expression of the temporal structure of an action or state. Aspect in English expresses 
ongoing actions or states with or without distinct end points. English has four aspects: simple, progressive, 
perfect, and perfect-progressive. 
1. The Progressive (or continuous) expresses incomplete or ongoing actions or states at a specific time. 
For example, the use of the progressive aspect in I am floating the book indicates that I started floating the 
book in the past and am still floating the book in the present and presumably the future. The formula for 
forming the present progressive is [simple present "to be" + present participle]. The formula for forming the 
past progressive is [simple past "to be" + present participle]. 
Another example: Ron is cooking dinner at the moment.[He is still doing it and not finished] 
 
2. The Perfect Aspect expresses the consequences resulting from a previous action or state. 
For example, the use of the perfect aspect in I have floated the book focuses on the end result of my 
floating the book (my having floated the book) as opposed to the process of floating the book. The formula 
for forming the present perfect is [simple present "to have" + past participle]. The formula for forming the 
past perfect is [simple past "to have" + past participle]. 
Another example: Ron has already seen this film. [The action is completed. It may influence our present 
choice of what film to see, since we don‟t want Ron to see it again] 
 
3. The Perfect-Progressive Aspect expresses incomplete or ongoing actions or states that began in the 
past and continue to a specific time. 
For example, the use of the perfect-progressive aspect in I had been floating the book indicates that I 
started floating the book in the past and continued to float the book until a specific point in time at which I 
stopped floating the book. The formula for forming the present perfect-progressive is [simple present "to 
have" + past participle "to be" + present participle]. The formula for forming the past perfect-progressive is 
[simple past "to have" + past participle "to be" + present participle]. 
Anotherexample: By 1996, Dona had been dieting rather seriously and subsequently lost a lot of weight. 
[Dona was in an ongoing process that was completed in 1996. This influenced what followed – the loss of 
weight] 
 
4. The Simple (or Zero) Aspect does not relate to the flow of time and merely states whether or not the 
action occurs. 
Example: Dona works in London. [simple factual statement] 
 
I.3 MOOD 
Mood is the expression of modality of an action or state. Modality is the expression of possibility, necessity, 
and contingency. Modality can be expressed through modal verbs as well as through grammatical mood in 
English. 
1. The indicative mood allows speakers to express assertions, denials, and questions of actuality or 
strong probability. Most sentences in English are in the indicative mood because the indicative is the most 
commonly used mood. 
Examples: 
Little Rock is the capital of Arkansas. 
Ostriches cannot fly. 
Have you finished your homework? 
 
2. The imperative mood allows speakers to make direct commands, express requests, and grant or deny 
permission. The form of the English imperative is identical to the base form of any English verb. The 
negative form of the English imperative is created by inserting the do operator and the negative adverb not 
before the base form of the verb. 
Example: Go there now! 
 
 
 
Do not postpone this any longer! 
 
3. The Conditional Mood regards the action as not factually occurring in reality, but only as a result of a 
potential fulfillment of some condition. 
Examples: 
If I win the lottery, I will go on a trip around the world. 
If I won the lottery, I would go on a trip around the world. 
If you had told me about the party, I would have come with you (but you didn‟t). 
 
4. The Subjunctive Mood expresses desires, wishes, and assumptions that are not necessarily to be 
fulfilled in reality. It is used in specific figures of speech and is of little use in Modern English. 
Examples: 
I demand that she leave at once! 
If only you were here! 
If that be the case, than… 
 
Note: Modern English speakers use indicative mood most of the time, resorting to a kind of “mixed 
subjunctive” that makes use of helping verbs: 
If I should see him, I will tell him. 
Americans are more likely to say: If I see him, I will tell him. 
 
II. LEXICAL VERBS AND AUXILIARY VERB 
In class one, we looked at the elements of a sentence and explained that a sentence is made up of a 
subject and a predicate. The subject is the person or thing performing the action that the sentence is 
talking about. Everything else in the sentence is the predicate; for example: 
I love you madly. 
In this sentence, I is the subject because I am the person doing the loving, and love you madly is the 
predicate. If you look at the predicate, you will see that it begins with a verb – in this case, the verb 
love. All sentences must include a verb, because the verb tells us what action the subject is 
performing. 
Many sentences, but not all, contain an object – a person or thing that is being acted upon. In this 
case, the object is you. And many sentences also contain other information, presented in various 
types of grammatical phrases – in this case, the word madly is an adverbial phrase. But objects and 
adverbial phrases are not needed to make a sentence and we won‟t cover them here. 
Main verbs can take five forms, which indicate things like tense and aspect. They are the base, 
present, present participle, past and past participle: 
Base: laugh 
Present (-s): laughs 
Present participle (-ing): laughing 
Past: laughed 
Past participle (-ed): laughed 
This pattern of forms, in which the past and the past participle is the same, applies to all regular 
verbs. (Apart from the verb 'to be', which is highly irregular, irregular verbs tend to differ in the past 
and the past participle; for example, „write‟ has „wrote‟ for the past and „written‟ for the past participle.) 
The form the verb is in tells us whether it is finite or non-finite. A verb is finite if it displays tense and 
non-finite if it does not. We know that the present tense uses the base and present forms and the 
past tense use the past form. Therefore, the base, present and past forms are all finite forms of the 
verb. 
 
 
 
The non-finite forms are the present participle, past participle and infinitive. The infinitive is a 
form of the verb that does not show person, tense or aspect. It usually takes the form 'to laugh' and 'to 
write', but the 'to' is not always present. For example, the sentence I must write uses the infinite of the 
verb 'to write'. When “to” is not used this is called “bare infinitive”. 
The issue of finite and non-finite verbs is crucial because it takes us to the last requirement of a 
sentence – it must have a finite verb; that is, it must show tense. Phrases that do not contain a finite 
verb leave us hanging; for example: 
Writing the book (present participle) 
Written the book (past participle) 
To write the book (infinitive) 
 
Even by adding a subject, you cannot make a meaningful sentence; for example: You writing the 
book. Contrast these with the verb forms that are finite: 
You write the book or Write the book! (base form) 
She writes the book. (present form) 
She wrote the book. (past form) 
 
II. 1 LEXICAL VERB OR FULL VERB 
In linguistics a lexical verb or full verb is a member of an open class of verbs that includes all verbs 
except auxiliary verbs. Lexical verbs typically express action, state, or other predicate meaning. The verb 
phrase of a sentence is generally headed by a lexical verb. It is the main verb of the sentence. 
Example: Charlie raises his hand. 
 
II.2 AUXILIARY VERBS OR HELPING VERBS 
Just as the name implies, helping verbs, sometimes called auxiliary verbs, help out the main verb in a 
sentence. They accomplish this by giving more detail to how time is portrayed in a sentence. For this 
reason, they are used in [verb conjugation] to show the progressive and the perfect tenses of verbs. 
On their own, helping verbs don‟t show meaning in that they don‟t communicate much when they stand 
alone. There sole purpose to help the main verb, which provides the real meaning. 
Helping verbs help explain the sometimes complicated nuances of meaning. For example, they can show 
expectation, probability, obligation, potential, and directions. Though this may sound complicated, it‟s really 
not. There aren‟t that many helping verbs in the English language. They all fall into one of two groups: 
primary helping verbs and modal helping verbs. 
II.2.1 Primary helping verbs 
The primary helping verbs are be, do, and have. They‟re called primary because they can help main verbs 
or they can actually be the main verb. Here are some examples of the primary verbs being used as helping 
verbs. 
1. “Be” verbs. The term “be verbs” is a little deceiving because they include more than the word “be.” They 
help show a state of being or a state of existing. Sounds a little boring doesn‟t it? Well, they don‟t show any 
action, that‟s for sure. That‟s why expressive writing discourages using a lot of “be” verbs. Here is a list of 
“be” verb forms: am, is, are, was, were, been, being, be. 
And here are a few used in sentences: 
Katy is watching television. (this shows a continuous tense.) 
The other children are playing outside. (this example shows the passive tense.) 
 
ATTENTION: 
Be has characteristics of both lexical and auxiliary verbs. As a lexical verb, it can be inflected with tense 
and person, and be can be the main verb of a sentence. However, be also shares some auxiliary NICE 
properties such as negation, inversion, code and emphasis. 
 
 
 
Examples: 
Charlie is a clever student. 
Charlie is the troublemaker. 
Charlie has been to the Principal's twice already. 
Why don't you be more considerate? Note the "do" support! 
 
Be as an auxiliary verb is used with progressive, passive. The auxiliary be has NICE (negation, inversion, 
code andemphasis) properties. 
Examples: 
Charlie was raising his hand. 
The teacher didn't think Charlie was raising his hand, but he was. 
Charlie was told to sit down. 
 Charlie was being kept in the Principal's office. (aux + ger.-part. + past part.) 
You are not to tell anyone. (You are being not tell anyone.) 
Are we to be here all day? 
 
2. Have. The helping verb have is used to make perfect tenses. The perfect tense shows action that is 
already completed. 
I have finished washing the dishes. (Dish washing is complete!) 
 
3. Do. The verb “do” can perform a variety of functions: 
 To make negatives: I do not care for broccoli. 
 To ask questions: Do you like broccoli? 
 To show emphasis: I do you want you to eat your broccoli. 
 To stand for a main verb: Sam like broccoli more than Carmen does. 
II.2.2 Modal helping verbs 
Modal helping verbs help “modify” the main verb so that is changes the meaning somewhat. A modal 
auxiliary verb gives more information about the function of the main verb that it governs. Modals have a 
wide variety of communicative functions, but these functions can generally be related to a scale ranging 
from possibility ("may") to necessity ("must"), in terms of one of the following types of modality: 
 epistemic modality, concerned with the theoretical possibility of propositions being true or not true 
(including likelihood and certainty) 
Example: You must be starving. ("It is necessarily the case that you are starving.") 
 deontic modality, concerned with possibility and necessity in terms of freedom to act (including 
permission and duty) 
Example: You must leave now. ("You are required to leave now.") 
An ambiguous case is You must speak Spanish. 
This may be intended epistemically ("It is surely the case that you speak Spanish", e.g. after having lived in 
Spain for a long time), or deontically ("It is a requirement that you speak Spanish", e.g. if you want to get a 
job in Spain). 
Here are the modal verbs: 
 
1. WOULD has three alternative uses: 
 past tense combined with habitual aspect (Last summer I would run every day) 
 conditional mood for a present or future action (If I could, I would do it now / next week). In the first 
person, intentional modality may also be present. 
 past tense, prospective aspect for an action occurring after the past-tense viewpoint (After I 
graduated in 1990, I would work in industry for the next ten years) 
 
 
 
The negative form would not + verb negates the main verb, but in the conditional and intentional 
mood in the first person the intentional modality may also be negated to indicate negative intention. 
 
2. WILL has a number of different uses involving tense, aspect, and modality: 
 It can express aspect alone, without implying futurity: In "He will make mistakes, won't he?", the 
reference is to a tendency in the past, present, and future and as such expresses habitual aspect. 
 It can express either of two types of modality alone, again without implying futurity: In "That will be 
John at the door", there is an implication of present time and probabilistic mode, while "You will do it 
right now" implies obligatory mode. 
 It can express both intentional modality and futurity, as in "I will do it." 
 It can express futurity without modality: "The sun will die in a few billion years." 
As with would, the negative form will not negates the main verb but in the intentional mode may also 
indicate negative intentionality. 
In each case the time of viewpoint can be placed in the past by replacing will with would. 
 
3. SHALL indicates futurity or intention in the first person (I shall go); for the other persons, it 
indicates obligation, often negative as in you shall not lie, but this usage is old-fashioned. 
 
4. MUST can be used either for near-certainty mode (He must understand it by now) or for obligatory 
mode (You must do that). The past tense form must have understood applies only to the near-
certainly mode; expressing obligation in the past requires the lexical construction had to + verb. 
 
5. HAD BETTER indicates obligatory mode (He had better do that soon). There is no corresponding 
past tense form. 
 
6. SHOULD has several uses: 
 present or future tense combined with possibility mode: If he should be here already, ...; If he should 
arrive tomorrow, ... 
 mild obligatory mode in the present or future tense: He should do that now / next week. The past 
tense can be substituted by using the form He should have done that, with a morphological change 
to the main verb. 
 probabilistic mode in the present or future tense: This approach should work. The corresponding 
past tense form should have worked implies impersonal obligation rather than probability. 
 
7. MAY can indicate either the mode of possibility or that of permission: 
 possibility in the present or future: He may be there already, He may arrive tomorrow. The form He 
may have arrived, with a morphological change to the main verb, indicates not just the mode of 
possibility but also the aspectual feature of viewing a past event from a present viewpoint. This form 
applies only to this possibility usage. 
 permission in the present or future: You may go now / next week. There is no corresponding way to 
indicate the presence of permission in the past. 
 
8. CAN has several uses: 
 present ability: I can swim. The past tense is expressed by I could swim. 
 present permission (in informal speech): You can go now. In the past tense one can use could 
(When I was a child, according to my parents' rules I could swim once a week). 
 present moderate probability (seldom used): That can be true. There is no past form, since the more 
common that could be true conveys the same (present) tense. 
 
9. MIGHT conveys slight likelihood in the present or future (He might be there already, he might arrive 
tomorrow). It can also convey slight advisability (You might try that). The past can be substituted 
using the form might have + morphologically altered main verb. 
 
10. COULD is used in several ways: 
 mild permission or advisability in the present: You could do that. The equivalent past form is could 
have + morphologically altered main verb (you could have done that). 
 
 
 
 permission in the past: She said I could graduate in one more year. 
 ability in the past: I could swim when I was five years old. 
 slight probability in the present: That could be Mary at the door. The past tense equivalent is That 
could have been Mary at the door yesterday, with a morphologically altered main verb. 
 conditional ability: I could do that if I knew how to swim. In the past one can say I could have done 
that if I had known how to swim. 
 slight intention in the present: I could do that for you (and maybe I will). There is no past equivalent. 
 
11. NEED: Need can be used as a present tense modal auxiliary, indicating necessity, that is 
invariant for person/number in questions and negatives only: Need he go?, He need not go. The 
corresponding past tense constructions are Need he have gone?, He need not have gone. 
 
12. DARE: Dare can be used as a present tense modal auxiliary that is invariant for person/number in 
questions and negatives only: Dare he go?, He dare not go. 
 
IMPORTANT: 
1. Modals might and should are no longer used with past tense meaning. 
 
2. The English verbs dare and need have both a modal use (he dare not do it), and a non-modal use (he 
doesn't dare to do it). 
 
3. British: We use can to indicate capability or possibility, e.g. "I don't know if I can lift this piano by myself." 
The implication here is on whether you have the physical capacity or mental acuity to get the piano lifted. 
May is used when you are asking permission. "May I lift your piano for a little exercise?" Here you wish the 
permission of someone to carry out an action. 
American: We use can to indicate capability, possibility or permission. May is used when you are asking 
permission. 
 
Aboutthis, there is a funny story: 
Once Bernard Shaw, the famous Irish play writer received a note from an American director, who wanted to 
play Pygmalion at a theater in New York. 
He wrote: Dear sir, can I play Pygmalion here in New York? 
Shaw‟s answer: I don‟t know if you can, but you may. 
 
4. 'Must' and 'Have to' in the positive or question form are used to speak about responsibilities and 
obligations. Sometimes, 'must' and 'have to' can be exchanged, but the general rule is: 
Must is used for strong personal obligations (I must do this right now!). Something that you or a person 
feels is necessary. 
Have to is used for responsibilities (I have to file reports every week.) 
'Don't have to' and 'Mustn't' have very different meanings. 'Don't have to' is used to express that something 
is not required. 'Mustn't' is used to express that something is prohibited. 
 
Let‟s see: 
I have to go – (perhaps you have to catch the bus – external cause) 
I must go – (personal obligation – internal cause) 
 
MODAL PROPERTIES 
Unlike auxiliaries, modals carry meaning and "mood". They express the speakers opinion about the 
following verb phrase. "They are used before the infinitives of other verbs, and add certain kinds of 
meaning connected with certainty, or with obligation, and freedom to act." 
 
The lexical forms of modals mean almost the same, but have some grammatical differences. (can–is 
able to, knows how to; will – is going to; must – have to; should – ought to, etc.) 
 
Take a look at CAN as an example: 
 
http://www.grammar-quizzes.com/modal4.html
http://www.grammar-quizzes.com/modal1b.html
http://www.grammar-quizzes.com/modal3.html
http://www.grammar-quizzes.com/modal2c.html#options
 
 
 
 MODAL AUXILIARIES LEXICAL FORMS 
CAN Charlie can answer the question. Charlie is able to answer the 
question. 
 Charlie can answer the question. Charlie is able to answer the 
question. 
 Can Charlie answer the question? 
No, Charlie cannot answer the 
question. 
Is Charlie able to answer the 
question. No, he isn't able to. 
Does Charlie know how to answer 
the question. No, he doesn't know 
how to. 
 I wish Charlie could / would be 
quiet. (past/future) 
After studying very hard, he could 
pass his test. (needs limitation to 
past only) 
 
I wish Charlie were able to be 
quiet.(past) 
After studying very hard, he was 
able to pass his test. (limited to 
past, single event) 
 
 
II.2.2.1 ENGLISH QUASI-MODAL VERBS 
Quasi-modals are a subcategory of modal verbs. Similar to modals verbs, quasi-modal verbs are common 
auxiliary verbs in the English language that express modality, which is the expression of subjective 
attitudes and opinions including possibility, necessity, and contingency. Also referred to as semi-modal 
verbs, the four quasi-modal verbs in English are: 
OUGHT TO– should, duty, obligation, advisability, desirability, likelihood, probability 
You ought to stain your fence this year. (advisability) 
USED TO– formerly, once but no longer, previously habitually 
My sister used to read a book a night. (previously habitually) 
WOULD RATHER – preference, prefer to 
I would rather eat a bug than study math. (preference) 
HAD BETTER/BEST– should, duty, obligation, advisability 
She had better teach her children some manners. (duty) 
 
Position of Quasi-modal Verbs 
Like modal verbs, quasi-modal verbs always appear in the initial position at the beginning of a verb phrase 
functioning as a predicate. The seven possible English verb phrase combinations that contain quasi-modal 
verbs are: 
 quasi-modal verb + base form = ought to study 
 quasi-modal verb + be + present participle = ought to be reading 
 quasi-modal verb + have + past participle = ought to have eaten 
 quasi-modal verb + be + past participle = ought to be cleaned 
 quasi-modal verb + have + been + present participle = ought to have been thinking 
 quasi-modal verb + have + been + past participle = ought to have been washed 
 quasi-modal verb + have + been + being + past participle = ought to have been being finished 
 
Quasi-modal Verbs versus Modal Verbs 
Quasi-modal verbs differ from modal verbs in form. While full modals are single words, quasi-modals 
consist of either a verb plus a preposition functioning as a particle or a verb plus an adverb. For example: 
 ought to, used to = verb + preposition [particle] 
 would rather, had better = verb + adverb 
Note, however, that the quasi-modal verb ought to sometimes lacks a prepositional particle in negative and 
interrogative constructions. For example: 
 He ought to buy a new car. 
http://www.brighthubeducation.com/esl-lesson-plans/38569-word-order-of-complements-in-english/
 
 
 
 He ought not buy a new car. 
 Ought he buy a new car? 
 
modal verbs: introduction 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Icna9vsAh7Q 
 
modal verbs part 2: can (ability) 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wibvPmBe1QY 
 
modal verbs part 3: may / mustn't (permission) 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HKegdzsaPTI 
 
modal verbs part 4: must / needn't (obligation) 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YDoPmjdwDLU 
 
Grammar in Songs: Modal Verbs 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3KcSEnVnQ98 
 
Obligation modals 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uPXuLoBQwsQ 
 
For an end, look at this example of modals in a context: 
 
Programs such as Napster and Gnutella allow you to download MP3 files from other people's hard drives 
without paying a penny to the artist or entertainment industry. With a Napster client such as Macster (or the 
Mac-compatible Furi client for Gnutella) and a broadband Internet connection, Mac users can download 
an album's worth of MP3 files in less than an hour. This leads us to the second factor: high-speed Internet 
access. 
 
The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), an industry group that represents major record 
labels, filed suit against Napster. As we went to press, a judge had decided not to dismiss the lawsuit 
against Napster, leaving open the possibility of a trial. 
How does this affect you? 
 
It might put Napster out of business, and if you're a devoted Napster user, this is certainly sad news. But 
Metallica's actions could bring the controversy closer to home. The fact that Metallica was able to obtain 
the screen names of these users should concern those who post and download files on Napster. 
 
Should the recording industry wish to get personal and go after individuals--and you engage in this kind of 
file trading--it's possible that you'll be taken to task (prosecuted) for your actions. 
 
Where will this all lead? While the recording industry should have seen this coming, the fact is they didn't. 
Moving copyrighted files across the Internet is both easy to do and easy to get away with--but it won't be 
for long. Though the RIAA and Metallica aren't likely to start getting people who download an MP3 or two 
tossed into the pokey, they will take steps other than prosecution to protect their rights and work. This 
means that stricter copy-protection schemes will be introduced in the near future. Yet this too is a short-
term solution; though copy-protection measures will surely reduce piracy, savvy people will find a way to 
skirt them. With this in mind, the entertainment industry must eventually bow to the realities of this new 
wired world, shift its current distribution model, and seek alternative means of compensation--with actions 
such as advertising on online distribution centers, offering "bonus" material that can be purchased only 
online, and streaming "pay to play" content on demand. 
 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Icna9vsAh7Q
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wibvPmBe1QY
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HKegdzsaPTI
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YDoPmjdwDLU
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3KcSEnVnQ98
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uPXuLoBQwsQ
 
 
 
II. 3 MULTIPLE AUXILIARIES 
Most clauses contain at least one main verb, and they can contain zero, one, two, three, or perhaps even 
more auxiliary verbs. The following examplecontains three auxiliary verbs and one main verb: 
The paper will have been scrutinized by Fred. 
The auxiliary verbs are in bold and the main verb is underlined. Together these verbs form a verb catena 
(chain of verbs), i.e. they are linked together in the hierarchy of structure and thus form a single syntactic 
unit. The main verb scrutinized provides the semantic core of sentence meaning, whereby each of the 
auxiliary verbs contributes some functional meaning. A single finite clause can contain more than three 
auxiliary verbs, e.g. 
Fred may be being judged to have been deceived by the explanation. 
Viewing this sentence as consisting of a single finite clause, there are five auxiliary verbs and two main 
verbs present. From the point of view of predicates, each of the main verbs constitutes the core of a 
predicate, and the auxiliary verbs contribute functional meaning to these predicates. The periphrastic verb 
combinations in the example just given are represented now using the dependency grammar tree of the 
sentence; the verb catena is in green: 
 
The particle to is included in the verb catena because its use is often required with certain infinitives. The 
hierarchy of functional categories is always the same. The verbs expressing modality appear immediately 
above the verbs expressing aspect, and the verbs expressing aspect appear immediately above the verbs 
expressing voice. 
II. 4 DIAGNOSTICS FOR IDENTIFYING AUXILIARY VERBS IN ENGLISH 
The verbs listed in the previous section can be classified as auxiliaries based upon two diagnostics: they 
allow subject–auxiliary inversion (the type of inversion used to form questions etc.) and (equivalently) 
they can take not as a postdependent (a dependent that follows its head). The following examples illustrate 
the extent to which subject–auxiliary inversion can occur with an auxiliary verb but not with a full verb: 
a. He was working today. 
b. Was he working today? - Auxiliary verb was allows subject–auxiliary inversion. 
 
a. She can see it. 
b. Can she see it? - Auxiliary verb can allows subject–auxiliary inversion. 
 
a. She sees it. 
b. *Sees she it? - Full verb sees does not allow subject–auxiliary inversion. 
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93auxiliary_inversion
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_(linguistics)
 
 
 
 
The following examples illustrate that the negation not can appear as a postdependent of a finite auxiliary 
verb, but not as a postdependent of a finite full verb: 
a. Sam would try that. 
b. Sam would not try that. - The negation not appears as a postdependent of the finite auxiliary would. 
 
a. Sam tried that. 
b. *Sam tried not that. - The negation not cannot appear as a postdependent of the finite full verb tried. 
(The asterisk * is the means commonly used in linguistics to indicate that the example is grammatically 
unacceptable.) 
 
If you are trying to liven up your grammar lessons, try some of these creative ideas for helping and 
linking verbs. 
http://www.proteacher.org/c/648_helping_and_linking_verbs.html 
Memorizing Auxiliary (Helping) Verbs 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i-bIkB52GdI&feature=related 
Main and Helping Verbs 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0stp6ewhQBM&feature=related 
Helping Verbs Song 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-F2JWKY63K0 
 
 
http://www.proteacher.org/c/648_helping_and_linking_verbs.html
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i-bIkB52GdI&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0stp6ewhQBM&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-F2JWKY63K0