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<p>Journal of Cleaner Production 416 (2023) 137863</p><p>Available online 24 June 2023</p><p>0959-6526/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.</p><p>Review</p><p>Mitigating oil and gas pollutants for a sustainable environment – Critical</p><p>review and prospects</p><p>Abdurrashid Haruna a,b,c,**, Gazali Tanimu d, Ismaila Ibrahim c, Zaharaddeen Nasiru Garba c,</p><p>Sharhabil Musa Yahaya e, Suleiman Gani Musa a,f, Zulkifli Merican Aljunid Merican a,b,*</p><p>a Department of Fundamental and Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, 32610, Seri Iskandar, Perak Darul Ridzuan, Malaysia</p><p>b Institute of Contaminant Management, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, 32610, Seri Iskandar, Perak Darul Ridzuan, Malaysia</p><p>c Department of Chemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria</p><p>d Center for Refining and Advanced Chemicals, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, 31261, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia</p><p>e Department of Soil Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria</p><p>f Department of Chemistry, Al-Qalam University Katsina, Tafawa Balewa Way, Katsina, Nigeria</p><p>A R T I C L E I N F O</p><p>Handling Editor: Mingzhou Jin</p><p>Keywords:</p><p>Oil and gas</p><p>Waste pollutants</p><p>Advanced technologies</p><p>Produced water</p><p>Value-added products</p><p>Environmental sustainability</p><p>A B S T R A C T</p><p>The oil and gas (O&G) industry generates pollutants from the exploration, refining, transportation, storage, and</p><p>consumption of crude oil products that potentially pollute soil, aquatic environments, and ecosystem. They</p><p>produce high quantities of gas pollutants, produced water, and other complex organic contaminants. These</p><p>pollutants are associated with environmental risks, disrupt the well-being of humans, and are fatally hazardous.</p><p>In fact, the release of pollutants leads to the displacement of animals and the loss of arable land for agricultural</p><p>purposes. In addition, their influence on the surrounding environment is detrimental to global safety, as</p><p>described by the World Health Organization (WHO). Controlling these pollutants below the standard emission</p><p>limits set by global environmental regulations to achieve a safe and sustainable environment is crucial. Herein,</p><p>the policies related to oil and gas pollution and the harmful effects of O&G pollutants have been reviewed. Also,</p><p>the applications of catalytic and adsorption technologies in removing O&G pollutants have been discussed.</p><p>Notably, the roles of novel catalysts and adsorbents in activating and converting harmful O&G pollutants into</p><p>environment-friendly and value-added products have been highlighted. In addition, this review discusses the</p><p>prospects of renewable energy technologies in mitigating waste pollutants related to O&G. Moreover, future</p><p>research directions and useful scientific recommendations have been provided to stimulate further progress</p><p>aimed at mitigating the harmful effects of O&G pollutants.</p><p>1. Introduction</p><p>Crude oil is a carbon-based energy resource of immeasurable sig-</p><p>nificance. Its discovery excites host communities while anticipating a</p><p>significant increase in their social development. Crude oil is an asset</p><p>composed of hydrocarbons and non-hydrocarbons such as sulfur, ni-</p><p>trogen, and oxygen. The total global energy for today is 85% where oil is</p><p>contributing 35.3% and gas 20.5% (Mariyam et al., 2022). Owing to the</p><p>high demand for the consumption of petroleum fractions, significant</p><p>waste substances threatened by oil and gas (O&G) pollution are pro-</p><p>duced resulting in a global problem for humans and the ecosystem</p><p>(Bolade et al., 2021; Haider et al., 2021; Klemz et al., 2021). Petroleum</p><p>fractions such as motor and jet fuel, kerosene, diesel, waxes, gasoline,</p><p>bitumen, lubricants, plastics, etc., are employed as end-products or</p><p>starting materials for producing new sets of materials (Fig. 1). The</p><p>chemical processing, storage, transportation, and consumption of</p><p>petrochemical products generate massive pollutants that cause adverse</p><p>effects on human health and the surrounding environment (Asejeje</p><p>et al., 2021; Kumar et al., 2022; Qaderi and Abdolalian, 2022; Speight</p><p>and El-Gendy, 2017). Indeed, most oil-rich communities contaminated</p><p>with O&G pollutants are facing challenges in the availability of drinking</p><p>water and arable land for agricultural purposes (Dhaka and Chatto-</p><p>padhyay, 2021; Elum et al., 2016; Song et al., 2021). In general, O&G</p><p>* Corresponding author. Department of Fundamental and Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, 32610, Seri Iskandar, Perak Darul Ridzuan, Malaysia.</p><p>** Corresponding author. Department of Fundamental and Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, 32610, Seri Iskandar, Perak Darul Ridzuan,</p><p>Malaysia.</p><p>E-mail addresses: abdurrashidharuna@abu.edu.ng (A. Haruna), zulkifli.aljunid@utp.edu.my (Z.M.A. Merican).</p><p>Contents lists available at ScienceDirect</p><p>Journal of Cleaner Production</p><p>journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro</p><p>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.137863</p><p>Received 7 February 2023; Received in revised form 1 June 2023; Accepted 18 June 2023</p><p>mailto:abdurrashidharuna@abu.edu.ng</p><p>mailto:zulkifli.aljunid@utp.edu.my</p><p>www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/09596526</p><p>https://www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro</p><p>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.137863</p><p>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.137863</p><p>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.137863</p><p>http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.137863&domain=pdf</p><p>Journal of Cleaner Production 416 (2023) 137863</p><p>2</p><p>pollutants from the petroleum industry contaminates water and soil,</p><p>cause low air quality, and are highly resistant to environmental degra-</p><p>dation (Geng et al., 2019).</p><p>The emission of O&G pollutants such as particulate matter, volatile</p><p>organic compounds (VOCs), polycylic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),</p><p>NOx, SOx, CO, CH4, and CO2 contain unacceptable dosages that cause</p><p>severe human diseases, acid rain, ozone layer depletion, and overall</p><p>become a significant threat to the survival of our planet (Cereceda-Balic</p><p>et al., 2017; Haruna et al., 2022, 2023b; Musa et al., 2022). Under-</p><p>standing the impact of these pollutants is critical for effective manage-</p><p>ment and mitigation initiatives. Global CO2, one of the leading</p><p>environmental pollutants and contributors to greenhouse gas (GHG)</p><p>emissions must be reduced minimally to at least 45% by 2030 (Gla-</p><p>dilshchikova et al., 2018). The reduction of CO2 and its utilization is a</p><p>hot research topic to achieve sustainable development goals (SDGs).</p><p>There are emerging technologies put forward to study CO2 reduction in</p><p>the form of carbon capture (Chen et al., 2022; Sattari et al., 2021),</p><p>utilization (Lin et al., 2022; Singh and Srivastava, 2021; H. H. Wang</p><p>et al., 2022), and storage (Fan et al., 2021; S. C. Li et al., 2022; Slessarev</p><p>et al., 2022; X. H. Xu et al., 2022). The carbon capture, storage and</p><p>utilization technologies represent a least-cost approach that offers the</p><p>benefits of converting waste to wealth and a smooth practice for envi-</p><p>ronmental sustainability (Rogelj et al., 2016). The Intergovernmental</p><p>Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has set reduction targets for CO2 below</p><p>30% for developing countries and 80% for industrial countries by 2050</p><p>(Heede, 2014; Michaelowa and Michaelowa, 2015). In addition to the</p><p>air pollutants, petrorefinery wastewater contains loads of oil and grease,</p><p>ammonia, heavy metals, phenol, mercaptans, and sulfides (Varjani et al.,</p><p>2020; Wang et al., 2015). These contaminants must be removed before</p><p>final discharge into the environment (Chukwuemeka et al., 2023).</p><p>Other impacts of O&G spillage extend to the agricultural sector</p><p>affecting the growth and development of crops in the soil as well as</p><p>fishing areas. Although cleaning up contaminated soil to refurbish</p><p>agricultural activities is difficult, remediation of the pollutants is</p><p>necessary to restore the soil’s function. The accumulation of oil waste</p><p>has been reported in many developing countries (Babatunde, 2020;</p><p>Osuagwu and Olaifa, 2018). For example, in Niger Delta, Nigeria, the</p><p>energy has generated side effects for the envi-</p><p>ronment and the issue is gradually pushing the world into the adoption</p><p>of renewable energy resources (Raihan et al., 2023). The production of</p><p>renewable energy offers the advantage of energy security through the</p><p>mitigation of CO2 emissions and is significant for achieving sustainable</p><p>development goals (Sepulveda et al., 2018). The utilization of renewable</p><p>energy is crucial for achieving the goal of 2050 to reduce global emis-</p><p>sions by 50% (Raihan and Tuspekova, 2022). By transitioning to</p><p>renewable energy sources like hydro, wind, solar, geothermal power,</p><p>and biomass, among others, our world will witness a great reduction in</p><p>the consumption of crude oil products (AlQattan et al., 2018). This</p><p>transition can help mitigate the waste pollutants by reducing the de-</p><p>mand for crude oil and its fractions. Moreover, it will benefit countries</p><p>towards the attainment of clean and sustainable energy systems, energy</p><p>security improvement, and promotion of self-sufficiency. These will</p><p>reduce the excessive demand for O&G thereby leading to the reduction</p><p>of pollutants associated with crude oil exploration and production.</p><p>Compare to conventional fossil fuels for energy generation, renewable</p><p>energy sources produce energy with lower or zero carbon emissions (J.</p><p>J. Wang et al., 2023). Overall, shifting towards renewable energy will</p><p>reduce the carbon footprint and combat global warming. This will</p><p>overshadow the need for crude oil and subsequently reduce air pollution</p><p>due to crude oil extraction and refining processes. While renewable</p><p>energy sources offer noteworthy environmental benefits, their deploy-</p><p>ment should be accompanied by proper planning, responsible waste</p><p>management, and consideration of potential environmental impacts</p><p>associated with the production and disposal of renewable energy</p><p>infrastructure (Lior, 2010; Tawalbeh et al., 2021).</p><p>5. Generation of value-added products from oil and gas wastes</p><p>Oil extraction processes have resulted in the generation of significant</p><p>amounts of hazardous waste being created by the O&G industry (Hos-</p><p>sain et al., 2017). In this sense, the quantity and toxicity of waste</p><p>associated with the O&G industry are enormous on public health. Any</p><p>material produced in such a vast number that impacts or modifies the</p><p>natural ecosystem is considered a waste, which can be in any physical</p><p>form (solid, liquid, or gas) (Castillo Santiago et al., 2021). Management</p><p>of contaminants is crucial to lessen their toxicity and environmental</p><p>impacts before discharge (Cordes et al., 2016). For this aim, noxious</p><p>wastes are managed according to the rules and restrictions recom-</p><p>mended by national and international agencies (Cordes et al., 2016).</p><p>Global O&G companies must lower the limit of hazardous constituents</p><p>like CO2 and SO2 in petroleum energy products such as gasoline, diesel,</p><p>and gas (Faramawy et al., 2016). The O&G industry’s waste manage-</p><p>ment policies were then developed as part of sustainable development to</p><p>assist the effective and sustainable retrieval of value-added materials, on</p><p>the premise of the 3 R’s (reduction, reuse, and recycling) (Da Silva et al.,</p><p>2012). The reduction, reuse, and recycling of O&G waste into</p><p>value-added products for achieving a sustainable environment have</p><p>been summarized in Fig. 6.</p><p>Notably, prevention, reduction, reuse, and recycling are necessary to</p><p>complement these initiatives using waste management technology and</p><p>practices to eliminate waste and transform them into value-added</p><p>products (Al-Hameedi et al., 2020). The waste substances produced</p><p>include drilling fluid wastes (soda ash, magnesium, and emulsifiers), oil</p><p>debris, lubricating oils, used hydraulic fluids, board and plastic residues,</p><p>and metal scraps (Hossain et al., 2017; Shahbaz et al., 2023). The</p><p>already-used lubricants, chemicals, paraffin, and hydraulic oils, along</p><p>with tainted PW, bottom sludge, and discharge hydrocarbon, are the</p><p>primary wastes when it comes to oil refining and product upgrades</p><p>(Edwan Kardena, 2015; Johnson and Affam, 2019). However, certain</p><p>unused chemicals, polymers, NOx, and SOx liquor are among the waste</p><p>products of enhanced oil recovery (EOR) (Shahbaz et al., 2023).</p><p>In terms of the various processes used in the O&G industry, three</p><p>types of waste are primarily created (Elshorbagy and Alkamali, 2005;</p><p>Lodungi et al., 2017). They are; (1) liquid wastes (such as PW and oily</p><p>chemicals), (2) solid wastes (such as organic wastes, oil sludge, and</p><p>wax), and (3) flue gas (such as CO2 and SO2) in gas plants. From an</p><p>economic point of view, building materials such as concrete have</p><p>various qualities depending on their microstructure, content, and pro-</p><p>cessing. Meanwhile, changing and improving concrete properties may</p><p>be performed effectively by adding value to the various chemicals and</p><p>additives (Akchurin et al., 2016). Often, this strategy offers countless</p><p>chances for customizing concrete with the support of different materials</p><p>(Mikulčić et al., 2016).</p><p>The construction sector has a lot of chances for customized concrete</p><p>that has been modified using various complexes of admixtures, and</p><p>these prospects are still being explored. Modifiers can enhance the</p><p>quality of concrete by utilizing various techniques, like lessening water,</p><p>plasticization, coherence, air entrainment, accelerating and delaying the</p><p>setting process, and hardening (Ristavletov et al., 2019). Waste</p><p>Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of the preparation and application of PEG/Fe3O4/GO-NH2 Reproduced from ref. (He et al., 2021).</p><p>A. Haruna et al.</p><p>Journal of Cleaner Production 416 (2023) 137863</p><p>12</p><p>materials used in construction applications help with waste manage-</p><p>ment while promoting sustainable growth. They can be used in concrete</p><p>or other building materials as an adhesive, aggregates, and additives</p><p>(Asim et al., 2021). Employing mechanical confinement, chemical</p><p>response, and physical adsorption utilizing hydration, setting, and</p><p>hardening mechanisms, sand compromised with oil in cement becomes</p><p>stable (Chen et al., 2009). However, the necessary mechanical qualities,</p><p>like compressive strength and stabilization of waste inside mortar/-</p><p>concrete, depending on the conformation and level of fineness of the</p><p>waste substance and are thus influenced by the use of oil-contaminated</p><p>sand (Abousnina et al., 2016). Suitable waste forms which may be</p><p>processed and usefully re-claimed have been established, including</p><p>petroleum drilling wastes (Asim et al., 2021). Drilling cuttings comprise</p><p>reactive calcium, silicon, aluminum, and iron oxides that can be used as</p><p>natural fine aggregates in place of limestone and clay in the cement</p><p>industry. They can either serve as fillers and components of the finished</p><p>product in small quantities or function as active ingredients to improve</p><p>the technical properties of cement. (Bernardo et al., 2007).</p><p>The use of catalysts in numerous processes has expanded due to the</p><p>expansion of the O&G refining industry, creating harmful waste recog-</p><p>nized as spent catalysts (Akcil et al., 2015). Several high-end and intri-</p><p>cate chemical and biological recovery techniques are employed to</p><p>recover the used catalysts. They include but are not limited to hydro-</p><p>metallurgical, solid-liquid extraction, and liquid-liquid extraction</p><p>Table 2</p><p>Compilation of various adsorbents for the removal of O&G pollutants.</p><p>Adsorbent Pollutant Adsorption parameters Highlights References</p><p>pH Temp (K) Adsorbate</p><p>conc (mg/L)</p><p>Contact</p><p>time</p><p>Chemically modified natural</p><p>fiber</p><p>Crude oil – – 1.25–6.75 g/</p><p>100 mL of</p><p>water</p><p>5–25</p><p>min</p><p>Acetylation increases the crude oil sorption</p><p>capacities of the sorbents.</p><p>Onwuka et al.</p><p>(2018)</p><p>Paired t-test showed there was a noteworthy</p><p>difference in the</p><p>sorption capacities of the</p><p>modified and unmodified sorbents.</p><p>ACTF (amorphous carbon</p><p>thin film)</p><p>Emulsified</p><p>condensate oil</p><p>– 288–318 102–2500 0.5–24 h A novel method to produce ACTF from oil palm</p><p>leaves. The adsorption capacity qe and the removal</p><p>efficiency increase with increasing time. Also, the</p><p>adsorption reaches equilibrium within 6 h with the</p><p>removal efficiency of 66.38% and adsorption</p><p>capacity of 132.77 mg condensate/g ACTF.</p><p>Fathy et al.</p><p>(2018)</p><p>Residual biomass COD – 298 300–1400 1–120</p><p>min</p><p>The synthetic PW for the adsorption of organic</p><p>compounds was prepared based on an original</p><p>sample obtained from an oilfield located in</p><p>Ecuador’s Amazon region. Only palm shells and</p><p>sawdust actually adsorb the organic compounds in</p><p>the PW.</p><p>Gallo-Cordova</p><p>et al. (2017)</p><p>Graphene nanoplatelets</p><p>Graphene magnetite</p><p>Emulsified oil 2–12 298–323 100–2500 0.5–24 h The removal capacity of emulsified oil at the</p><p>optimal conditions exceeded 80% for graphene</p><p>and 75% for graphene magnetite</p><p>Abou Chacra et al.</p><p>(2018)</p><p>Octenyl succinic anhydride</p><p>starch (OSAS) and</p><p>chitosan (CS)</p><p>Oil-in-water</p><p>emulsions:</p><p>5.5–6.5 298 – 1 h The layer-by-layer adsorption of OSAS and CS at</p><p>the interface lead to reduced homogeneity and</p><p>stability of the bilayers, making them relatively</p><p>susceptible to destabilization.</p><p>Xu et al. (2023)</p><p>GIC (graphite intercalation</p><p>compound</p><p>Dispersed oil</p><p>emulsions</p><p>– – 103–276 10–20</p><p>min</p><p>The non-porous structure of the GIC adsorbent led</p><p>to effective and fast adsorption of oil in less than</p><p>30 min.</p><p>Fallah and</p><p>Roberts (2019)</p><p>AC-Fe (moringa oleifera</p><p>seed and modified with</p><p>iron nanoparticles)</p><p>Oils and</p><p>greases</p><p>4–9 298–318 10–500 4 h Among the activating agents, H3PO4 proved to be</p><p>the most appropriate for producing an adsorbent.</p><p>In addition, its chemical balance was described by</p><p>Langmuir isotherm, suggesting chemical</p><p>adsorption, while Freundlich isotherm adjusted</p><p>well to experimental data of activated carbon with</p><p>ZnCl2.</p><p>dos Santos Bispo</p><p>et al. (2021)</p><p>CANa (activated with</p><p>NaOH) CAZ (activated</p><p>with ZnCl2) CAH</p><p>(activated with H3PO4)</p><p>Oils and</p><p>greases</p><p>– 298 223 – High efficiencies (>93%) for removing oils and</p><p>greases from PW were found after applying AC</p><p>with zinc chloride and H3PO4, reaching U.S. EPA,</p><p>OSPAR, and CONAMA standards.</p><p>dos Santos Bispo</p><p>et al. (2021)</p><p>Lawsonia leaves Spilled oil – 301–323</p><p>K</p><p>0.1–0.35 g/L 0.5–3 h The removal efficiency decreased with the cycles of</p><p>the sorption/desorption system and indicates that</p><p>the biomass leaves can be reused for 4 cycles until</p><p>the removal efficiency declines under 40%</p><p>Mahmoud et al.</p><p>(2022)</p><p>TiO2-PAN (TECP) nanofibers</p><p>mats</p><p>Spilled oil – 298 – 20–120 s The synergistic effect of PAN and TiO2 offers highly</p><p>oleophilic, good hydrophobicity, biocompatibility,</p><p>and cost-effective nanocomposite.</p><p>Poddar et al.</p><p>(2022)</p><p>Candelilla wax modified</p><p>coal fly ash cenospheres</p><p>(CW-FACs)</p><p>Spilled oil 1–13 283–313</p><p>K</p><p>100–1600</p><p>mg/L</p><p>0–30</p><p>min</p><p>The retention rate of the oil adsorption capacity of</p><p>the CW-FACs after 6 cycles of adsorption-</p><p>extraction was as high as 93.2%.</p><p>Sun et al. (2023)</p><p>CW-FACs can be widely used, easily recycled, and</p><p>reused for marine oil spill remediation, which is</p><p>also a good alternative disposal solution for FACs</p><p>Natural rubber/reduced-</p><p>graphene oxide [NR/rGO</p><p>(NRG)] composite</p><p>materials</p><p>Oil – 277–343</p><p>K</p><p>– 15 min The presence of rGO increased the strength of the</p><p>NRG-0.5 compared to that of pure NR, which</p><p>resulted in a high-performance and reusable</p><p>material with an oil removal efficiency higher than</p><p>70% after 30 uses</p><p>Songsaeng et al.</p><p>(2019)</p><p>A. Haruna et al.</p><p>Journal of Cleaner Production 416 (2023) 137863</p><p>13</p><p>(Majed Al-Salem et al., 2019). Similarly, the desulfurization process in</p><p>O&G facilities produces significant amounts of sulfur (Gwon et al.,</p><p>2018). This sulfur is a crucial component of gunpowder, matches, py-</p><p>rotechnics, rubber vulcanization, fungicides, insecticides, fumigants,</p><p>fertilizers, and for curing several skin conditions. Sulfur may be trans-</p><p>formed into sulfuric acid, utilized in fertilizers, dyes, and washing-up</p><p>liquids (Khan et al., 2021). Due to the ability to recycle sulfur con-</p><p>crete, it is favorable for use in cement polymer concrete and the building</p><p>industry (Mohamed and El-Gamal, 2010). This increases their value as a</p><p>low-cost, sustainable construction substance (Gwon et al., 2019). A</p><p>summary of the various applications of O&G wastes in the construction</p><p>industry is presented in Table 3. Other important applications of sulfur</p><p>are summarized in Table 4.</p><p>The production of petrochemicals and the method of refining oil</p><p>produce surfactant wastes in the petroleum sector (Akchurin et al.,</p><p>2016). Naphthenic (40%) and resin-asphaltene complex molecules (4%)</p><p>are among the aromatic hydrocarbons in high distillate extract con-</p><p>centrations. The addition of these compounds to cement can reduce</p><p>internal friction in concrete by permitting the formation of adsorption</p><p>monomolecular shells on the cement particles’ surfaces. Additionally,</p><p>they raise the specific surface of cement particles, peptize the</p><p>binder-splitting of particles that are present during coagulation, and are</p><p>helpful for the hydration and structure development of cement stone</p><p>(Tukhareli et al., 2017). A combination of hydrocarbons from different</p><p>homologous series, resin asphaltene compounds, and soluble paraffinic</p><p>hydrocarbons are all present in the organic portion of oil waste (OFOW).</p><p>OFOW is a chemical supplement that can be used for waterproofing and</p><p>plasticizing. The longevity of concrete is increased by the addition of</p><p>OFOW, which results in modified concrete with better frost resistance,</p><p>density, water absorption, porosity, and resistance to harsh conditions.</p><p>The altered concrete can be applied to new construction and site repairs</p><p>(Akchurin et al., 2016).</p><p>5.1. Natural gas</p><p>Natural gas is created when the production of crude oil is separated</p><p>(Aigba et al., 2022). Due to a lack of infrastructure to treat it and reduce</p><p>pollution discharges, this produced gas is destroyed or disposed of</p><p>(Emam, 2015). Some of this “waste” gas burns when it gets to the surface</p><p>through a procedure known as flaring to get rid of it (Buzcu-Guven and</p><p>Harriss, 2012). From the beginning of O&G extraction, gas flaring has</p><p>been used to burn gas during refining or release gas from erupting wells</p><p>(Mourad et al., 2009). Energy waste and GHG releases are caused mainly</p><p>by this gas-flaring process (Abam et al., 2020). WHO, World Bank, and</p><p>other pertinent governmental and non-governmental organizations</p><p>greatly emphasize reducing GHG emissions (Aigba et al., 2022). Pro-</p><p>grams such as the “Zero Routine Flaring by 2030″ campaign, and the</p><p>World Bank’s program, which encourages governments and oil firms to</p><p>stop frequent flaring by 2030, were introduced in 2015.</p><p>Gas flaring reduction has been suggested as a potential outcome of</p><p>the creation of a flare gas recovery (FGR) system (Bhran et al., 2016),</p><p>which is also useful for lowering thermal radiation, noise and pollution</p><p>emissions from gas flaring (American Petroleum Institute, 2014). In</p><p>many ways, since waste gas can be converted into electricity, using it is</p><p>an investment instead of a liability or segregated entirely for financial</p><p>advantages (Abam et al., 2020). Technologies have been used for flare</p><p>and related recovery and utilization, including gas compression and</p><p>reinjection, NGL refinery, fuel creation, comprising GTL, chemical cre-</p><p>ation, comprising methanol and DME, LPG, LNG, NGH, and production</p><p>of power (Khalili-Garakani et al., 2022). These technologies are crucial</p><p>for turning wasted gas into money (Aigba et al., 2022).</p><p>5.1.1. Compression and reinjection</p><p>Compression entails</p><p>either the low, medium, or high-pressure phases</p><p>needed to prepare flare gas for ingestion as fuel gas (Tahouni et al.,</p><p>2016). Common methods for lowering gas flaring include recycling to</p><p>the plant’s feed (Ghasemikafrudi et al., 2017), condensate or liquefied</p><p>petroleum gas (LPG) separation (Hajizadeh et al., 2018), or reinjection</p><p>into oil and gas wells (Soltanieh et al., 2016). Reinjection is the main</p><p>method for recovering the associated gas when no proper substitute</p><p>removal is possible (Spence and Kessler, 2011). Flare gases from</p><p>petrochemical and oil refineries are frequently recycled into plant feed,</p><p>while from gas refineries are used as fuel gas. EOR is a popular technique</p><p>for monetizing associated gas. Associated gas reinjection is regarded as a</p><p>method of boosting oil field recovery or pressure maintenance necessary</p><p>to increase expected output (Saunier et al., 2019).</p><p>5.1.2. NGL refinery process</p><p>Another common method to reduce related or stranded gas is the</p><p>utilization of Natural gas liquids (NGL) refinery. These facilities use a</p><p>variety of pre-treatment techniques, including liquid phase separation,</p><p>acid gas removal, and dehydration. The gas is then fractionated into its</p><p>constituent parts, including methane, ethane, propane, butane, and</p><p>natural gasoline. NGL facilities are used to organize the associated gas</p><p>Fig. 6. The reduction, reuse and recycling of oil and gas waste to value-added products.</p><p>A. Haruna et al.</p><p>Journal of Cleaner Production 416 (2023) 137863</p><p>14</p><p>Table 3</p><p>Applications of oil and gas wastes in the construction industry (Asim et al., 2021).</p><p>Entry Waste material Application (Production) Achievements and properties Ref.</p><p>1. Treated oil sand wastes Controlled low-strength materials Flowability improvements, a reduction in dry density, considerable</p><p>bleed water reductions, minimal heavy metal leaching, and</p><p>compressive strength of 423–1233 kPa</p><p>Mneina et al. (2018)</p><p>2. Recycled aggregates from oil-</p><p>contaminated concrete</p><p>The layering of unbound paving</p><p>materials for road</p><p>Variations in aggregate strength, optimal moisture, and maximum</p><p>dry density are unimportantly affected; water absorption increases,</p><p>and compressive strength decreases as oil contamination content</p><p>rises.</p><p>Morafa et al. (2017)</p><p>3. Oil-contaminated sand Cement mortar The interfacial tension zone is unaffected by waste percentages</p><p>(~2%), but porosity increases at greater percentages.</p><p>Abousnina et al. (2020)</p><p>4. Fine sand contaminated with</p><p>light crude oil</p><p>Cement mortar The compressive strength of samples with 1% oil-contaminated</p><p>sand was highest (18%, 30%, and 17% greater at 7, 14, and 28</p><p>days, respectively), while samples with more waste (2%–10%)</p><p>could reduce compressive strength by 50%.</p><p>Abousnina et al. (2016)</p><p>5. Fine sand contaminated with</p><p>light crude oil</p><p>Concrete For samples containing up to 6% waste, the compressive and</p><p>splitting tensile strengths are almost the same; however, increasing</p><p>waste composition leads to decreasing concrete density because of</p><p>increasing superficial porosity.</p><p>Abousnina et al. (2018)</p><p>6. Treated oil sand waste Grout manufacture Applying ~20% of waste in cement has no adverse effects on grout</p><p>characteristics and results in less heavy metal leakage than raw</p><p>waste.</p><p>Aboutabikh et al. (2016)</p><p>7. Treated oil sand waste Micropile structure utilizing grout</p><p>mixtures</p><p>By substituting waste for up to 30% of the fine aggregate in grout</p><p>mixtures, the surface characteristics of micropiles were preserved,</p><p>and the grout body diameter for micropiles was improved.</p><p>Aboutabikh et al. (2020)</p><p>8. Treated oil sand waste Concrete for continuous flight auger</p><p>(CFA) piles</p><p>CFA concrete’s performance is unaffected by the use of waste up to</p><p>30% of the time, and heavy metal leaching is rarely present</p><p>Kassem et al. (2018)</p><p>9. Oil-contaminated sand Road construction Sand with a 6 wt% oil content stabilized with 10 wt % cement kiln</p><p>dust had the best compressive strength and California bearing ratio</p><p>Nasr (2014)</p><p>10. Oil-contaminated sand Concrete When fine aggregate was replaced with oily sand in cured concrete</p><p>at a ratio of 1:1.5:3 (cement: fine aggregate: coarse aggregate) at</p><p>0.48 w/c, the concrete’s capacity to absorb water increased.</p><p>Almutairi (2020)</p><p>11. Crude oil-contaminated sandy</p><p>soil</p><p>Highway pavement construction The California bearing ratio was raised from 58% to 79% with the</p><p>addition of around 10 wt% oily sand, and the leaching of heavy</p><p>metals was reduced.</p><p>Ojuri and Epe (2016)</p><p>12. Oil-contaminated aggregates Cement mortar The paramount outcomes for cement solidification and the fresh</p><p>and toughened qualities of the resulting mortar were obtained</p><p>using mineral oil ~10% of the aggregate mass.</p><p>Almabrok et al. (2013)</p><p>13. Oil-contaminated soils Highway construction A 10 wt% of waste is good for base material, 30 to 40 wt% has more</p><p>air spaces, and up to 40 wt% is appropriate for a surface with</p><p>medium to light traffic.</p><p>Hassan et al. (2005)</p><p>14. Drilling fluid Building materials Waste drilling fluid was utilized as a partial replacement for clay in</p><p>construction.</p><p>Anghelescu et al. (2019)</p><p>15. Drilling cuttings Building materials Building products like cement, sintered brick, and non-fired brick</p><p>are produced using pyrolysis wastes from shale gas and oil drilling</p><p>cuttings.</p><p>Wang et al. (2017)</p><p>16. Drill cuttings Lightweight aggregates for the</p><p>building and road industry</p><p>Fly ash was combined with shale drill cuttings as an additive and</p><p>bentonite replacement to create lightweight aggregates. Shales</p><p>offer an extra supply of kaolinite compared to bentonite. The</p><p>creation of the mechanically resilient structure of aggregates</p><p>depends on thermal transformation to mullite.</p><p>Piszcz-Karaś et al. (2019)</p><p>17. Oil-based drilling mud Cement clinker To create cement with a paste strength of more than 80.0 MPa, 0%–</p><p>6% of drilling mud is employed at low calcination temperatures.</p><p>Lai et al. (2020)</p><p>18. Oil-based drilling mud Cement clinker A component of raw grain used to make cement clinker was drilling</p><p>mud. Limestone can be replaced by drilling mud.</p><p>Al Dhamri et al. (2020)</p><p>19. Oil -based drilling cuttings Cement clinker Drilling waste and arc furnace slag have been utilized as viable</p><p>replacements for limestone and clay in kiln feed for clinker</p><p>fabrication. One could replace ~38% of the limestone and 72% of</p><p>the clay. The final cement had the necessary technical</p><p>characteristics.</p><p>Bernardo et al. (2007)</p><p>20. Oil-based drilling muds Cement As an alternate cementitious material in the manufacture of</p><p>cement, non-aqueous drilling fluids were combined with alkali-</p><p>activated fly ash slurries. This procedure converts mud into cement</p><p>while preserving the essential cement properties.</p><p>(X. Liu et al., 2019)</p><p>21. Oil-based drilling mud Cement Limestone was swapped out for oil-based mud in the kiln feed. The</p><p>addition positively influenced the CO2 emissions during</p><p>calcination.</p><p>Abdul-Wahab et al.</p><p>(2016)</p><p>22. Water-based drilling cuttings Non-autoclaved aerated concrete Water-based drilling cuttings were combined with fly ash and</p><p>phosphogypsum to the tune of up to 40%. To create a dense and</p><p>interlocking microstructure, the mixture was steam cured at 80 ◦C</p><p>for 24 h.</p><p>(Wang et al., 2020)</p><p>23. Oil-based drill cuttings Lightweight aggregate for concrete To create lightweight aggregates with acceptable physical</p><p>qualities.</p><p>Ayati et al. (2019)</p><p>24. Oil-based drilling cuttings Non-autoclaved aerated concrete To create economically and ecologically friendly concrete material. (Wang et al., 2018)</p><p>(continued on next page)</p><p>A. Haruna et al.</p><p>Journal of Cleaner Production 416 (2023) 137863</p><p>15</p><p>Table 3 (continued )</p><p>Entry Waste material Application (Production) Achievements and properties Ref.</p><p>25. Oil-based drilling cuttings Concrete In the creation of concrete, drill cuttings are employed as a natural</p><p>form of fine aggregate. Drill cuttings with higher grades performed</p><p>better than samples with lower grades.</p><p>Foroutan et al. (2018)</p><p>26. Drilling cuttings Asphalt concrete Diverse drilling cutting samples from various fields have been used</p><p>effectively as a mineral powder in asphalt concrete mixtures.</p><p>Vaisman et al. (2020)</p><p>27. Oil–well drilling mud Road construction A low-strength material that can be used to create extra pavement</p><p>foundation layers was created.</p><p>Galeev (2019)</p><p>28. Modified drilling waste</p><p>materials</p><p>Roadway construction Barite and quartz make up most modified drilling debris.It</p><p>performed well as a base course material in the construction of</p><p>roads after being treated in the laboratory with 3% cement.</p><p>Shon et al. (2016)</p><p>29. Oil based drilling cuttings Road construction After heat treatment, a 7% limit of modified drilling cuttings was</p><p>added to the asphalt concrete mix as a mineral ingredient.</p><p>Mendaliyeva et al. (2015)</p><p>30. Oil-based drilling cuttings Hot mix asphalt In addition to PG 64-16 bitumen and granite aggregates, drill</p><p>cuttings were employed.</p><p>Khodadadi et al. (2020)</p><p>31. Water-based drilling cuttings Non-fired bricks To produce non-fired bricks, drilling cuttings (50 wt%) have been</p><p>used as a substitute material for cementitious substances and fine</p><p>aggregates.</p><p>(D. sheng Liu et al.,</p><p>2019)</p><p>32. Oil-based drilling cuttings Non-fired bricks The pyrolysis leftovers from oil-based drilling cuttings showed</p><p>pozzolanic properties.</p><p>Wang et al. (2019)</p><p>33. Oil well drilling waste Sintered shale brick Drilling waste was used as a substitute material for shale in a</p><p>sintered shale brick.</p><p>Li et al. (2011)</p><p>34. Oil-well drilling cuttings Sandcrete blocks Using thermally treated drilling cuttings in place of up to 50% of</p><p>the sand, sandcrete samples were created.Reduced heat</p><p>conductivity, sorptivity, and water absorption were all seen in the</p><p>sandcrete. It also had increased density.</p><p>Mohammed and</p><p>Cheeseman (2011)</p><p>35. Oil-well drilling cuttings Building ceramics Drill cuttings have been utilized as the primary component and</p><p>additive from minerals in ceramic structures.</p><p>(Nadegda Rykusova</p><p>et al., 2020)</p><p>36. Offshore drilling waste Hot mix asphalt concrete Drilling waste ~20% was used to substitute aggregate. Wasiuddin et al. (2002)</p><p>37. Drilling cuttings Cold-Mix Asphalt A more developed pore organization in the aggregates was</p><p>obtained when the dampness content is high when ~20% of the</p><p>virgin aggregate was substituted with incinerator bottom ash.</p><p>Allen et al. (2007)</p><p>38. Drilling cuttings Filler in bituminous mixtures Waste used to substitute limestone aggregates had the needed</p><p>necessary qualities.</p><p>Dhir et al. (2010)</p><p>39. Drill cuttings Construction Oily drill cuttings can be effectively treated for reuse in</p><p>construction by immobilizing metals in them.</p><p>Okoh (2015)</p><p>40. Waste drilling fluids and</p><p>cuttings</p><p>Permeable bricks and concrete</p><p>partial substitute</p><p>At 15 ◦C, permeable bricks had permeability coefficients ranging</p><p>from 3.9 × 10− 3 to 8.1 × 10− 3 cm/s and strengths ranging from 350</p><p>to 1200 kgf/cm2. Concrete sample strengths ranged from 310 to</p><p>350 kgf/cm2.Both materials’ properties complied with CNS</p><p>requirements.</p><p>Chen et al. (2007)</p><p>41. Oil-well drilling cuttings Sandcrete Blocks Thermally treated drilling cuttings were used to replace up to 50%</p><p>of the sand in the preparation of the sandcrete samples. The</p><p>sandcrete displayed decreased thermal conductivity, decreased</p><p>sorptivity, decreased water absorption, and increased density.</p><p>Mohammed and</p><p>Cheeseman (2011)</p><p>42. Encapsulated petroleum waste</p><p>(oily sludge)</p><p>Red ceramic product Red ceramic preparation can use up to 30 wt%; all firing</p><p>temperatures can improve properties and is suitable for roofing</p><p>tiles and clay bricks</p><p>Pinheiro and Holanda</p><p>(2009)</p><p>43. Oily Porcelainsludgestoneware tile Kaolin substitution ~5 wt%, safe leaching limits, reduced linear</p><p>shrinkage, perceived density, increased flexural strength, and a rise</p><p>in waste causes increased water absorption.</p><p>Pinheiro and Holanda</p><p>(2013)</p><p>44. Oily sludge Clay-based Ceramics (hollow bricks</p><p>and roofing tiles)</p><p>Safe leaching limits; up to 30 wt percent of waste in lieu of natural</p><p>clay.</p><p>Souza et al. (2011)</p><p>45. Oily sludge Masonry bricks They are lowering the amount of water and fuel used during</p><p>production; permissible leaching limits.</p><p>Sengupta et al. (2002)</p><p>46. Oil refinery sludge Energy sources for the cement</p><p>industry</p><p>Customized blends reduce greenhouse gas emissions, enhance</p><p>atmospheric pollutant emissions, maintain functioning and</p><p>bearable inclusions, and minimize clinker loss.</p><p>Tsiligiannis and</p><p>Tsiliyannis (2020)</p><p>47. Oily sludge Asphalt paving Acceptable leaching limits are met by samples that contain up to</p><p>22% oily sludge and yet meet the requirements for asphalt</p><p>concrete.</p><p>Taha et al. (2001)</p><p>48. Oil- well drilling sludge Wall ceramic Drilling sludge, which contains a high concentration of clay-like</p><p>particles, was employed as a mineral additive to create ceramics</p><p>with useable operational qualities.</p><p>(N. Rykusova et al.,</p><p>2020)</p><p>49. Oily sludge Roadbed material When treating oily sludge, cementitious materials such as regular</p><p>portland cement, fly ash, and silica fume, were utilized as binders</p><p>and phosphogypsum was used as a stabilizer to create solidified</p><p>sludge appropriate for use as roadbed material.</p><p>Xiao et al. (2019)</p><p>50. Petroleum sludge Blocks for buildings Compared to typical building blocks, improved physical and</p><p>mechanical properties with high compressive strength were</p><p>recorded.</p><p>Johnson et al. (2015)</p><p>51. Fluidized bed cracking catalyst Concrete Substitution of sand for the ideal quantity of spent</p><p>catalystenhanced frost resistance, denser concrete, less water</p><p>absorption, and improved microstructure</p><p>Pacewska et al. (2002)</p><p>52. Electrostatic precipitator</p><p>catalyst (EPcat) from the</p><p>cracking unit</p><p>Superplasticized mortars Samples with EPcat had greater compressive strength; more water</p><p>or superplasticizer is needed to keep EPcat-containing mortars</p><p>effective; and the cement hydrates faster.</p><p>Hsu et al. (2001)</p><p>(continued on next page)</p><p>A. Haruna et al.</p><p>Journal of Cleaner Production 416 (2023) 137863</p><p>16</p><p>Table 3 (continued )</p><p>Entry Waste material Application (Production) Achievements and properties Ref.</p><p>53. Spent equilibrium catalyst Fired brick Bricks with spent catalyst have improved heat protection qualities</p><p>than regular burnt bricks and have compressive strengths more</p><p>than 3000 psi and exceed the specifications for a severe weathering</p><p>grade.</p><p>Chen and Chou (2013)</p><p>54. Spent catalyst (FCC) of the</p><p>cracking process</p><p>Non-structural blocks and floor</p><p>pavers</p><p>Samples with acceptable mechanical qualities result from up to</p><p>45% cement replacement.</p><p>Caicedo-Caicedo et al.</p><p>(2015)</p><p>55. Catalytic cracking catalyst</p><p>residue (FCC)</p><p>Concrete The optimum performance is obtained with a 10% substitution of</p><p>cement with spent catalyst.</p><p>Torres Castellanos and</p><p>Torres Agredo (2010)</p><p>56. Spent catalytic cracking</p><p>catalyst (FCC)</p><p>Hydraulic binders A mixture of wasted catalyst and fly ash was utilized to partially</p><p>replace Portland cement; samples including fly ash or low</p><p>concentrations of spent catalyst exhibit a noticeable acceleration of</p><p>Portland cement hydration, which can result in negative fixed lime</p><p>values at fresh faced curing ages.</p><p>Velázquez et al. (2016)</p><p>57. Spent catalyst from cracking</p><p>reactor</p><p>Building ceramics A small amount (10%) of milled</p><p>catalyst may be used; a significant</p><p>amount (20%) has a negative impact on the physical-mechanical</p><p>characteristics of the ceramic body.</p><p>(Č et al., 2015)</p><p>58. Milled and unmilled fluidized</p><p>bed cracking catalyst (FBCC)</p><p>Calcium aluminate cement Unmilled FBCC can replace calcium aluminate cement ~10% of it,</p><p>increasing cement hydration, however milled FBCC can only be</p><p>used up to 5% of the time; they lessen the overall heat produced</p><p>during the first 72 h of cement hydration.</p><p>Antonovič et al. (2020)</p><p>59. Spent fluidized cracking</p><p>catalyst</p><p>Middle cement castable Compressive strength increased 20%–35% when 5% of spent</p><p>catalyst was added.</p><p>Stonys et al. (2008)</p><p>60. Spent catalysts from thermal</p><p>cracking process</p><p>Bricks The final qualities of the bricks are unaffected when ~20 wt% of</p><p>spent catalyst was added to the clay mixture.</p><p>Acchar et al. (2009)</p><p>61. Spent catalyst of</p><p>desulfurization operations</p><p>Portland cement clinker Using 4% spent catalyst creates pastes of eco-cement that are</p><p>equivalent in compressive strength to pastes of regular Portland</p><p>cement.</p><p>Lin et al. (2017)</p><p>62. Spent alumina catalyst Clinker preparation Utilizing spent catalyst to replace bauxite results in samples with</p><p>nearly identical chemical, physical and mechanical characteristics</p><p>to those of Portland clinker and had no impact on the manufactured</p><p>cement’s quality.</p><p>Al-Dhamri and Melghit</p><p>(2010)</p><p>63. Calcined spent fluid catalytic</p><p>cracking</p><p>Cordierite and cordierite-mullite</p><p>ceramics</p><p>Catalyst residue was calcined into a non-hazardous AlVO4 ceramic</p><p>phase, and the resulting samples’ porosity and coefficient of</p><p>thermal expansion (CTE) were lower than those of comparable</p><p>industrial goods.</p><p>Ramezani et al. (2017)</p><p>64. Spent equilibrium catalyst</p><p>(ECat)</p><p>Ready-mixed concrete Samples with a low concentration of ECat (16%) exhibit enhanced</p><p>mechanical strength and durability; samples with a high content of</p><p>ECat (33%) perform poorly.</p><p>Costa and Marques</p><p>(2018)</p><p>65. Spent residue catalysts (SRC) of</p><p>fluid cat-cracking</p><p>Mullite-based wear-resistant</p><p>ceramics</p><p>Pre-calcination had no discernible effects on the final qualities of</p><p>the manufactured ceramic; sintering at 1450 ◦C provided the</p><p>greatest options when making wear-resistant ceramics.</p><p>Mohammadi et al. (2020)</p><p>66. Spent petroleum refining</p><p>catalysts</p><p>Blended cement The amount of water needed increases with the addition of spent</p><p>catalyst; the setting time and early strength are accelerated with the</p><p>addition of 0.5% spent catalyst; the long-term mechanical strength</p><p>is improved with the addition of up to 5.0% spent catalyst; safe</p><p>leaching boundaries.</p><p>Da et al. (2020)</p><p>67. Purified waste FCC catalyst</p><p>(pFCC), waste FCC catalyst</p><p>Cement replacement material Samples of hardened cement paste containing FCC or pFCC were</p><p>created. When compared to samples containing FCC or reference</p><p>samples, the pFCC blended cements developed better strength after</p><p>28 days.</p><p>Vaičiukynienė et al.</p><p>(2015)</p><p>68. Spent fluid catalytic-cracking</p><p>catalyst (FCC)</p><p>Blended cements Leaching limits that were acceptable; some strength loss when</p><p>using 10%–20% raw catalyst, which diminished with curing time;</p><p>samples with up to 30% ground FCC exhibited higher strength</p><p>growth as a result of the packing and pozzolanic effects combined.</p><p>Antiohos et al. (2006)</p><p>69. Spent equilibrium catalyst</p><p>(ECat)</p><p>Self-compacting concrete Compressive strength and resistivity improvements for ECat-</p><p>containing mortars</p><p>Nunes and Costa (2017)</p><p>70. Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC)</p><p>catalyst</p><p>Cement mortars When employed as a sand replacement, the spent catalyst produced</p><p>encouraging results.</p><p>Al-Jabri et al. (2013)</p><p>71. Spent fluidized catalytic</p><p>cracking (zeolite catalyst)</p><p>Cement mortars FCC has higher compressive strength than unsubstituted samples</p><p>and can replace up to 10% of fine aggregate (sand) without</p><p>reducing mortar strength.</p><p>Su et al. (2001)</p><p>72. Ecat (equilibrium catalyst),</p><p>Epcat (electrostatic</p><p>precipitator catalyst)</p><p>High-performance mortars Due to its smaller particle size, Epcat performed almost as well as</p><p>mortar with silica fume or slightly better.</p><p>Chen et al. (2004)</p><p>73. Fluid catalytic cracking</p><p>catalyst residue (FC3R)</p><p>Blended cements The FC3R-blended cements showed an increase in compressive</p><p>strength, producing mortars with an equivalent or higher</p><p>compressive strength than those made with regular Portland</p><p>cement.</p><p>(Payá et al., 2001)</p><p>74. Spent fluid catalytic cracking</p><p>catalyst</p><p>High strength mortars Enhanced characteristics in both the fresh and hardened stages; the</p><p>combined effects of pozzolans produced high-strength mortars that</p><p>contained 30% less cement.</p><p>Soriano et al. (2016)</p><p>75. Equilibrium catalyst (ECat),</p><p>zeolite catalyst (ZCat)</p><p>Hot mix asphalt In comparison to samples containing ZCat, which are unable to</p><p>withstand wetness and are not advised for use as filler materials,</p><p>samples containing ECat suffer less damage in environments where</p><p>there is moisture.</p><p>Al-Shamsi et al. (2015)</p><p>(continued on next page)</p><p>A. Haruna et al.</p><p>Journal of Cleaner Production 416 (2023) 137863</p><p>17</p><p>for gas to liquid (GTL) and liquefied natural gas (LNG) plants as well as</p><p>to feed petrochemical complexes. Other divisions, including mercury</p><p>and nitrogen removal, can also be necessary when NGL plants are uti-</p><p>lized to make feed for LNG or GTL plants (Khalili-Garakani et al., 2022).</p><p>5.1.3. Fuel production (GTL)</p><p>The two major products that can be created from flare or related gas</p><p>are synthetic gas and pure hydrogen (Saidi, 2018). Synthesis gas pro-</p><p>duction is crucial for the GTL process, which uses Fisher-Tropsh reactors</p><p>to produce low-sulfur liquid fuels. Due to requirements for low-sulfur</p><p>fuels and carbon mitigation, oil and gas firms are becoming more</p><p>interested in the GTL process (Perego et al., 2009).</p><p>The following steps are part of a standard GTL process (Khalili--</p><p>Garakani et al., 2022).</p><p>1. Syngas is produced by reforming flare or related gas.</p><p>2. By Fischer-Tropsch reactions, wax, and paraffinic hydrocarbons are</p><p>produced.</p><p>3. LPG, naphtha, kerosene, and diesel products are separated from in-</p><p>termediate distillation products.</p><p>High-quality final goods are produced by the GTL process. For</p><p>instance, GTL diesel offers good ignition quality and a substantial</p><p>decline in emissions while being well-matched with current diesel en-</p><p>gine technology. Similarly, GTL naphtha is a perfect feedstock for the</p><p>production of petrochemicals due to its high-quality chemical makeup,</p><p>devoid of metals, aromatics, and sulfur (Dong et al., 2008). GTL kero-</p><p>sene blends, often known as GTL jet fuel, have been certified for com-</p><p>mercial aircraft due to their enhanced energy density and greatly</p><p>reduced emissions of particulate matter and other contaminants (Buz-</p><p>cu-Guven and Harriss, 2012).</p><p>5.1.4. Production of chemicals</p><p>Researchers and industries are interested in producing other chem-</p><p>icals through the Fischer-Tropsch process, such as methanol (Khanipour</p><p>et al., 2017), ethylene (Zolfaghari et al., 2017), dimethyl ether (Bal-</p><p>linger and Adams, 2017) and ammonia (Powell, 2020). Methanol is a</p><p>crucial ingredient in producing many different products in the petro-</p><p>chemical sector. Examples of methanol usage for creating higher</p><p>value-added products are the methanol to olefin, methanol to propylene,</p><p>and methanol to gasoline processes (Khalili-Garakani et al., 2022).</p><p>Dimethyl ether (DME) is a liquid fuel that may be burned for both power</p><p>generation and transportation that is clean and non-corrosive. DME does</p><p>not emit SOx during combustion and emits substantially less NOx, and</p><p>CO than typical hydrocarbon fuels (Park and Lee, 2014). The production</p><p>of this liquid fuel could come from a variety of feedstocks, such</p><p>as flares</p><p>or related gas (Farooqui et al., 2019).</p><p>5.1.5. Liquefied petroleum gas</p><p>Due to its convenient storage and delivery to nearby markets, as well</p><p>Table 3 (continued )</p><p>Entry Waste material Application (Production) Achievements and properties Ref.</p><p>76. FCC spent catalyst Clinker In terms of the Portland clinker’s chemical makeup, physical</p><p>characteristics, and mechanical properties, substituting spent</p><p>catalysts for bauxite produced results that were comparable. It also</p><p>demonstrates that the quality of the created cement is unaffected by</p><p>the spent catalysts.</p><p>Al Dhamri et al. (2020)</p><p>77. Oil-based mud cutting Clinker production Clinker prepared using OBM cutting had similar properties to that</p><p>prepared from limestone.</p><p>Al Dhamri et al. (2020)</p><p>78. Sulfur Sulfur–polymer composite The mechanical strength and mass loss of sulfur composite trial in</p><p>10% HCl solution were narrow, but the Portland cement</p><p>composite’s physico-mechanical parameters regressed quickly.</p><p>(Vlahović et al., 2013)</p><p>79. Sulfur Sulfur concrete It has been demonstrated that compared to portland cement</p><p>concrete, sulfur concrete is substantially more resistant to acid and</p><p>saline conditions.</p><p>Shin et al. (2014)</p><p>80. Sulfur Sulfur composite as crack healing</p><p>agent</p><p>The compressive strength of sulfur composites is increased when</p><p>binary cement is used (up to 40%), and the strength is increased</p><p>when fly ash is included (up to 50%).</p><p>Gwon et al. (2018)</p><p>81. Sulfur Sulfur polymer concrete Concrete made with a thermoplastic binder can compete with those</p><p>made using hydraulic cement.</p><p>Moon et al. (2016)</p><p>82. Sulfur Self-healing modified sulfur</p><p>composites</p><p>The self-healing capability of modified sulfur composites was</p><p>enhanced by the use of cement based on calcium sulfoaluminate</p><p>and superabsorbent polymer.</p><p>Gwon et al. (2019)</p><p>83. Sulfur Modified sulfur polymer composites The rheological properties are improved with an increase in the</p><p>ratio of portland cement to fly ash, when utilized as the micro-filler</p><p>in the sulfur composites. Raising the mixing temperature also</p><p>significantly improves yield stress and plastic viscosity.</p><p>Gwon and Shin (2019)</p><p>84. Sulfur Rapid self-sealing modified sulfur</p><p>polymer composites</p><p>Superabsorbent polymer and binary cement are combined to create</p><p>a composite that can seal itself in 30 min. Rapid swelling caused by</p><p>the superabsorbent polymer’s absorption of water seals and bridges</p><p>the two crack faces and aids in the nucleation and growth of</p><p>hydrated products around the cracks.</p><p>Gwon et al. (2020)</p><p>85. Sulfur Carbon-negative polymer cements Maintaining mechanical strength following exposure to powerful</p><p>oxidizing acid solutions; thermal annealing promotes the repair of</p><p>surface damage.</p><p>Smith et al. (2020)</p><p>86. Oil contaminated sand fine aggregates of hotmix asphalts. Adding 15% laterite soil to sands with 3–10% oil contents increased</p><p>friction angles by 9.5–14.4%. For sands with 5% oil, treatment with</p><p>15 and 20% laterite soils increased California Bearing Ratio by 27</p><p>and 36%, respectively.</p><p>Abdelhalim et al. (2022)</p><p>87. oil-based drilling cuttings</p><p>residue (ODCRs)</p><p>subgrade materials for well site</p><p>construction</p><p>At the optimal cement content of 4%, and that of ODCRs is 60%,</p><p>ODCRs have pozzolanic characteristics. Active SiO2 and Al2O3 in</p><p>ODCRs can react with Ca(OH)2 to produce a certain amount of gel</p><p>materials, such as ettringite (AFt) and gel-hydrated calcium silicate</p><p>(C–S–H).</p><p>Deming and Chaoqiang</p><p>(2021)</p><p>88. Oil-based mud waste low-density polyethylene</p><p>composites</p><p>Waste-derived renewable nanocomposites with enhanced</p><p>structural and thermal properties.</p><p>Siddique et al. (2020)</p><p>A. Haruna et al.</p><p>Journal of Cleaner Production 416 (2023) 137863</p><p>18</p><p>as the greater proportion of propane and butane in associated gas con-</p><p>tent compared to non-associated gas, LPG is a desirable method of using</p><p>associated gas. The gas is compressed, the heavier carbon fraction is</p><p>condensed by chilling the compressed gas, which is separated to make</p><p>LPG (Buzcu-Guven and Harriss, 2012). It is now possible to deploy</p><p>miniature LPG machinery in propane and butane-rich gas sources. LPG</p><p>might offer an appealing substitute for residential biomass energy</p><p>application to automotive fuels in numerous emerging countries,</p><p>particularly in Africa (Buzcu-Guven and Harriss, 2012).</p><p>5.1.6. Liquefied natural gas</p><p>The creation of liquefied natural gas (LNG) is a well-known remedy</p><p>for hard-to-reach places. This technology is available for plants of</p><p>various scales, as well as onshore and offshore (including floating pro-</p><p>duction, storage, and offloading or floating liquefied natural gas facil-</p><p>ities) (Khan et al., 2017). The recapture of flare and related gas</p><p>unsuitable for the traditional large-scale LNG operations. However,</p><p>technology advancements in miniature LNG facilities provides new</p><p>chances to retrieve and use lower volumes of related gas (Saunier et al.,</p><p>2019). Methane is chilled to − 160 ◦C using cryogenic techniques, and it</p><p>is subsequently depressurized to air pressure in order to produce LNG. In</p><p>this way, the gas might be stored more safely and affordably because it</p><p>only takes up 1/600th of its usual volume (Khalili-Garakani et al., 2022).</p><p>5.1.7. Natural gas hydrates</p><p>Natural gas is a substance that may be crystallized and is chemically</p><p>stable at a temperature of − 20 ◦C. This substance is known as natural gas</p><p>hydrate (NGH). Lower capital, shipping, and storage costs resulting from</p><p>the stabilizing temperature being much greater than the LNG tempera-</p><p>ture of − 162 ◦C. NGH has a lower density than LNG; as a result, the</p><p>amount of gas that can be transported in the form of hydrates is much</p><p>less than with LNG technology. NGH is still at the research stage as a way</p><p>to use associated gas, and ongoing works are to create and transport</p><p>NGH using gas-to-solids technology (Buzcu-Guven and Harriss, 2012).</p><p>5.1.8. Power generation</p><p>Another way to profit from related or flare gas is by producing power</p><p>or using gas to wire technology (Khalili-Garakani et al., 2022). Various</p><p>methods are available such as Gas Turbine Cycle (Heidari et al., 2016;</p><p>Ojijiagwo et al., 2016), Combined Cycle Gas Turbine, Reciprocating</p><p>Internal Combustion Engine Cycle, and Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)/-</p><p>Gas Turbine Cycle (Al-Khori et al., 2020; Nezhadfard and</p><p>Khalili-Garakani, 2020).</p><p>Table 4</p><p>Other applications of sulfur.</p><p>Entry Waste Material Application Achievements Properties Ref.</p><p>1. Sulfur Sulfur concrete It shows better mechanical properties than normal strength</p><p>conventional concretes and is highly resistant to both acid and salt</p><p>environments but completely loses its strength in NaOH solution.</p><p>Gulzar et al. (2021)</p><p>2. Sulfur Sulfur-stabilized liquid marble The capability of sulfur-stabilized liquid marbles to be deformed at</p><p>different pH values enables these liquid marbles to act as micro</p><p>reservoirs with desired shapes for aqueous solutions. Acts as a</p><p>photocatalytic microreactor for the decomposition of organic dyes.</p><p>Salehabad and Azizian</p><p>(2020)</p><p>3. Sulfur Asphalt paving applications Asphalt cement binder partially substituted with sulfur waste (SW)</p><p>show that stability and tensile strength ratio are greater than the</p><p>minimum values of ASTM specification limit up to 20% SW.</p><p>Al-Hadidy (2023)</p><p>4. Sulfur Supercapacitor Sulfur-doped carbon materials-based Supercapacitors have</p><p>enhanced surface wettability, improved conductivity, and induced</p><p>pseudocapacitance effect, delivering improved specific energy and</p><p>specific power.</p><p>Shaheen Shah et al. (2022)</p><p>5. Sulfur Sulfur nanodot Photoluminescence</p><p>and Chemical sensing</p><p>Features of nontoxicity, hydrophilicity, high stability, and easy</p><p>modification.</p><p>Shi et al. (2020)</p><p>6. Sulfur Lithium–sulfur</p><p>batteries Lithium–sulfur batteries are among the most valuable secondary</p><p>batteries because of their high theoretical energy density</p><p>(~2600Whkg− 1).</p><p>(Y. Y. Li et al., 2021)</p><p>7. Sulfur Municipal tailwater treatment Sulfur prominently enhanced total Nitrogen, NO3</p><p>− -N and total</p><p>Phosphorous removal with efficiencies higher than 68.9%, 69.2%,</p><p>and 45.5%, respectively.</p><p>Li et al. (2023)</p><p>8. Sulfur Skin treatments Antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-inflammatory activities that are</p><p>inherent.</p><p>Scott and Njardarson</p><p>(2018)</p><p>9. Sulfur water Balneotherapy Effective remedy for anti-aging and skin conditions. An effective</p><p>treatment for diseases brought on by stress and moderate</p><p>inflammation.</p><p>Gálvez et al. (2018)</p><p>10. Sulfur Lithium sulfur (Li–S) Battery Li–S battery fused with porous organic polymer gave a 927</p><p>mAh•g− 1 discharge capacity, 200 mA g− 1 density and a 898</p><p>mAh•g− 1 charge capacity with 97% coulombic efficiency. Mostly</p><p>suited for electric vehicles.</p><p>(Evans and Pickett, 2003;</p><p>Weng et al., 2014)</p><p>11. Iron sulfur cluster Hydrogen production form the</p><p>electrocatalytic reduction of</p><p>pentafluoro thiophenol</p><p>Iron clusters undertake transfer of electrons in catalytic, structural,</p><p>and sensory roles in biological systems.</p><p>(Alenezi and Alshammari,</p><p>2017; Evans and Pickett,</p><p>2003)</p><p>12. Sulfur Solar power storage Using the sulfur-sulfuric acid cycle, solar energy can be chemically</p><p>stored on a huge scale.</p><p>Landgraf (2017)</p><p>13. Sulfur Hazardous wastes treatment In the Solidification/Stabilization (S/S) treatment of hazardous</p><p>wastes, sulfur is coated in cement form as a primary binder and</p><p>layer.</p><p>Abdel-Wahab et al. (2010)</p><p>These substances help to immobilize hazardous metals in waste</p><p>materials and are used in agriculture to treat soils and groundwater</p><p>to reduce toxicity.</p><p>14. Sulfidogenic process</p><p>utilizing Sulfate-Reducing</p><p>Bacteria (SRB)</p><p>Arsenite removal precipitates arsenite with sulfide to remove arsenite from the</p><p>waters that are polluted with arsenic.</p><p>Sun et al. (2019)</p><p>15. Sulfur Fertilizers Through thiosulfate oxidation, several sulfur oxidizing bacteria are</p><p>used to promote early plant growth.</p><p>Rangasamy et al. (2014)</p><p>A. Haruna et al.</p><p>Journal of Cleaner Production 416 (2023) 137863</p><p>19</p><p>5.1.8.1. Gas turbine cycle. A typical gas turbine cycle absorbs fuel en-</p><p>ergy, generates work, and vents heat to a lower-temperature basin. The</p><p>Joule-Brayton constant pressure closed-cycle is the foundation of the gas</p><p>turbine cycle, which involves a constant air flow (gas) through a</p><p>compressor, a heater, a turbine, and a cooler inside a closed circuit</p><p>(Nicola Paoli, 2008). In the combustor of the gas turbine, flare gas burns</p><p>with compressed air at a compression ratio of 12:1 to produce electricity</p><p>(Nezhadfard and Khalili-Garakani, 2020).</p><p>5.1.8.2. Combined cycle gas turbine. In a combined cycle gas turbine, the</p><p>remaining heat from the gas turbine’s hot exhaust gas is recovered to</p><p>create steam, which is then used to produce more electricity. In reality,</p><p>the gas turbine cycle is followed by a bottoming process in the combined</p><p>cycle, often a steam cycle depending on the Rankine cycle. When steam</p><p>is generated from the gas turbine’s hot exhaust using heat recovery</p><p>steam generators, the resulting steam is expanded in a steam turbine to</p><p>produce more electricity (Nezhadfard and Khalili-Garakani, 2020).</p><p>5.1.8.3. Reciprocating internal combustion engine cycle. Comparable to a</p><p>Gas Turbine Cycle, a Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engine (RICE)</p><p>Cycle generates power using a gas engine rather than a gas turbine. The</p><p>advantages of the reciprocating internal combustion engine over the gas</p><p>turbine are higher single-cycle efficiency, more effective operating</p><p>under part-load, and quick startup times. Additionally, a gas engine</p><p>requires less pressure than a gas turbine (Nezhadfard and</p><p>Khalili-Garakani, 2020).</p><p>5.1.8.4. Solid oxide fuel cell/gas turbine cycle. Another method of pro-</p><p>ducing electricity from hydrocarbon fuels is to employ a SOFC, which</p><p>can also be used for flare recovery. A variety of hydrocarbon fuels can be</p><p>used in SOFCs. Due to their high working temperature of around</p><p>1000 ◦C, SOFCs generate a lot of waste heat that can be utilized to in-</p><p>crease system efficiency by creating hot water, steam, or more power</p><p>through a bottoming cycle (Nezhadfard and Khalili-Garakani, 2020).</p><p>5.2. Naturally occurring radioactive materials</p><p>Naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) refers to radio-</p><p>active compounds exposed to the environment in varied amounts</p><p>through several processes. Technologically advanced naturally occur-</p><p>ring radioactive materials (TENORM) are generated due to the rise in</p><p>radioactive emissions caused by human actions (Barclay and Zamfir,</p><p>2010). As a result of this, NORM and TENORM typically contain decayed</p><p>by-products like radon and radium. TENORM, brought on by human</p><p>activities that exacerbate radioactivity, raises threats to human society</p><p>and the environment. The primary cause is those of at least 400 naturally</p><p>occurring minerals that contain significant amounts of radionuclides</p><p>from the uranium and thorium decay series (Michalik, 2007). Almost all</p><p>the materials classified as TENORM may have very little radioactivity,</p><p>but some have a relatively high radioactivity concentration which can</p><p>result in significant dosage (Osmanliolu, 2021). TENORM wastes pri-</p><p>marily come from O&G extraction, mineral extraction, water treatment,</p><p>and numerous industrial operations. In petroleum exploration, alkaline</p><p>earth metals like sulfate, carbonates, and silicates precipitate on drill</p><p>pipes and other metal surfaces, significantly causing TENORM. Ac-</p><p>cording to reports, offshore oil production facilities had activity con-</p><p>centrations of 3 × 102 kBq/kg (Kvasnicka, 1996; Paschoa and</p><p>MacDowell, 1996).</p><p>During the production of oil and gas, drilling and rock fracturing</p><p>operations involve injecting pressurized water, sand, and chemicals into</p><p>rock formations. Cracks are created due to this process, removing the</p><p>underground radioactive material from its original location. These</p><p>naturally radioactive substances come into contact with liquids and</p><p>machinery, rising to the surface during production. This pollution pro-</p><p>cess gives rise to technologically enhanced naturally occurring</p><p>radioactive materials (TENORM), which pose health risks to workers in</p><p>O&G well fields. (Osmanliolu, 2021). With the rise in O&G production</p><p>facilities, most naturally occurring radioactive elements are created as</p><p>waste products. When doing typical procedures in this industry, TEN-</p><p>ORM wastes may result in amounts of exposure to radiation that require</p><p>vigilance and ongoing observation. This exposure is mainly brought on</p><p>by the radioisotope 226Ra and external gamma rays produced by their</p><p>descendants (Doyi et al., 2016). The emission of radiation like alpha (α),</p><p>beta (β), and gamma (γ) radiations usually occur in conjunction with the</p><p>radioactive decay of naturally existing isotopes.</p><p>Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons, forming a</p><p>helium nucleus. They have the following properties.</p><p>(i) They are weakly penetrating and can be blocked by a water film</p><p>or a sheet of paper.</p><p>(ii) (Their range is limited, typically 1–2 cm even in the air.</p><p>(iii) They are considered a negligible external risk, but if a sufficient</p><p>amount is ingested, they pose a significant internal risk.</p><p>Beta particles are high-energy electrons or positrons emitted from the</p><p>nucleus of radioactive atoms. They possess the following properties.</p><p>(i) They lose energy more slowly and have greater penetration</p><p>compared to alpha particles.</p><p>(ii) They can travel a few meters through the air.</p><p>(iii) They can be easily stopped by a thin covering, such</p><p>as about 1 cm</p><p>of plastic or 1 mm of metal.</p><p>Gamma rays are high-energy electromagnetic waves with exceptional</p><p>penetrating power. They exhibit the following characteristics.</p><p>(i) They have a highly intense waveform resembling the X-rays used</p><p>in medical applications.</p><p>(ii) They can penetrate steel exteriors of pipes and vessels, as well as</p><p>the human body, and have a substantial effective range in air.</p><p>For a clear understanding of the potential risks and benefits of</p><p>keeping specific infrastructures in place using eco-risk studies, re-</p><p>searchers and industry are collaborating to address the obstacles</p><p>encountered when managing NORM wastes, such as the lack of waste</p><p>disposal options and screening techniques (Vienna, 2020). However,</p><p>NORM might be investigated for potential imaging use (Hussein, 2019).</p><p>It has been demonstrated that imaging with natural alpha rays is</p><p>particularly valuable in geological and mineralogy applications. In</p><p>contrast, imaging with natural beta rays is most useful for imaging</p><p>potassium-rich earth crust minerals and flora. Natural gamma-ray im-</p><p>aging is largely used in astronomy, mineral mining, discovering natu-</p><p>rally fissile minerals, and well logging (Hussein, 2019).</p><p>Over the last few years, soil and marine contamination with radio-</p><p>active materials has presented high radiation levels, which can be</p><p>detrimental to the environment. Radioactive fallout due to nuclear ac-</p><p>cidents severely threatens human survival (Nair et al., 2014). The</p><p>danger of radioactive pollution depends on the concentration of the</p><p>radioactive materials, the type of radiation, and the energy emitted by</p><p>the radiation. The migration and diffusion of radionuclides are signifi-</p><p>cant, and they quickly enter the human body through the biological</p><p>chain, leading to an increased risk of cancer (Yang et al., 2019).</p><p>Therefore, the treatment of radioactive waste is considered a very</p><p>difficult task. For example, on the 11th of March 2011, an accident</p><p>occurred in Japan where radioactive Cs released from the Fukushima</p><p>Daiichi nuclear power plant resulted in significant amounts of soil</p><p>pollution (~29 million cubic meters), causing severe damage to the</p><p>environment and public health (Y. Chen et al., 2018; Kuroda et al.,</p><p>2013).</p><p>Interestingly, the O&G industries utilize many radiation sources in</p><p>various applied radiation-based technologies (Papynov et al., 2019).</p><p>A. Haruna et al.</p><p>Journal of Cleaner Production 416 (2023) 137863</p><p>20</p><p>These emerging technologies are providing significant benefits to the</p><p>daily operations of the industry. In the O&G industry, radiation-based</p><p>technologies are employed in industrial inspection, O&G exploration</p><p>and production, laboratory analyses, and security inspection (Abu--</p><p>Jarad, 2009). Due to the potential hazards associated with the applica-</p><p>tion of this technology, the implementation of safety measures outlined</p><p>by national radiation protection standards is warranted. Researchers</p><p>from 2015 to 2022 have made great efforts in the development of</p><p>various materials employed for the immobilization of radionuclides and</p><p>are considered promising technologies for environmental clean-up</p><p>(Papynov et al., 2020, 2021, 2023; Shichalin et al., 2022a, 2022b;</p><p>Yarusova et al., 2022).</p><p>6. Conclusion and future research direction</p><p>The excessive use of fossil fuels led to the generation of waste which</p><p>has become a global concern. These pollutants are associated with a high</p><p>risk of contaminating air and drinking water and is resulting in the</p><p>spread of deadly diseases. This study summarizes relevant information</p><p>pertaining to the local and international regulations on O&G pollutants.</p><p>The paper reviews the effects of O&G pollutants, particularly on air,</p><p>water, the overall effects on human health, and the effects of digitali-</p><p>zation on the environment. Moreover, the removal of O&G waste and</p><p>converting them to reduce harmful effects on the environment,</p><p>including catalytic and adsorptive technologies were efficiently</p><p>described. The utilization of renewable energy sources as cleaner and</p><p>future sustainable solutions were discussed. Renewable energy offers the</p><p>advantage of energy security through the mitigation of O&G pollutants.</p><p>Since the conversion of O&G wastes can be a source of economic ben-</p><p>efits, this work also provided a summary of waste conversion into</p><p>environmentally friendly products. Overall, to achieve an efficient</p><p>reduction in the emission of O&G pollutants, the following research</p><p>directions are recommended.</p><p>• International and local recognized regulations should continuously</p><p>be enforced and constantly updated. This is to eliminate the envi-</p><p>ronmental consequences of O&G pollutants based on the stringent</p><p>health and environmental policies to ensure sustainability.</p><p>• Designing and tuning the composition of highly active and stable</p><p>catalysts composing of commercially available materials that can</p><p>effectively activate and convert the pollutants even in harsh</p><p>conditions.</p><p>• Utilizing in-situ characterization techniques and DFT computations</p><p>for probing the structure-activity relationships of the catalysts and</p><p>the pollutants.</p><p>• Reaction and catalytic deactivation mechanisms should be studied to</p><p>provide the required information for effective catalyst design.</p><p>• Integrated catalytic methods for the simultaneous removal or con-</p><p>version of these pollutants should be explored.</p><p>Furthermore, the results obtained from reviewing the literature</p><p>showed that the O&G removal and conversion technologies remained at</p><p>the initial level of development, and to achieve the full utilization to</p><p>practical scale, the following should be given due research</p><p>consideration.</p><p>• Research on alternative energy sources other than fossil fuels; to-</p><p>wards transitioning to renewable energy should be explored.</p><p>• Research on the cost analysis of the applied technologies should be</p><p>conducted while prioritizing environmental sustainability.</p><p>• The topic of new research demands the creation of polyoxometalates-</p><p>based metal-organic frameworks (POM@MOF) composites, as cata-</p><p>lysts and adsorbents for simultaneous conversion and removal</p><p>technologies.</p><p>Declaration of competing interest</p><p>The authors declare that they have no known competing financial</p><p>interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence</p><p>the work reported in this paper.</p><p>Data availability</p><p>No data was used for the research described in the article.</p><p>Acknowledgement</p><p>Financial support was provided by Yayasan Universiti Teknologi</p><p>PETRONAS (FRG/1/2021/015LCC0-376), Malaysia. 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Bioaccessibility and toxicity assessment of polycyclic aromatic</p><p>hydrocarbons in</p><p>chemical properties of agricultural lands have been reported to change</p><p>drastically with increasing toxicity levels due to oil spillage (Yabrade</p><p>and Tanee, 2016). Grifoni et al. (2020) reported that contamination of</p><p>agricultural farms disrupts the top- and sub-soil properties and causes</p><p>the consequences of less crop germination, growth, and yields. Effective</p><p>remediation technologies (biological, chemical, and physical methods)</p><p>for the treatment of soil contaminants have been significantly reported</p><p>(Dubey et al., 2021; Nwankwegu et al., 2022; Popoola et al., 2022; Ruley</p><p>et al., 2022). Most importantly, reducing the pollutants, converting</p><p>them into economic value-added products as well as promoting sus-</p><p>tainability in the O&G sector is a global priority.</p><p>Ultimately, the global population has been projected to rise to 9</p><p>billion by 2020 and has met with an increasing energy demand that</p><p>List of abbreviations</p><p>% Percentage</p><p>oC degree Celsius</p><p>AC activated carbon</p><p>CO2 carbon dioxide</p><p>CW candelilla wax</p><p>DFT Density Functional Theory</p><p>DRM dry reforming of methane</p><p>EPA Environmental Protection Agency</p><p>EU European Union</p><p>FTWs Floating Treatment Wetlands</p><p>IMO International Maritime Organizations</p><p>IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</p><p>USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency</p><p>UN United Nations</p><p>SDGs Sustainable Development Goals</p><p>SOFCs Solid oxide fuel cells</p><p>O&G oil and gas</p><p>ODH oxidative dehydrogenation</p><p>GHG greenhouse gas</p><p>L-H Langmuir Hinshelwood</p><p>LPG Liquefied petroleum gas</p><p>MVR Mars-Van Krevelen</p><p>MTO methanol to olefins</p><p>NAAQs National Ambient Air Quality Standard</p><p>NORMs Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials</p><p>XANES X-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy</p><p>WHO World Health Organizations</p><p>VOCs volatile organic compounds</p><p>PW produced water</p><p>PAHs Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons</p><p>kJ/mol kilo Joules per mole</p><p>h hour</p><p>mg milligram</p><p>mg/g milligram per gram</p><p>mg/L milligram per litre</p><p>Fig. 1. Crude oil products, oil and gas pollutants and their minimization.</p><p>A. Haruna et al.</p><p>Journal of Cleaner Production 416 (2023) 137863</p><p>3</p><p>rapidly increases environmental pollution (Leng, 2018). The European</p><p>Union (EU), the United States Environmental Protection Agency</p><p>(USEPA), and other government policymakers have developed stringent</p><p>regulations to manage and control the emissions of O&G pollutants to</p><p>permissible limits. So far, some review papers have been published</p><p>focusing on the physical, biological, and chemical methods for the</p><p>removal of O&G pollutants (Cheremisinoff, 2016; Islam et al., 2023;</p><p>Olajire, 2020; Saleh et al., 2020; Wei et al., 2019), but no comprehensive</p><p>coverage on the effects of these pollutants, their removal techniques,</p><p>and the efficient conversion to value added products. Overall, this re-</p><p>view aimed at providing a comprehensive overview covering the</p><p>harmful effects of O&G pollutants in today’s world and the prevention</p><p>mechanism to achieve a safe and sustainable environment. In particular,</p><p>we elucidate the environmental policies and awareness, the effects of</p><p>O&G pollutants, and their removal and conversion technologies.</p><p>Accordingly, significant efforts have been straightforwardly devoted to</p><p>this contribution to fill the knowledge gap in terms of recent publica-</p><p>tions employing modern technologies that provide eco-friendly solu-</p><p>tions. We have again provided some recommendations and future</p><p>research directions regarding the effects of O&G pollutants, their</p><p>removal, and conversion.</p><p>2. Policies on oil and gas pollution</p><p>The domestic supply of O&G and other petrochemical products is in</p><p>accordance with the environmental considerations, emphasizing mainly</p><p>the maintenance and developments of a sustainable environment (Jah-</p><p>romi et al., 2023). At the same time, it is evident that the advancement in</p><p>global industrialization leads to approximately 85% energy</p><p>over-dependence from fossil fuels, accounting for 35.3% in oil and</p><p>20.5% in gas. Overdependence on fossil fuels accelerates the depletion</p><p>of natural resources and has given rise to numerous environmental re-</p><p>percussions. In addition, it might severely cause the risk of natural di-</p><p>sasters and global warming that can affect climate change. These</p><p>emerging issues have been given appropriate responses by the recog-</p><p>nized global laws and regulations to provide reliability to end users and</p><p>industry players. Already some renowned O&G companies such as Pet-</p><p>ronas, Aramco, ExxonMobil and Shell have formulated standards for</p><p>managing and treating of O&G related wastes (Yang et al., 2023). There</p><p>are many local and international regulations regarding O&G emissions.</p><p>Some well-known regulations include; the United States Environmental</p><p>and Protection Agency, the Department for Environment, Food and</p><p>Rural Areas, the UK Environmental Agency, and the UK O&G Authority,</p><p>which overseas industry compliance with the EU regulations (Ahmad</p><p>et al., 2021). The Paris Climate Change Conference (COP21) held in</p><p>2015 signed an agreement endorsed by 196 countries that is legally</p><p>binding international treaty on climate change. The COP21 agreement</p><p>serves as a landmark international accord to tackle climate change</p><p>through mitigation, adaptation, finance, and overall commitments by all</p><p>parties in reducing their emissions. More development was recorded in</p><p>COP26 held in Glasgow, 2021) aiming at four important goals towards</p><p>attaining net zero emission by 2030 (i) To secure global net zero carbon</p><p>emission by mid-century and maintain 1.5</p><p>◦</p><p>C temperature rise (ii) To</p><p>adapt community protection and natural habitat (iii) To mobilize fi-</p><p>nances through international finance institutions funded by developed</p><p>countries to secure net zero emission (iv) To work together in finalizing</p><p>the Paris rules and accelerate action to tackle the climate crisis through</p><p>collaboration between governments, businesses and civil society. Most</p><p>recently in 2022 COP27 was hosted in Egypt and focuses on the final</p><p>decision text, known as the Sharm el-Sheikh Implementation Plan which</p><p>reaffirms the commitment to limit global temperature rise to 1.5 ◦C</p><p>above pre-industrial levels (Agyeman and Lin, 2023; Liu et al., 2022;</p><p>Viens, 2022). It should be noted that the world is now moving towards</p><p>sustainability in accordance with the goals of UN SDGs17 by 2030,</p><p>drastic measures must be taken to attain a friendly environment (Mina</p><p>et al., 2022; Shahbaz et al., 2023).</p><p>Safeguarding humanity and protection of our environment is</p><p>perceived to be necessary. Many developed countries have been</p><p>committed long ago by setting up various regulatory agencies to assess</p><p>and monitor the extent of O&G emissions. In the 1970th the United</p><p>States government founded the Environmental Protection Agency</p><p>(EPA). The agency was saddled with the huge task of protecting public</p><p>health and the environment from impurities and toxins emanating from</p><p>industries. The EPA develops and upholds environmental regulations,</p><p>monitors the environment, and offers technical assistance to lessen</p><p>dangers and aid in recovery planning. 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In particular, it is responsible for 2.8% of the world’s</p><p>fossil CO2 emissions. These emissions also have an impact on ozone</p><p>formation and methane depletion. The sector is working towards</p><p>adopting sustainable aviation fuel under the carbon offsetting and</p><p>reduction scheme for international aviation project for mitigation and</p><p>market-measure approach developed by the International Civil Aviation</p><p>Organization. In order to achieve carbon-neutral growth starting in</p><p>2020, the project attempts to solve the issue of CO2 emissions from in-</p><p>ternational flights. As part of this program, airlines in participating</p><p>states would finance projects through the carbon market to offset their</p><p>emissions by reducing emissions in other sectors (Gabrielli et al., 2020;</p><p>Kanaboshi et al., 2021).</p><p>Obtaining inexpensive renewable energy and taking climate action</p><p>by 2030 are among the SDGs. These two significant efforts would sup-</p><p>port the regulation of O&G emissions in order to achieve zero emissions</p><p>as agreed upon at COP27. A barrier to human and economic develop-</p><p>ment is a lack of access to energy sources and transformation systems.</p><p>The environment offers a variety of renewable and non-renewable en-</p><p>ergy sources, including uranium, sun, wind, hydropower, geothermal,</p><p>and biofuels. Global climate change consequences will result from</p><p>increased fossil fuel use in the absence of mitigation measures for GHG</p><p>emissions. Energy efficiency and increased usage of renewable energy</p><p>sources help to mitigate climate change and lower the risk of disasters.</p><p>Ecosystem preservation and protection enable for the continued use and</p><p>advancement of hydropower and bioenergy sources. Prioritizing inter-</p><p>national cooperation to make it easier for people to access clean energy</p><p>research and technology, such as renewable energy, energy efficiency,</p><p>and advanced and cleaner fossil-fuel technology, are some of the targets</p><p>linked to the UN SDG on the environment. Another is to significantly</p><p>increase the share of renewable energy in the world’s energy mix. Lastly,</p><p>to improve technology and build infrastructure in order to provide</p><p>everyone in emerging nations, especially the least developed nations,</p><p>with modern and sustainable energy services (Nakhli et al., 2022; Olabi</p><p>et al., 2022).</p><p>A. Haruna et al.</p><p>https://unfccc.int/documents/624444</p><p>Journal of Cleaner Production 416 (2023) 137863</p><p>4</p><p>3. Effects of oil and gas pollutants</p><p>Oil and gas pollutants enter the environment through various sources</p><p>including oil exploration and extraction, production, storage, pipe</p><p>leakage, transportation, and theft. The inhalation of air, ingestion of</p><p>food, and drinking of water contaminated by industrial O&G wastes</p><p>pose severe health and environmental concerns. These cumulative im-</p><p>pacts have become serious issues for resource-rich communities that</p><p>build their economies around the O&G. Consequently, these activities</p><p>resulted in detrimental consequences for human health, agricultural</p><p>soil, air, and water quality. Several harmful pollutants such as heavy</p><p>metals, benzene, toluene, naturally occurring radioactive materials</p><p>(NORMs), and PAH, are released into the environment, posing serious</p><p>consequences for humans. The health issues include the spread of dis-</p><p>eases such as asthma, cancer, typhoid, cholera or many defects that may</p><p>occur at child birth (Siddiqua et al., 2022; Zhao et al., 2015). Interest-</p><p>ingly, the discovery of nanotechnology for numerous technological ap-</p><p>plications has yielded a resounding development for the clean-up of</p><p>certain O&G contaminants to reclaim environmental sustainability.</p><p>3.1. Soil contamination</p><p>Soil health plays a crucial role in the suitability and sustainability of</p><p>soil to support plant growth and development as well as various life</p><p>processes. However, soil pollution due to O&G contamination causes</p><p>widespread destruction to the ecosystem leading to the death of plants</p><p>(Alvan et al., 2023). These O&G wastes contaminate the soil through</p><p>various anthropogenic channels such as seepage from natural oil de-</p><p>posits, production and exploration, loading and discharge accidental</p><p>spills, storage, transportation, oil tanker accident, bunkering, and</p><p>discharge of industrial effluents, among others. Pollution has caused</p><p>several impacts and changes to the soil properties including soil struc-</p><p>ture, soil texture, soil compaction, saturated hydraulic conductivity,</p><p>penetration resistance, soil-cation-exchange capacities, and heavy metal</p><p>concentration (Gordon et al., 2018; Grifoni et al., 2020; Hreniuc et al.,</p><p>2015; Mafiana et al., 2021). The oil and gas-derived products such as</p><p>petrol, diesel, kerosene, etc., entered the pores of soil blocking the micro</p><p>and macro soil pores, resulting in water and oxygen shortage, and</p><p>changing the plants’ available forms of nitrogen and phosphorus. The</p><p>consequential impacts of these changes have been noticed in the</p><p>biochemical and physicochemical properties of soil, limiting the growth</p><p>and development of plants (Ossai et al., 2020).</p><p>Several studies were conducted for the management of O&G wastes</p><p>from soil to reduce environmental threats. For instance, Alvan et al.,</p><p>(2023) accomplished a study to reduce the effects of carcinogenic PAHs</p><p>present in the soil polluted with refinery effluents. Remarkably, a</p><p>nanoparticle zero-valent ion with a high specific surface area, high</p><p>reactivity, small size, and regeneration ability was applied for the</p><p>removal of recalcitrant PAHs. The findings showed that a 10% concen-</p><p>tration of the nanomaterials drastically decreased the concentration of</p><p>PAHs from the soil samples, and in some cases, it reached zero level after</p><p>72 h. Similarly, zero-valent ion nanoparticles have been confirmed by</p><p>Chen et al., (2018) to remove various contaminants from soil. The influx</p><p>of heavy metals into the soil affects its health via several bio-</p><p>magnification processes. Ugya et al., (2019) described the effects of</p><p>phytoaccumulation of heavy metals on soil irrigated with refinery</p><p>wastewater. The outcome shows that heavy metals concentrations found</p><p>in all the planted vegetables in the affected area were above the</p><p>FAO/WHO recommended values. The findings also demonstrated that</p><p>refinery wastewater should be discouraged for farming activities since it</p><p>could biomagnify the food chain. The remediation technologies should</p><p>be applied continuously to reduce dangers to biological species. 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Water contamination</p><p>The pathways of surface water and underground water contamina-</p><p>tion were identified as wastewater disposal, drilling site discharge,</p><p>fractured rock leakages, well casing leaks, transportation spills, and</p><p>improper refinery wastewater disposal (Rozell and Reaven, 2012). Un-</p><p>doubtedly, water pollution constitutes the primary source of soil</p><p>pollution. It has direct negative impacts on both the environment and</p><p>the aquatic organisms, affecting the health and quality of vegetation and</p><p>soils (Dijoo and Khurshid, 2022). Polluted water causes many health</p><p>problems and deaths of aquatic life and human beings, resulting in</p><p>disruption of different crops (Ashraf et al., 2011; Whitworth et al.,</p><p>2017). Apart from the direct effect of water pollution on plants and</p><p>animals, it also affects the quality of rivers, lakes, oceans, and drinking</p><p>water, making it a severe threat to environmental sustainability (H. X.</p><p>Xu et al., 2022). Wastewater generated from O&G plants has high vol-</p><p>umes of oil in the form of suspended particles, light/heavy hydrocar-</p><p>bons, phenol, and dissolved organic matter (Al-Yaari et al., 2022, 2023).</p><p>The effects of O&G on water contamination can be best understood by</p><p>properly explaining the so-called “produced water”. Produced water</p><p>(PW) is the wastewater generated from onshore and offshore wells</p><p>(Alammar et al., 2020). PW is a by-product of conventional O&G pro-</p><p>duction, where in some certain geologic strata a substantial amount of</p><p>water is used to pump O&G due to low permeability and poor recovery</p><p>rate of the local strata (Pichtel, 2016). It was estimated that about</p><p>2.5–4.2 million gallons of water are used per well (Gruber, 2016). The</p><p>United States was estimated to generate about 21 billion barrels per year</p><p>of produced water (Echchelh, 2022).</p><p>Physical remediation is the most widely employed technique among</p><p>the various remediation methods of O&G-produced water due to its</p><p>simplicity and cost-effectiveness (Mokif et al., 2021). The physical</p><p>methods include the powdered activated carbon (AC) remediation</p><p>technique (PACT), electrocoagulation process (ECP), membrane tech-</p><p>nique, and photocatalytic technology. Interestingly, the treated pro-</p><p>duced water can be safely discharged or put into beneficial reuse. This</p><p>technique was demonstrated by (Mfarrej et al., 2022) through the con-</p><p>struction of floating treatment wetlands (FTWs). It involves planting</p><p>vegetation marshes at the polluted seashores and riverbanks that may be</p><p>loosely attached to allow them to float freely (Qiao et al., 2022). The</p><p>FTWs provide effective water pollution remediation and serve as a</p><p>habitat for fish and birds (de Stefani et al., 2011).</p><p>3.3. Air contamination</p><p>The emission of NOx, SOx, and CO2 due to anthropogenic activities,</p><p>pollutes air changing the climate and making it warmer than in the</p><p>preindustrial periods (Perera, 2018). Oil and gas sub-products exist in</p><p>the air in the form of a vapor phase or adsorb into the particulate matter</p><p>in the atmosphere depending on relative humidity, air temperature, and</p><p>the nature of the aerosol (Premnath et al., 2021). They are mostly</p><p>introduced into the atmosphere through partial combustion processes.</p><p>The anthropogenic activities that lead to the emission include vehicle</p><p>emissions and dumpsite burning (Chiang et al., 2012; R. P. Zhang et al.,</p><p>2022), industrial processes such as coke production (L. L. Mu et al.,</p><p>2021), cooking, and smoking (White et al., 2016). Human exposure to</p><p>O&G pollutants is an important global public health concern. Yet, risk</p><p>assessment of the exposure remains limited (Lawal, 2017). Studies show</p><p>A. Haruna et al.</p><p>Journal of Cleaner Production 416 (2023) 137863</p><p>5</p><p>that air pollution is most severe during hours of busy vehicular traffic</p><p>(Zhai et al., 2016), but with the advent and massive adoption of electric</p><p>cars in developed countries, this menace will be extremely reduced.</p><p>Therefore, the government, especially in developing countries, should</p><p>take special measures and develop technology that can efficiently</p><p>remove petroleum-based contaminants for sustainable environments.</p><p>3.4. Overall effects on living things</p><p>The breakthroughs in petrochemistry contributed immensely to the</p><p>useful number of chemical fractions in crude oil. However, a few com-</p><p>pounds were characterized for their harmful effects on humans through</p><p>bioaccumulation (Udom et al., 2023). The chemical composition and the</p><p>physical state of the compounds determined their toxic effects and</p><p>bioavailability (Putzeys et al., 2022). For instance, the most significant</p><p>O&G pollutant are VOCs. Some common examples include formalde-</p><p>hyde, benzene, ethylene glycol, xylene, toluene, methylene chloride, 1,</p><p>3-butadiene, tetrachloroethylene, and other toxic substances (T. T. Chen</p><p>et al., 2020; C. S. Li et al., 2022; H. B. Wang et al., 2023). VOCs can</p><p>combine with nitrogen oxides to form a ground-level layer of ozone</p><p>commonly known as smog (Pachaiappan et al., 2022), which can affect</p><p>many life processes. The direct exposure to VOCs is a serious issue and it</p><p>was determined that the blood, urine, feces, and human condensate all</p><p>contained VOCs after long time (A. J. A.J. Li et al., 2021). Another</p><p>detrimental pollutant is H2S obtained through venting and flaring of</p><p>natural gas. The gas is harmful at lower concentration and fatal at higher</p><p>concentration (Sharif et al., 2023). Particulate matter is another con-</p><p>cerned O&G pollutant released by combustion through exhaust, dust,</p><p>and other air emissions. Its effect the lungs and may leads to severe lung</p><p>problems (Pardo et al., 2020). The studies by Ossai et al., (2020) opined</p><p>that O&G hydrocarbons with a wide range of boiling points and relative</p><p>molecular mass have the highest degree of toxicity and effects on the</p><p>environment. The toxicity of the pollutants usually depends on the lethal</p><p>dose, level of exposure, mode, and time of exposure (Yahaya et al.,</p><p>2022). In another study, Adewumi et al., (2021) investigated that pe-</p><p>troleum compounds, especially benzene, constitute one of the main</p><p>causative agents of cancer among children. It was well documented that</p><p>O&G contaminants can result in various types of health problems for</p><p>animals and humans, as summarized in Table 1.</p><p>Apart from the toxicological effects of the contaminants on humans</p><p>and animals, it also affects the growth and development of plants</p><p>through obstruction of water and nutrient uptake. This result in the</p><p>breakdown of the metabolic processes of plants, thereby causing stunted</p><p>growth, necrosis, chlorosis, deformed roots, leaves and shoots, and the</p><p>decline in pest and disease resistance of the plants (Rusin et al., 2015;</p><p>Serrano-Calvo et al., 2021). The consequent of these concerns are the</p><p>massive adverse effects on global food security. As a result, proper</p><p>disposal and complete degradation of O&G pollutants are required to</p><p>achieve a safe and sustainable environment.</p><p>3.5. Effects of digitalization on the environment</p><p>Nowadays, academics and relevant industry stakeholders are</p><p>exploring the significance of digital technologies of Industry 4.0 in line</p><p>with SDG goals 7 and 9. Industrialization towards the fourth generation</p><p>(Industry 4.0) is targeted at increasing productivity and efficiency at less</p><p>energy and low cost. Already the international O&G companies are</p><p>employing this technology to study climate change and find possible</p><p>solutions for the environment. Due to the industrial revolution, digita-</p><p>lization has brought significant human developments by leveraging</p><p>digital technology such as artificial intelligence, intelligent robotics,</p><p>block chain, The Internet of Things, virtual reality, cryptocurrencies,</p><p>and</p><p>other emerging automation tools (Nascimento et al., 2019; Oláh</p><p>et al., 2020). The importance of these digital developments in the 21st</p><p>century cannot be overemphasized (Wagner et al., 2017). Despite the</p><p>importance of these technologies in Industry 4.0, digitalization has been</p><p>determined to negatively impact the environment (X. X. Chen et al.,</p><p>2020). For example, human exposure to e-waste leads to serious health</p><p>problems such as cancer, DNA damage, and respiratory diseases (Alabi</p><p>et al., 2021). Recently, Shinkevich et al. (2020) performed a digitali-</p><p>zation study for the development of an assessment tool that can provide</p><p>sustainability to the generated O&G pollutants. The developed system</p><p>was rapid in collecting relevant information on the dynamic changes in</p><p>the environment and economic indicators of the O&G industry. The</p><p>study highlighted that the technological development and moderniza-</p><p>tion of monitoring systems demonstrate significance for the reduction,</p><p>capturing, and neutralization of O&G pollutants, which can reduce their</p><p>overall effects on the environment.</p><p>Although the discovery of automation technology is reducing the</p><p>employment of humans and the cost of labor, the application of intel-</p><p>ligent robots using AI in industrial production is increasing the high-</p><p>skilled workers’ proportion thereby verifying the human capital struc-</p><p>ture adjustment (Gan et al., 2023). The world is currently living to</p><p>witness the big leap of the fifth industrial revolution (Industry 5.0).</p><p>Industry 5.0 is believed to bring humans back into the game for</p><p>collaboration and introduce the human touch to manufactured products</p><p>on the basis of sustainability (Demir et al., 2019). One of the goals of</p><p>Industry 5.0 is the degradation and management of environmental waste</p><p>(Khan et al., 2023). Because of their strength, sensing capabilities, pre-</p><p>cision, and computing power, intelligent robots maybe used to provide</p><p>qualitative benefits to O&G industries toward the attainment of a safe</p><p>and sustainable environment (Bugmann et al., 2011). Since the O&G</p><p>industry is facing more stringent environmental regulations, the adop-</p><p>tion of industrial robots is beneficial for saving costs and the</p><p>Table 1</p><p>Toxicological effects of oil and gas contaminants on humans and animals.</p><p>Toxicity Type of</p><p>pollutants</p><p>Nature of the health</p><p>problems</p><p>References</p><p>Neurotoxicity Oil dispersants Destruction of the</p><p>nervous system and</p><p>damage to the brain</p><p>Sriram et al.</p><p>(2011)</p><p>Teratogenicity Polycyclic</p><p>aromatic</p><p>hydrocarbons</p><p>(PAHs)</p><p>Malformation of</p><p>foetus/embryo</p><p>(Lawal, 2017;</p><p>Nowakowski</p><p>et al., 2022)</p><p>Mutagenicity Oil contaminants Formation of</p><p>transmissible</p><p>genetic mutations</p><p>(Gutzkow, 2015;</p><p>Vu and Mulligan,</p><p>2023)</p><p>Cytotoxicity Oil dispersants Damage to cells (Vu and</p><p>Mulligan, 2023;</p><p>Zheng et al.,</p><p>2014)</p><p>Immunotoxicity Petroleum</p><p>hydrocarbons</p><p>Repressing the</p><p>human immune</p><p>system</p><p>(Kebede et al.,</p><p>2021; Ossai</p><p>et al., 2020)</p><p>Ocular toxicity Hydrocarbon</p><p>dust particles</p><p>Developments of eye</p><p>disorder</p><p>Jung et al. (2018)</p><p>Cardiotoxicity Petroleum</p><p>products</p><p>Heart damage and</p><p>cardiovascular</p><p>arrest</p><p>Azeez et al.</p><p>(2015)</p><p>Nephrotoxicity Petroleum fumes Capacity to cause</p><p>damage to kidney</p><p>(Boris et al.,</p><p>2022; Ogunneye</p><p>et al., 2014)</p><p>Genotoxicity Disinfectants by-</p><p>products</p><p>Ability to cause non-</p><p>transmissible DNA</p><p>damage</p><p>(Cortés and</p><p>Marcos, 2018;</p><p>Turkez et al.,</p><p>2017)</p><p>Haemotoxicity Heavy metals Destruction of red</p><p>blood cells</p><p>Lawal (2017)</p><p>Carcinogenicity Hydrocarbon</p><p>dust particles</p><p>Cancer in the lungs</p><p>and other important</p><p>organs</p><p>(Elliott et al.,</p><p>2017;</p><p>Valavanidis,</p><p>2017)</p><p>Hepatotoxicity Petroleum fumes Liver to injury (Boris et al.,</p><p>2022; Ogunneye</p><p>et al., 2014)</p><p>A. Haruna et al.</p><p>Journal of Cleaner Production 416 (2023) 137863</p><p>6</p><p>environment. Routine jobs performed by highly educated humans are</p><p>now substituted by robots with greater percentage yield, thus improving</p><p>outcomes. The best scenario is going heterogeneous to adopt collabo-</p><p>rative robots and employ humans for monitoring and reducing pollut-</p><p>ants which can simultaneously enrich the environment with</p><p>sustainability and minimize human protest.</p><p>4. Technologies for the conversion of O&G pollutants</p><p>4.1. Catalytic technology</p><p>Oil and gas pollutants such as SO2, NOx, CO2, and VOCs have an</p><p>adverse effect on the ecosystem (Ajmal et al., 2022; Haruna et al.,</p><p>2023a). Their emissions are responsible for global warming, acid rain,</p><p>climate change, ozone layer depletion, and photochemical smog (Har-</p><p>una et al., 2023b). These pollutants are toxic, hinder agricultural pro-</p><p>ductivity, and cause mortality among aquatic habitats. Additionally,</p><p>they are carcinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic (Piumetti et al., 2015;</p><p>Yentekakis and Dong, 2020). This necessitated several abatement</p><p>technologies to lessen the harmful effects of these pollutants to attain</p><p>environmental sustainability. Interestingly, catalytic technologies are</p><p>suitable for removing, reducing, or converting these pollutants to</p><p>products with much lesser effects or even value-added products. This</p><p>section will discuss the various catalytic technologies utilized for these</p><p>purposes.</p><p>4.1.1. Catalytic conversion of volatile organic compounds</p><p>Volatile organic compounds are low-molecular-weight compounds</p><p>with boiling points of 50–260 ◦C. They are mainly alkanes, alkenes,</p><p>aromatics, aldehydes, alcohols, and halocarbons (Lou et al., 2022; Shah</p><p>and Li, 2019). The techniques employed to mitigate VOCs from the</p><p>environment include thermal incineration, adsorption technology,</p><p>membrane separation, absorption, and catalytic oxidation/combustion.</p><p>Among them, catalytic oxidation is one of the most effective methods.</p><p>This is owing to its environmental friendliness, low operation temper-</p><p>ature, low toxicity, and economic viability (Lou et al., 2022; R. Zhang</p><p>et al., 2016). Additionally, the obtained products of catalytic oxidation</p><p>reaction, such as CO2 & H2O, can be utilized as raw materials for pro-</p><p>ducing valuable materials. Catalysts utilized for the oxidation of VOCs</p><p>are based on noble metal and non-noble (mainly transition) metal cat-</p><p>alysts. The latter is most preferred due to their wide availability, low</p><p>cost, stability, and high resistance to poisoning (X. X. Mu et al., 2021).</p><p>For instance, Russo and his co-workers prepared three different meso-</p><p>porous manganese oxide catalysts using the solution combustion</p><p>method. The presence of high electrophilic oxygen species on the cata-</p><p>lyst surface, as confirmed by XPS and O2-TPD analyses, contributed to</p><p>the complete oxidation to CO2 with no deactivation for 10 h</p><p>time-on-stream (Piumetti et al., 2015).</p><p>The efficiency and effectiveness of non-noble metal-based catalysts</p><p>can be enhanced by modifying the preparation methods, different</p><p>modification strategies of active metals such as spinel type or perovskite-</p><p>based combination, and the nature of the supporting materials. Zhang</p><p>et al., (2016) reported an extensive review of the catalytic oxidation of</p><p>VOCs over zeolite-supported metal catalysts. Zeolites are an important</p><p>class of materials with large specific surface area, good thermal and</p><p>hydrothermal stability, high adsorption capacity, and well-defined and</p><p>tunable pore architecture suitable for anchoring and dispersing active</p><p>metals, resulting in enhanced removal of different types of individual</p><p>and constituents of VOCs. Going forward, Yang et al., (2013) reported an</p><p>excellent activity of 9% Cr-12% CeO2 supported on HZSM-5 in the</p><p>oxidation of chlorinated VOCs (1,2-dichloroethane, dichloromethane,</p><p>and trichloroethylene). The high activity was due to the strong oxidation</p><p>ability and promotion of the active oxygen species mobility caused by</p><p>the interaction between</p><p>CeO2 and Cr2O3. Interestingly, this catalyst</p><p>combination enhances the resistance to coke deposition and chloride</p><p>poisoning and high durability during 100 h exposure to the recalcitrant</p><p>VOCs.</p><p>The synergistic interactions of active species in composite oxide</p><p>catalysts have a remarkable influence in facilitating the oxidation of</p><p>VOCs, especially chlorinated VOCs. This was demonstrated by Li and his</p><p>co-workers using Ce–Mn–Ti composite catalysts synthesized using the</p><p>co-precipitation method (Zhou et al., 2023). Notably, Ce0.02Mn0.16TiOx</p><p>presented a balanced redox property, active oxygen species, and mod-</p><p>erate acidity with abundant Bronsted acid sites suitable for sustainable</p><p>deep oxidation of chlorobenzene. Also, the metal-support interactions</p><p>played a pivotal role in generating and activating oxygen species suit-</p><p>able for the degradation of VOCs as exemplified by Wang et al. using</p><p>hetero-structured ZnMn2O4@MnO2 support to control the</p><p>metal-support interactions in single-atom Pd catalysts (B. H. Wang et al.,</p><p>2023). Efficient activation of O2 to Oads, and the stretched Mn–O bonds</p><p>resulted in enhanced Olat activity suitable for toluene activation. Simi-</p><p>larly, highly efficient oxidative conversion of ethylbenzene was ach-</p><p>ieved using PdPtVOx/CeO2–ZrO2 catalyst (Wang et al., 2023). The good</p><p>performance was attributed to the good reducibility and balanced</p><p>acidity of the multi-oxide catalyst.</p><p>In another development, Tang et al., (2014) fabricated a porous</p><p>spinel structure made up of Mn–Co nanorod to oxidize ethylacetate and</p><p>n-hexane. Solid solution formation inhibited the growth of the metal</p><p>nanoparticles leading to higher surface area and enhanced synergistic</p><p>effect of the Mn–Co species suitable for the efficient oxidation of the</p><p>VOCs relative to the MnOx and Co3O4 single oxides. Recently, Wei et al.,</p><p>2021 prepared an acetic acid-treated La0.8Sr0.2CoO3-δ perovskite-type</p><p>catalyst for the oxidation of toluene. The acid treatment was conduct-</p><p>ed to reduce the segregation of SrO on the catalyst surface without</p><p>blocking the active sites on the catalyst surface. H2-TPR and XPS</p><p>confirmed the reduction in binding strength and enhanced concentra-</p><p>tion of the active surface oxygen species, resulting in a considerably</p><p>improved performance of toluene oxidation in the temperature range of</p><p>220–260 ◦C. Overall, the catalytic oxidation of VOCs involves either</p><p>Langmuir-Hinshelwood (L-H), Mars-Van Krevelen (MVK), or</p><p>Eley-Rideal (E-R) mechanism. Hence, an effective catalyst should</p><p>possess high porosity for reactants and product diffusion, high adsorp-</p><p>tion/desorption capacities, active and mobile oxygen species, high</p><p>thermal stability, and suitable resistance to coking and various forms of</p><p>elemental poisoning.</p><p>4.1.2. Catalytic conversion of carbon dioxide</p><p>Evidently, carbon dioxide has been one of the significant GHGs</p><p>emitted from the utilization of fossil fuels. Tremendous research efforts</p><p>have been directed to avail processes that would enable its mitigation or</p><p>direct utilization for the production of fuels and value-added chemicals</p><p>(Gambo et al., 2022). Remarkably, CO2 can be utilized catalytically for</p><p>the dry reforming of methane (Hambali et al., 2022), oxidative dehy-</p><p>drogenation of lower alkanes (Gambo et al., 2021), hydrogenation to</p><p>olefins (Gambo et al., 2022), electrocatalytic and photo-electro-catalytic</p><p>reduction (Yentekakis and Dong, 2020). However, the major challenge</p><p>with CO2 conversion is its thermodynamic stability (ΔH = − 393.5</p><p>kJ/mol). Hence, most of the CO2 conversion processes are endothermic,</p><p>with high energy consumption.</p><p>4.1.3. Dry reforming of methane</p><p>Dry reforming of methane (DRM) involves the utilization of two</p><p>GHGs; CH4 and CO2 to produce syngas. Syngas (a mixture of CO + H2) is</p><p>a valuable feedstock for producing fuels, alcohols, and generating</p><p>electricity (Alipour et al., 2023). The H2/CO ratio can be tuned based on</p><p>the targeted application. Particularly, for high dry reforming efficiency,</p><p>the catalyst should possess a low tendency for carbon formation,</p><p>long-term stability, and suitable metal-support interactions to mitigate</p><p>deactivation caused by coke formation. To achieve the task, researchers</p><p>have conducted investigations and optimized the various synthesis</p><p>strategies and reaction conditions. Obviously, the nature of support</p><p>contributes immensely to CO2 DRM reaction. Metal particle dispersion,</p><p>A. Haruna et al.</p><p>Journal of Cleaner Production 416 (2023) 137863</p><p>7</p><p>oxygen vacancies, metal-support interaction, and acid-basic sites are</p><p>directly related to the nature of the support. The most common supports</p><p>utilized for DRM reactions include Al2O3, SiO2, and ZrO2 (Yabe and</p><p>Sekine, 2018). For example, Babakouhi et al. synthesized a mesoporous</p><p>nanostructured Ni/M-Al2O3 (M = Ce, Zr) catalysts for the combined CO2</p><p>and CH4 reforming at 700 ◦C (Babakouhi et al., 2023). Nickel dispersion</p><p>and its interaction with Al2O3 support was enhanced after adding Ce and</p><p>Zr, resulting in high DRM activity and decreased coke deposition.</p><p>However, the major challenge with most of the developed catalysts is</p><p>low stability due to coke formation and sintering. One important strat-</p><p>egy to address this challenge is the concept of a core-shell catalyst which</p><p>confines the metal particles with a great reduction in sintering effect and</p><p>a resultant improvement in catalytic performance. For example, Zhang</p><p>et al., (2019) synthesized a core-shell structured Ni@SiO2 catalyst using</p><p>the microemulsion method. Different calcination temperatures of 500,</p><p>600, and 700 ◦C were utilized to achieve ultrafine nanoparticles of Ni</p><p>and varying strength of metal-support interaction. The reaction and</p><p>production rates (Fig. 2A) revealed the most active and stable catalyst</p><p>(Ni@SiO2-600) resulting from the intermediate nanoparticle size of Ni</p><p>(Fig. 2B) and moderate active Ni–SiO2 interaction (Fig. 2C).</p><p>Similarly, Liu et al., 2018 utilized one-pot facile synthesis (Fig. 3A) to</p><p>develop a novel core-shell Ni–ZrO2@SiO2 catalyst. The Ni active species</p><p>were successfully anchored by the ZrO2 species while also providing</p><p>suitable basic sites for activating and adsorbing CO2. The core-shell</p><p>structure provided the required confinement effect resulting in high</p><p>DRM performance and excellent stability (Fig. 3B) due to the ultrahigh</p><p>sintering and coking resistances.</p><p>Dry reforming of methane catalysts synthesized using the</p><p>microwave-assisted hydrothermal method has demonstrated high DRM</p><p>activity and great coke resistance, even at moderate reaction tempera-</p><p>tures. Typically, Mahinpey and his co-workers reported a remarkable</p><p>58% and 71% conversions of CH4 and CO2, respectively, using</p><p>microwave-assisted synthesized Ru/CeO2 catalyst at 600 ◦C. The pres-</p><p>ence of microwave irradiation enhanced the catalyst stability for over</p><p>120 h-on-stream with negligible deactivation (Zhou et al., 2022).</p><p>Another interesting synthesis strategy for active DRM catalysts is the</p><p>formation of single-atom catalysts (SACs) and their dissolution into the</p><p>framework of the support, thereby preventing deactivation caused by</p><p>the agglomeration of the isolated atom sites. Typically, Rh/Al2O3 cata-</p><p>lyst has shown remarkable DRM performance at 700 ◦C and the disso-</p><p>lution of Rh atoms onto the framework of Alumina support was</p><p>confirmed using CO diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform</p><p>spectroscopy (CO-DRIFTS) as reported by (Mekkering et al., 2023). In</p><p>summary, suitable DRM catalysts should possess active sites suitable for</p><p>activating and converting both CH4 and CO2 at moderate reaction</p><p>temperatures. Catalysts with appropriate metal-support interactions,</p><p>moderate reducibility, high dispersions, and excellent sintering and</p><p>coking resistances are recommended.</p><p>4.1.4. CO2</p><p>assisted oxidative dehydrogenation of lower alkanes</p><p>Lower alkanes, especially LPG (Propane and butane) are highly</p><p>available and relatively less expensive than light olefins (ethylene and</p><p>propylene). On the other hand, light olefins are the most commonly</p><p>utilized feedstocks in the polymer and petrochemical industries. One of</p><p>the on-purpose lower olefins production methods is the oxidative</p><p>dehydrogenation (ODH) of alkanes using CO2 as an oxidant. The role of</p><p>CO2 in the ODH includes the reverse water-gas shift reaction, active sites</p><p>regeneration through the restoration of reactive oxygen species,</p><p>reducing site deactivation by suppressing coke formation and blocking</p><p>unselective electrophilic oxygen species (Gambo et al., 2021; L. L. Wang</p><p>et al., 2022). CO2-ODH catalysts should effectively activate CO2 and</p><p>selectively cleave the C–H bond at high activity, possess balanced</p><p>acid-base sites, and have the ability to synergize the active components</p><p>for efficient redox property and metal-support interactions (Gambo</p><p>et al., 2021). For example, Gomez et al., (2018) reported the combined</p><p>reduction of CO2 with ODH of propane over a non-noble FeNi catalyst. In</p><p>situ x-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy (XANES) measurements</p><p>revealed that the Fe3Ni catalyst consists of oxidized Fe and metallic Ni,</p><p>Fig. 2. (A) Time-on-stream tests of CO2 reforming with methane showing suitable stability of the Ni@SiO2 catalysts for both reaction and production rates (B)</p><p>Elemental mapping and HRTEM image showing the nanoparticle size and well dispersion of Ni in Ni@SiO2-600 catalyst and C) Temperature programmed reduction</p><p>(TPR) profiles of Ni@SiO2 catalysts showing peaks at medium temperature range confirming the moderate Ni–SiO2 interactions (Zhang et al., 2019).</p><p>A. Haruna et al.</p><p>Journal of Cleaner Production 416 (2023) 137863</p><p>8</p><p>favoring C–H bond scission and selective CO2 activation. These findings</p><p>were also corroborated by DFT calculations. More recently, the role of</p><p>CeO2 promoted PtSn/SiO2 catalyst was probed by Wang et al., (2022).</p><p>The addition of the CeO2 promoter enhanced the dispersion of Pt species</p><p>with moderated Pt and Sn species interactions. Additionally, the rich</p><p>oxygen defects contained in CeO2 facilitated the adsorption and acti-</p><p>vation of propane and CO2, resulting in a considerably improved cata-</p><p>lytic performance.</p><p>In another development, Dou et al., (2022) prepared a highly active</p><p>and stable CrOx-supported CexZr1-xO2 catalyst. In situ DRIFTS revealed</p><p>that Cr3+ species served as active sites for activating CO2 and cleaving</p><p>C–H bonds. Also, the presence of Ce decreases coke formation, thereby</p><p>ensuring stable performance. Similarly, Cr supported on mesoporous</p><p>SiO2 nanosponge (Cr-TUD-1) catalyst synthesized using the hydrother-</p><p>mal method was utilized for the CO2-assisted dehydrogenation of ethane</p><p>to ethylene (Numan et al., 2020). Remarkable performance was ach-</p><p>ieved resulting from an improved inter-convertibility of Cr6+ and Cr3+</p><p>coupled with reverse Boudouard reaction between CO2 and coke.</p><p>Notably, a 109% CO2 reduction per ton of ethylene produced was ob-</p><p>tained based on a techno-economic analysis of molybdenum carbide</p><p>(Mo2C) supported by non-acidic embryonic zeolite (Bikbaeva et al.,</p><p>2023). Effective CO2 conversion, high ethylene yield and an inhibited</p><p>sintering of Mo species resulted from the suitable interaction of the</p><p>active carbide phase and the embryonic zeolite support. Generally, the</p><p>design and tuning strategies for CO2-ODH catalysts should involve</p><p>confinement of the active species in mesoporous materials (like SBA-15</p><p>and MCM-41), regulating highly reducible oxides, tuning the active</p><p>phase and support compositions, interfacial modulation, and control</p><p>treatment (calcination).</p><p>4.1.5. Direct CO2 hydrogenation to olefins</p><p>Generally, CO2 hydrogenation reaction involves the utilization of</p><p>CO2 for the production of olefins mainly via a series of reaction steps:</p><p>either from CO2 to methanol and then methanol to olefins (MTO) or via</p><p>reverse water gas shift (RWGS) reaction to CO and then through Fischer</p><p>Tropsch synthesis (FTO) to olefins (Gambo et al., 2022; Ma and Porosoff,</p><p>2019). Recently, the main focus has shifted towards designing tandem</p><p>catalysts that can efficiently combine multiple steps to obtain olefins as</p><p>the target product in a single reactor system. Typically, Mou et al. (2021)</p><p>revealed that an effective tuning of the tandem spacing between binary</p><p>Mn2O3–ZnO oxide and SAPO-34 molecular sieve catalysts obtained by</p><p>physical ball milling for 15 min, resulted in an enhanced light olefin</p><p>selectivity of 80.2% at around 30% CO2 conversion. The bifunctional</p><p>catalyst activated and converted CO2 to methanol whereas the SAPO-34</p><p>converted the methanol intermediate to olefins. In a similar report by</p><p>Liu et al., (2017), it was discovered that the oxygen vacancies in the</p><p>spinel structure of bifunctional ZnGa2O4 facilitated CO2 activation to</p><p>methanol which is eventually converted to olefins in molecular sieve</p><p>SAPO-34. In another study, 12.6% CO2 conversion and 5.3% single-pass</p><p>yield was achieved using dual-function ZnO–ZrO2/SAPO-34 catalyst (Li</p><p>et al., 2017). Additionally, Gao et al., 2017 reported an olefin (ethylene</p><p>and propylene) selectivity of 80–90% at 20% CO2 conversion using</p><p>In2O3–ZrO2/SAPO-34 bifunctional tandem catalyst. Interestingly, the</p><p>physically mixed tandem catalyst showed a remarkably stable perfor-</p><p>mance for 50 h time-on-stream with negligible decay in activity. More</p><p>recently, the appropriate acid strength and density of SAPO-34 support</p><p>facilitated its utilization as support for the direct conversion of CO2 to</p><p>olefins such as ZnCeZrOx/SAPO-34 (Zhang et al., 2023), Gam-</p><p>CrOx/H-SAPO-34 (W. R. Zhang et al., 2022) and GaZrOx/SAPO-34 (P.</p><p>W. Zhang et al., 2022). CO2 activation is facilitated on the active sites</p><p>generated by the bifunctional catalysts. Interestingly, doping of SiO2</p><p>into CuO–ZnO–ZrO2 multi-oxides supported on molecular sieves</p><p>SAPO-34 resulted in improved active species dispersion, enhanced CO2</p><p>activation and a suppressed metal particles aggregation, resulting in a</p><p>53.9% CO2 conversion during the direct hydrogenation of CO2 into light</p><p>olefins (Tang et al., 2023). CO2 can also be directly converted into ar-</p><p>omatics using bifunctional catalysts. CO2 is first transformed into</p><p>olefins-based intermediates via Fischer-Tropsch synthesis and reverse</p><p>water gas shift. Dehydrogenation aromatization converts the olefin in-</p><p>termediates into aromatics. This was demonstrated by Wen et al. using a</p><p>Cu-promoted Fe/ZSM-5 catalyst (Wen et al., 2023). Active Fe and Cu</p><p>sites facilitated the conversion of CO2 into olefins intermediates, fol-</p><p>lowed by the transformation to aromatics on the zeolite active sites.</p><p>Overall, the catalytic conversion of CO2 requires a catalyst with suitable</p><p>oxygen vacancies, acid-base sites, and appropriate metal-support in-</p><p>teractions for adsorbing and activating the CO2 coupled with the</p><p>required C–C and C–H bond cleavages.</p><p>4.1.6. Catalytic conversion of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur dioxide</p><p>(SO2)</p><p>Nitrogen oxides (NOx) and SO2 are the primary sources of contami-</p><p>nating the atmosphere, emitted majorly from power stations, automo-</p><p>biles, and factories. They remarkably affect the global tropospheric</p><p>chemistry and are responsible for acid rain and PM2.5 (Han et al., 2019).</p><p>The technologies for the removal of NOx and SO2 include a selective</p><p>catalytic reduction (SCR), non-selective catalytic reduction (NSCR), se-</p><p>lective non-catalytic reduction, and the use of three-way catalysts (TWC)</p><p>(Damma et al., 2019; Yentekakis and Dong, 2020). SCR is the most</p><p>Fig. 3. (A) One-pot facile synthesis method of the core-shell Ni–ZrO2@SiO2 catalyst, showing the various synthesis steps</p><p>and the resulting core-shell configuration of</p><p>the Ni–ZrO2 and SiO2 catalyst (B) 240 h-on-stream stability test of the fresh Ni–ZrO2@SiO2 catalyst, showing greater than 90% stable conversions of CH4 and CO2 due</p><p>to the very high sintering and coking resistances (Liu et al., 2018).</p><p>A. Haruna et al.</p><p>Journal of Cleaner Production 416 (2023) 137863</p><p>9</p><p>commonly utilized removal method due to the high efficiency of NOx</p><p>conversion at both low and high temperatures.</p><p>4.1.6.1. Selective catalytic reduction of NOx with hydrogen (H2-SCR). The</p><p>selective catalytic reduction of NOx using hydrogen is a suitable</p><p>approach for reducing pollutants emission at low temperatures</p><p>(<200 ◦C). The major constraint of this technology is the availability of</p><p>sustainable and low-cost H2 sources (Han et al., 2018). Notably,</p><p>renewable sources such as alcohol reforming could serve as potential</p><p>sources for H2 during H2-SCR. Essentially, the most commonly utilized</p><p>catalysts for H2-SCR are based on noble metals like Platinum and</p><p>Palladium, due to their remarkable activation effect on H2. For example,</p><p>Yu et al., (2010) synthesized Cr promoted Pt-FER catalyst via the</p><p>co-impregnation technique. Cr addition improved NOx adsorption on</p><p>the catalyst surface with high N2 selectivity. A similar promotional effect</p><p>was reported by Machida and Watanabe (2004) using Na promoted</p><p>Pt-ZSM-5 catalyst. Interestingly, to address the expensive nature of</p><p>utilizing noble metals for H2-SCR, Wang et al., 2014 synthesized a</p><p>Zn-ZSM-5 catalyst for hydrogen-supported deNOx. The Zn cations</p><p>contributed immensely to the chemisorption of H2 on the zeolites,</p><p>resulting in a satisfactory NOx removal activity.</p><p>4.1.6.2. Selective catalytic reduction of NOx with ammonia (NH3-SCR).</p><p>Various combinations of transition-metal-based catalysts have been</p><p>utilized for NH3-SCR due to their high dispersion on the support,</p><p>appropriate metal-support interactions, and resistance to poisoning.</p><p>Typically, triple-shelled hollow spheres of NiMn2O4 synthesized using</p><p>facile solvothermal method exhibited very high activity for NH3-SCR of</p><p>NOx in the temperature range of 100–225 ◦C (Han et al., 2018). The</p><p>outstanding performance is attributed to the exposed Mn4+ active sites</p><p>and adsorbed oxygen species on the catalyst surface. In another devel-</p><p>opment, Meng et al., (2018) reported a synergistic effect of combining</p><p>Co and Mn species in the CoaMnbOx catalyst, as responsible for the high</p><p>deNOx performance at 170 ◦C. Enhanced redox properties and sufficient</p><p>acid sites on the catalyst surface contributed to the remarkable NOx</p><p>conversion of >80%. Similarly, Hu et al., 2018 synthesized a meso-</p><p>porous Mn–Co–O catalyst using a facile template-free approach, which</p><p>enhanced the diffusion of the NOx to the active sites. The Co–Mn com-</p><p>bination enhanced strong acid sites, abundant oxygen vacancies, and</p><p>suitable metal-metal interactions leading to the strong adsorption of</p><p>NOx with high deNOx efficiency. Recently, Kim and his co-workers</p><p>utilized physical mixing to develop V2O5-WO3/TiO2 and H-ZSM-5 cat-</p><p>alysts as active catalysts for the SCR of NOx (Kang et al., 2023). The</p><p>physically mixed catalyst demonstrated excellent deNOx efficiency,</p><p>reduced N2O production, and high resistance to SO2, due to the syner-</p><p>gistic effect of the V2O5-WO3/TiO2 and ZSM-5 catalysts. Interestingly,</p><p>appropriate catalyst design with adequate acidity and oxygen vacancies</p><p>can be tailored for simultaneous selective catalytic reduction of NOx and</p><p>oxidation of volatile organic compounds thereby mitigating two harmful</p><p>O&G pollutants. Typically, MnOx-CeO2/nanotube TiO2 yielded >80%</p><p>NOx and toluene conversions, resulting from the strong Lewis acid sites</p><p>and abundant oxygen vacancies in the catalyst composite (Ye et al.,</p><p>2023). The possible reaction pathway is shown in Fig. 4, where NH3</p><p>strongly adsorbed on the Lewis acid sites converts the gaseous NOx into</p><p>N2 through the Eley-Rideal mechanism, whereas the toluene decompo-</p><p>sition is facilitated on the oxygen vacancies via the Mars Van Krevelen</p><p>(MvK) mechanism.</p><p>4.1.6.3. Selective catalytic reduction of SO2. Several reductants and</p><p>different catalyst combinations have been reported for the SCR of SO2.</p><p>The efficiency of the reduction process depends on the nature of the</p><p>reducing agent and the suitable catalytic properties. SCR of SO2 using</p><p>CO as a reducing agent was reported by Wang and his co-workers over</p><p>Fe2O3 supported activated carbon. XRD measurement confirmed that</p><p>FeS2 obtained by sulfiding the catalyst served as the active phase,</p><p>resulting in 95% SO2 conversion (G. Wang et al., 2014). Likewise,</p><p>Mousavi et al., 2018 reported 99.5% SO2 conversion to elemental sulfur</p><p>using CH4 as a reductant over Ni–Al2O3 catalyst. The presence of Ni</p><p>nanoparticles moderates the amount of weak and medium acid sites</p><p>suitable for selective SO2 reduction.</p><p>4.2. Adsorptive technology</p><p>Because of the worldwide accidental discharge of liquid petroleum</p><p>into the ocean owing to tankers, pipelines, and oil well drilling rig</p><p>failure, ocean pollution brought on by oil spills is becoming more sig-</p><p>nificant. The chemicals that make up the oil have a negative impact on</p><p>the life cycles of thousands of species, severely harming marine eco-</p><p>systems. Oil adsorbents have been used to clean up impacted regions</p><p>together with other measures, such as various oil spill cleaning tech-</p><p>niques (Al-Majed et al., 2012; Doshi et al., 2018). To reduce or</p><p>completely degrade these pollutants, single and integrated procedures</p><p>Fig. 4. Reaction pathway for the simultaneous catalytic removal of NOx and toluene using MnOx-CeO2/nanotube TiO2 catalyst (Ye et al., 2023).</p><p>A. Haruna et al.</p><p>Journal of Cleaner Production 416 (2023) 137863</p><p>10</p><p>have been used in the literature. Some of the adopted single methods</p><p>include ultrasound (Sadatshojaie et al., 2021), advanced oxidation</p><p>processes (AOPs) (Coha et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2021), adsorption</p><p>(Hendges et al., 2021), and membrane (Alammar et al., 2020). These</p><p>procedures comprise the physical (membrane), biological, and chemical</p><p>processes of removing contaminants. Although some of the individual</p><p>techniques are quite expensive and may generate byproducts, coupling</p><p>the methods together may be an efficient way to increase the efficiency</p><p>of pollutant removal. Adsorption and membrane processes, adsorption</p><p>and photo-Fenton processes, and AOP and membrane processes are a</p><p>few examples of integrated processes that are successful in removing a</p><p>variety of toxins from water produced by oil fields (Alomar et al., 2022).</p><p>Adsorption technology is one of the most effective methods of</p><p>wastewater management when compared to other physical and chemi-</p><p>cal technologies (Adetokun et al., 2019; Chuin Tan et al., 2020; Fathy</p><p>et al., 2018; Garba et al., 2019a, 2019b; Rahim and Garba, 2016; Surip</p><p>et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2022; Xiao et al., 2020). Because of the large</p><p>amount of PW being generated, the cost-effective and friendly adsorp-</p><p>tion process has been employed for the treatment of several pollutants</p><p>found in PW (Yousef et al., 2020). The capacity to regenerate the</p><p>adsorbent by thermal regeneration using chemical eluents to speed up</p><p>the desorption process is another benefit of the adsorption technology.</p><p>This shows how crucial adsorption techniques are to the O&G sector. It</p><p>is commonly known that carbon-based materials make good adsorbents.</p><p>Going forward, Abou Chacra et al. (2018) studied the batch and fixed</p><p>bed methods for the removal of emulsified heavy crude oil in PW using</p><p>graphene nanoplatelets. Various adsorption parameters were investi-</p><p>gated and the optimal for 100 mg/g of graphene was 3 g/L dose, 60 min</p><p>of contact time, a pH of 10, 1500 ppm salinity, and 25 C. Fallah and</p><p>Roberts (2019) studied the GIC (graphite intercalation compound) as an</p><p>adsorbent on PW with an initial oil concentration of 103 mg/L and</p><p>actual PW with an initial concentration of 152 mg/L in a batch experi-</p><p>ment under the same conditions. The experiment was conducted under</p><p>4.5 pH, 22.3 ◦C temperature, 30 min of contact time, and 20 g of</p><p>adsorbent dose conditions. They observed a maximum removal of 100%</p><p>within 30 min attaining an adsorption capacity of 2.2 mg/g. The efficacy</p><p>of the material was reduced to 87% after five recycling.</p><p>The non-porous structure of the GIC was primarily blamed for the</p><p>quick adsorption kinetics and the decreased adsorption capacity. How-</p><p>ever, these non-porous structures utilize electrochemical methods to</p><p>enable quicker and less energy-intensive regeneration (Fallah and</p><p>Roberts, 2019). GIC demonstrated the lowest activity compared to other</p><p>carbon-based adsorbents (Abou Chacra et al., 2018; Fathy et al., 2018),</p><p>despite having the lowest equilibrium time and fastest kinetics. Litera-</p><p>ture clarifies that iron-based materials can serve as good adsorbents for</p><p>the removal of emulsified oil from PW. Some iron-based compounds can</p><p>reclaim magnetic materials more easily, and thanks to the magnetic</p><p>characteristic they exhibited. When magnetite was incorporated into</p><p>graphene nanoparticles, researchers found that the best adsorption (85</p><p>mg/g) by graphene magnetite took place at an adsorbent dose = 4 g/L,</p><p>pH = 3.5, the operation temperature of 25 ◦C, 30 min contact time, and</p><p>salinity of 1000 ppm (Abou Chacra et al., 2018). Additionally, graphene</p><p>magnetite may be recycled using n-hexane without affecting the process</p><p>efficiency. Ewis et al. (2020) also synthesized an iron oxide/bentonite</p><p>(Fe3O2/Bent NC). The produced nanocomposite was used in a batch</p><p>technique to remove 100 ppm of emulsified diesel oil injected into</p><p>synthetic PW. At the ideal circumstances, 0.1 g of adsorbent, pH = 6.5,</p><p>and 1h 30 min contact time was studied. A 67% and 54.05 mg/g removal</p><p>percentage and adsorption capacity were determined, respectively.</p><p>Apparently, the adsorbent displayed superior activity in adsorption ki-</p><p>netics and capacity. It is important to note that the adsorbent’s</p><p>adsorption capability decreases when iron-based particles are integrated</p><p>into it. The hydrophobic alteration of coal fly ash cenospheres (FACs), a</p><p>waste product from thermal power plants, and a novel spherical hollow</p><p>particle adsorbent with fast oil adsorption rate and simple agglomera-</p><p>tion were both accomplished by Sun and coworkers using biodegradable</p><p>candelilla wax (CW). The hydrophobic alteration of coal fly ash ceno-</p><p>spheres (FACs), a waste product from thermal power plants, and a novel</p><p>spherical hollow particle adsorbent with fast oil adsorption rate and</p><p>simple agglomeration were both accomplished by Sun and coworkers</p><p>using biodegradable CW (Sun et al., 2023). The physical coating of FACs</p><p>by CW was validated, and 0.05 g of wax was the ideal amount to add to</p><p>3 g of FACs. The highest adsorption capacity was attained at 649.38</p><p>mg/g, and the Langmuir isotherm model provided the best fit. Addi-</p><p>tionally, it was discovered that CW-FACs were very stable in concen-</p><p>trated salt, acid, and alkaline solutions as well as for oil product spills.</p><p>Additionally, the CW-FACs’ oil adsorption capacity was retained at a</p><p>rate of up to 93.2% after 6 cycles of adsorption-extraction (Sun et al.,</p><p>2023). As a result, CW-FACs can be widely applied, readily recycled, and</p><p>used again to clean up maritime oil spills, making them an excellent</p><p>alternative to traditional FAC disposal methods.</p><p>Biosorbents have been reported for the removal of oil from PW.</p><p>Using acetylated and unacetylated lignocellulose, Onwuka et al. exam-</p><p>ined the sorption of crude oil from water. They employed acetylated</p><p>(modified) and unacetylated (unmodified) sorbents by acetylating oil</p><p>palm empty fruit bunches (OPEFB) and cocoa pods (CP) under mild</p><p>circumstances, and their sorption capacities and processes were exam-</p><p>ined. They showed the crude oil sorption from water utilizing the</p><p>modified and unmodified sorbents to be time and initial concentration</p><p>dependent. The capacity of CP to absorb crude oil was greater than that</p><p>of OPEFB. These sorbents used a monolayer sorption procedure to</p><p>remove crude oil from water after starting multilayer operations. The</p><p>results of subsequent kinetic tests showed that the physisorption and</p><p>chemisorption mechanisms are used to govern the diffusion of crude oil</p><p>sorption (Onwuka et al., 2018). Taguchi method was employed by</p><p>Alatabe and co-workers to statistically optimize the parameters for the</p><p>removal of oil (n-hexane) from real PW using imperata cylindrica. At a</p><p>temperature of 30 ◦C, pH of 9, dosage of 0.1 g per 100 mL PW, and</p><p>contact period of 90 min, 97% oil removal was accomplished (Hadi</p><p>et al., 2020). Moreover, Cassia surattensis seeds were also investigated by</p><p>other researchers (Ibrahim et al., 2019) for the adsorption of oil (crude</p><p>oil) (118 ppm) from real PW. The ideal pH value of 2, contact period of</p><p>120 min, the dosage of 2 g in 150 mL of PW at a temperature of 25 ◦C</p><p>(±3 ◦C), and agitation speed of 200 rpm were used to get the adsorption</p><p>capacity of Cassia surattensis seed, which was 12.18 mg/g. Lawsonia</p><p>plant leaves, which are readily available and biodegradable, were also</p><p>utilized as a natural adsorbent to remove oil from saltwater. At room</p><p>temperature, the maximum sorption absorption of 0.25 g/g took place</p><p>after 2 min (Mahmoud et al., 2022). The sorption modeling in-</p><p>vestigations showed that oil interactions with the sorption sites of</p><p>Lawsonia leaves were homogenous and physical in nature. Furthermore,</p><p>the thermodynamic studies showed that at lower temperatures, the</p><p>exothermic interaction of oil uptake onto biomass and the sorption</p><p>method is preferred. The sorption/desorption system’s removal effec-</p><p>tiveness declined with each cycle, and this suggests that the biomass</p><p>leaves can be utilized four more times before the removal efficiency falls</p><p>below 40% (Mahmoud et al., 2022). Utilizing biomass leaves as a fuel</p><p>source (byproduct) to meet the energy needs of various industries can</p><p>reduce the environmental pollution that biomass leaves cause.</p><p>In another development, He et al. (2021) investigated the capacity of</p><p>a nanoadsorbent (PEG/Fe3O4/GO-NH2) to remove Ca2+ (3604 mg/L)</p><p>and Mg2+ (657.9 mg/L) ions from water produced by synthetic oil fields</p><p>(Fig. 5). At pH 7.3 and 50 ◦C, the PEG/Fe3O4/GO-NH2 was shown to</p><p>have an adsorption capacity of 2845.3 mg/g of Ca2+ and 406.1 mg/g of</p><p>Mg2+. Five regeneration cycles were performed on the PEG/Fe3O4/-</p><p>GO-NH2. According to core displacement experiments, the oil recovery</p><p>was increased by 11.8% after treatment with PEG/Fe3O4/GO-NH2. This</p><p>demonstrates the potency of PEG/Fe3O4/GO-NH2 for removing Ca2+</p><p>and Mg2+ and subsequent usage in oil recovery. Though the operational</p><p>temperature is high and could lead to higher operational costs, it is</p><p>apparent that PEG/Fe3O4/GO-NH2 exhibited larger di-valent anions</p><p>adsorption capabilities. Table 2 summarizes some of the adsorbents</p><p>A. Haruna et al.</p><p>Journal of Cleaner Production 416 (2023) 137863</p><p>11</p><p>employed by various researchers for the removal of oil and gas pollut-</p><p>ants, their performance, and information regarding the conditions in</p><p>which the adsorption takes place.</p><p>4.3. Renewable energy technology</p><p>The over-exploitation of petroleum-based resources led to their total</p><p>exhaustion since they are not renewable. The overutilization of fossil</p><p>fuels as our principal</p>