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SPINE Volume 31, Number 18, pp E621–E627 ©2006, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Inc. The Treatment of Chronic Coccydynia With Intrarectal Manipulation A Randomized Controlled Study Jean-Yves Maigne, MD,* Gilles Chatellier, MD,†‡§ Michel Le Faou, MD,* and Marie Archambeau, MD* Study Design. Randomized open study. Objective. To evaluate the efficacy of intrarectal man- ual treatment of chronic coccydynia; and to determine the factors predictive of a good outcome. Summary of Background Data. In 2 open uncontrolled studies, the success rate of intrarectal manipulation of the coccyx was around 25%. Methods. Patients were randomized into 2 groups of 51 patients each: 1 group received three sessions of coc- cygeal manipulation, and the other low-power external physiotherapy. The manual treatment was guided by the findings on stress radiographs. Patients were assessed, at 1 month and 6 months, using a VAS and (modified) McGill Pain, Paris (functional coccydynia impact), and (modified) Dallas Pain questionnaires. Results.At baseline, the 2 groupswere similar regarding all parameters. At 1 month, all the median VAS and ques- tionnaire values were modified by �34.7%, �36.0%, �20.0%, and �33.8%, respectively, in the manipulation group, ver- sus�19.1%,�7.7%, 20.0%, and�15.7%, respectively, in the control (physiotherapy) group (P � 0.09 [borderline], 0.03, 0.02, and 0.02, respectively). Good results were twice as frequent in the manipulation group compared with the con- trol group, at 1 month (36% vs. 20%, P � 0.075) and at 6 months (22% vs. 12%, P � 0.18). The main predictors of a good outcome were stable coccyx, shorter duration, trau- matic etiology, and lower score in the affective parts of the McGill and Dallas questionnaires. Conclusions. We found a mild effectiveness of intrar- ectal manipulation in chronic coccydynia. Key words: manipulation, spinal manipulative therapy, massage, coccyx, coccydynia, randomized controlled trial. Spine 2006;31:E621–E627 Intrarectal manipulation was the first published modal- ity for the treatment of coccydynia. The technique was mentioned in 1634, by Ambroise Pare´ (cited by Sugar1). The object was to reduce a presumed fracture. In the 20th century, coccygeal pain was successively attributed to a painful spasm of the intrapelvic muscles,2 loss of coccygeal mobility,3 or a sprain.4 Three main intrarectal techniques were devised to address these pathogenic mechanisms: Thiele described levator ani, coccygeus, and piriformis massage2; Mennell proposed repeated joint mobilization with circumduction of the coccyx,3 whereas Maigne practiced mobilization of the coccyx in extension, with energetic levator ani stretching.5,6 More recently, we described a technique using dy- namic views (stress radiographs).7 This technique clearly reveals the mobility of the coccyx as the subject passes from the standing to the sitting position. Mobility in coccydynia patients was compared with that in healthy controls. Normal movement was found to be usually into flexion and amounted to between 0° and 25°. A pathologic exaggeration of this movement is termed hy- permobility (found in 25% of the coccydynia patients). Less often, normal movement was into extension, of be- tween 0° and 20°. A pathologic exaggeration of this movement results in posterior luxation (20% of the coc- cydynia patients), which occurs only in the sitting posi- tion. These two lesions are bracketed together under the term “instability of the coccyx.”7 A third type of lesion is a coccygeal spicule (found in 15% of the coccydynia patients). This abnormal bony spur at the distal end of the coccyx may irritate the subcutaneous tissues if the coccyx is stiff.8 The causative role of these lesions in coccydynia was confirmed, in earlier studies, using intra- discal anesthetic blocks or injection of anesthetic around the spicule.7,8 The rationale for the treatment of coccydynia with manipulation is twofold: The lesions described above may cause or maintain a painful tension of the intrapel- vic muscles, which may aggravate the pain.9 Manual techniques are thought to relax the muscles.9,10 Manip- ulation may also make a stiff coccyx slightly more mo- bile, which would reduce the potential for subcutaneous tissue irritation by the coccyx. These techniques were previously assessed in two open studies. Wray et al (in a nonrandomized study) showed that patients who, before manipulation, had received a local corticosteroid injec- tion into the soft tissues around the sides and tip of the coccyx, had a 25% better 3-month success rate than did patients managed with local injections only (85% vs. 60%).11 In that study, the success criterion was freedom from symptoms at the 3-month review. Our randomized study compared the Thiele and the Maigne techniques, using a third, personal technique (mild stretching of the levator muscles without mobilizing the coccyx itself).9 From the *Department of Physical Medicine, Hoˆpital Hoˆtel-Dieu, Paris, France; †Unite´ d’E´pide´miologie Clinique, Paris, France; ‡Faculte´ de Me´decine Rene´ Descartes Paris 5, Paris, France; and §Hoˆpital Eu- rope´en Georges Pompidou, Paris, France. Acknowledgment date: February 14, 2006. Acceptance date: March 30, 2006. The manuscript submitted does not contain information about medical device(s)/drug(s). No funds were received in support of this work. No benefits in any form have been or will be received from a commercial party related directly or indirectly to the subject of this manuscript. Address correspondence and reprint requests to Jean-Yves Maigne, MD, Department of Physical Medicine, Hoˆtel-Dieu University Hospi- tal, Place du Parvis de Notre-Dame, F-75181 Paris Cedex 04, France; E-mail: jy.maigne@htd.aphp.fr E621 The overall success rate was 25.7% at 6 months and 24.3% at 2 years. Success was defined as �60% pain relief on a visual analogue scale (VAS). Outcomes varied slightly as a function of the cause of the coccydynia (as- sessed on stress radiographs) and the technique used. Levator massage and mild stretching of the levators had the greatest effectiveness, while the Maigne technique worked best in patients with normal coccygeal mobility. The two studies did not use controls; and although the success rates were similar (25%), a simple placebo effect could not be ruled out. However, a controlled study had to be undertaken. We present the results of an open ran- domized trial comparing the effectiveness of intrarectal manipulation with that of a control treatment, in pa- tients with chronic coccygodynia. Methods Participants. Between October 1999 and April 2003, 286 new patients with coccydynia were examined by the senior author (J.-Y.M.). Coccydynia was defined as pain in or around the coccyx, without any significant radiation, which is present mainly in the sitting position or when passing from the sitting to the standing position.7 Sample Size Estimation. It was calculated that, in order to achieve 80% confidence in detecting a difference between a pla- cebo (expected recovery rate, 10%) and an active treatment (ex- pected recovery rate, 35%), the sample size required was 102 patients. Inclusion Criteria. The following inclusion criteria were used: 1) chronic (�2 months) coccydynia (since, in our experi- ence, many cases of acute coccydynia will remit spontaneously in under 2 months); 2) age over 25 and under 70 years (the lower age limit reflects our policy of not performing intrarectal manipulation in subjects under 25 years of age); 3) no ongoing antidepressant treatment; 4) no medicolegal litigation or occu- pational-accident etiology; 5) good knowledge of the question- naire language (French); 6) no prior manual treatment; 7) con- sent to the study (and, in particular, to repeated intrarectal treatments); and 8) ability to return for further visits as re- quiredby the treatment and the study protocol. Baseline Assessment. The parameters recorded were patient age, gender, body mass index (BMI), duration of the com- plaints, and traumatic or nontraumatic etiology (coccydynia was defined as traumatic if there had been less than 1 month between a traumatic event or childbirth and the onset of the complaint).8 In patients randomized to manipulation, the pel- vic muscle tone was assessed rectally, before any manipulation, using a previously described technique.9 Muscle tone was graded subjectively as “normal” or “diminished.” Stress radiographs were obtained. In light of these stress radio- graphs, patients were first classified as having a stable coccyx (with normal mobility of the coccyx in flexion or extension), or an unstable coccyx (hypermobility or luxation). Hypermobility has been defined as a pathologic exaggeration of the movement of flexion and luxation as a pathologic alteration of the normal pat- tern of movement of extension.8 This classification was the most important parameter for the current study. Next, the following three angles, previously defined in the literature,8,12 were also recorded: angle of coccygeal incidence, angle of sagittal pelvic rotation, and sacrococcygeal angle. These angles are related with each other and with the direction of the coccygeal motion when sitting. Pain intensity was assessed using a VAS and questionnaires. The 100-mm VAS was used to establish the mean pain intensity in the sitting position (“If you are sitting normally, without trying to avoid putting weight on the coccyx, how bad, on average, is your pain?”), or the mean pain intensity when pass- ing from the sitting to the standing position, if the sitting posi- tion as such was not painful. The maximum score was 100 points (1 point for every millimeter on the scale). The impact of the pain was assessed using three question- naires: the (modified) McGill Pain Questionnaire, the Paris (functional coccydynia impact) Questionnaire, and the (modi- fied) Dallas Pain Questionnaire. The modified (abridged) McGill Pain Questionnaire comprising 15 items (1–8 � sen- sory; 9–15� affective) has been validated in a French-language version.13 The maximum score was 60 points. The French- language version of the Dallas Pain Questionnaire has also been validated.14 This instrument is a low back pain question- naire; for purposes of this study, only the nine sections relevant to coccygeal pain (Sections VIII–XVI; each with a maximum score of 10 points) were used. The section concerning pain during car travels was counted twice, to produce a maximum total score of 100, since experience has shown pain during car travel to be the most sensitive and representative feature of coccygeal pain. The Paris Questionnaire was designed in our department specifically for this study and has therefore not been submitted to formal validation. It covers functional as- pects only and has a maximum number of 100 points (see Appendix). Thus, the total number of points that could be obtained (called the “individual global score”) was 360, with higher scores reflecting a greater impact of the coccydynia. Treatments. The active treatment comprised three 5-minute sessions of intrarectal manipulation, over a period of 10 days (manipulation group). It was delivered by the senior author (J.-Y.M., a physician who has been practicing manual medicine for 25 years). Based on the study by Maigne et al,9 the maneu- ver used was a composite rather than a single one. As a general rule, coccyges that were nonmobile or which displaced in flex- ion were treated with strong levator muscle stretching and mo- bilization of the coccyx in extension; while only slight levator stretching, without coccygeal mobilization, was used in coccy- ges that displaced in extension (with or without posterior lux- ation). In all cases, levator muscles that were tender to internal palpation would be massaged longer. The intensity of the ma- neuvers was gradually increased during the three sessions. At the start of each session, only slight stretching, preceded by isometric external-sphincter contraction (muscle energy tech- nique), would be used, to avoid all pain. The active treatment was compared against external short- wave (magnetic field) physiotherapy applied to the sacrum at the lowest possible power; this treatment was delivered in three sessions over a period of 10 days (control group). This modality was tantamount to a placebo. Patients in both groups were informed that the treatment was designed to reduce the internal muscle spasm. If improve- ment was not obtained until after the second or the third ses- sion, a fourth session could be arranged. At the end of the E622 Spine • Volume 31 • Number 18 • 2006 treatment, the patients were given the questionnaires and the VAS for the subsequent assessments. One-Month and Six-Month Follow-up. One month after the end of the treatment, the patients filled in and returned the first set of their questionnaires and VAS. Patients were rou- tinely contacted by telephone by one of the authors (M.A.), who would see them in the outpatient clinic if need be. If the patient felt that the outcome was unsatisfactory, he or she would be removed from the study, and the treatment would be regarded as a failure. If the patient was satisfied with the out- come, he or she would wait, without any other treatment, for 5 months. At the end of this period (i.e., 6 months from the end of treatment), he or she would fill in the second set of question- naires and VAS, and was then telephoned by the assessor. Outcome Measures. The primary outcome measure was the score obtained in the questionnaires and the VAS. The second- ary outcome measure was the “good” or “poor” nature of the final outcome, which was determined from the individual global score (maximum score, 360 points) at 0, 1, and 6 months. It was arbitrarily decided that patients who had met the two conditions of1 �50% decrease in the individual global score at 1 month, and2 �60% decrease in that score at 6 months, would be considered to have had a “good outcome.” Anything else would be considered a “poor outcome,” in par- ticular if the improvement was not observed until after the 1-month milestone. Thus, four subgroups (good and poor out- comes, respectively, following manipulation; and good and poor outcomes, respectively, following the control treatment) were established and compared. This subgroup analysis is pre- sented without any statistical test, to avoid erroneous conclu- sions resulting from inflation of the alpha risk. Statistical Methods and Analysis. The investigation was designed as an open randomized study. Randomization was by sealed envelopes opened in the presence of the patient. The randomization list was balanced at every 10th patient. The study had been approved by the local Ethics Committee, and each patient’s written informed consent was obtained. The statistical analysis of the outcome measures was per- formed using the customary tests: �2 test (for categorical vari- ables) and t test or Mann-Whitney test, as appropriate. Differ- ences with a P value of less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant. Statview (version 5.0, SAS Institute Inc.) and Stata (StataCorp LP 7, 2005) software was used. Results are given as numbers (percent), mean values (1 SD), or median (range) values for variables that did not have a gaussian distribution. Results Patient Baseline Characteristics A total of 102 patients were enrolled. Two were lost to follow-up (1 after the first manipulation session; the other, a Control group patient, after the 1-month follow-up visit, which had shown �50% improvement). Thus, in each group, 50 patients were available for review. At enrollment, the 2 groups were well matched for the parameters studied (Table 1). One-Month ResultsAt 1 month, all the VAS and questionnaire results dif- fered statistically between the 2 groups, with the manip- ulation group showing the better outcomes (Table 2). The mean individual global score had improved by 26% in the manipulation group, as against 14% in the control group. Equal to or greater than 50% improvement in the individual global score at 1 month was seen in 36% of the manipulation group patients and in 20% of the con- trol group patients. Table 1. Baseline Data at Enrollment Manipulation (n � 51) Controls (n � 51) Gender (female/male) 46/5 46/5 Age (yr) 45.2 (11.5) 44.6 (13) Duration of complaints (mo)* 15 (2–120) 11 (2–60) Etiologic trauma (%) 18 (35.3) 22 (43.1) BMI (kg/m2) 24.4 (4.2) 24.5 (4.7) Stable coccyx (%) 26 (51) 22 (43) Unstable coccyx (%) 25 (49) 29 (57) VAS 100 mm (maximum 100 points)* 62 (25–95) 68 (22–95) MPQ (maximum 60 points)* 18 (4–52) 19.5 (5–52) Paris (maximum 100 points)* 50 (20–80) 50 (30–90) DPQ (modified) (maximum 100 points)* 37 (11–61) 41.5 (10–85) Individual global score (maximum 360 points) 168� 48 186� 41.2 BMI� body mass index; VAS� visual analog scale; MPQ� (modified) McGill Pain Questionnaire; Paris� Paris Questionnaire; DPQ� (modified) Dallas Pain Questionnaire. Data are mean (�SD) or % (n). *Data are median (range). Table 2. VAS and Questionnaire Results at 1 Month Group Instrument (P value) VAS (P � 0.09) MPQ (P � 0.03) Paris (P � 0.02) DPQ (P � 0.02) M0 M1 M0 M1 M0 M1 M0 M1 Manipulation (n � 50) 62 (25–95) 40.5 (0–100) 18 (4–52) 11.5 (0–41) 50 (20–80) 40 (0–90) 37 (11–61) 24.5 (0–71) Decrease M0–M1 (%) �34.7% �36% �20% �33.8% Control (n � 50) 68 (22–95) 55 (0–100) 19.5 (5–52) 18 (1–54) 50 (30–90) 60 (0–100) 41.5 (10–85) 35 (0–87) Decrease M0–M1 (%) �19.1% �7.7% �20% �15.7% VAS � visual analog scale; MPQ � (modified) McGill Pain Questionnaire; Paris � Paris Questionnaire; DPQ � (modified) Dallas Pain Questionnaire. Data are median (range). Data were compared using a Mann-Whitney test. E623Treatment of Chronic Coccydynia • Maigne et al Six-Month Results The patients who at 1 month had had a good outcome (�50% improvement in the individual global score) con- tinued in the study out to 6 months. In the manipulation group, 34 patients were observed up for that period; in the control group, there were 24. At 6 months, there were 11 good outcomes (�50% improvement in the in- dividual global score at 1 month and�60% at 6 months) in the manipulation group (22% of the patients); in the control group, there were six good outcomes (12% of the patients), a 10% absolute rate of improvement (95% confidence interval, �6.5% to 22.2%). If a more strin- gent definition of a good outcome (e.g., 50% improve- ment at 1 month and 90% at 6 months) had been ap- plied, the respective numbers and percentages would have been 4 (8%) and 2 (4%), a 4% absolute rate of improvement (95% confidence interval, �7.1% to 11.6%). Factors Associated With a Good Outcome Subgroup analysis was performed to establish the factors associated with a good outcome in the 2 groups. Clinical Factors A short time interval between the onset of the complaints and initiation of treatment, and etiologic trauma, were predictive of a good outcome following manipulation. These factors were not found in the patients with a good outcome following the control treatment, which suggests that the improvement observed in the manipulation group was attributable to the manipulation. Normal (un- diminished) pelvic muscle tone was predictive of a good outcome at 1 month, but not at 6 months (Table 3). Radiographic Factors Patients with a stable coccyx had a 30.8% chance of ob- taining relief from manipulation, as against a 13.6% chance of relief from the control treatment. On the other hand, unstable coccyges did not respond any better to ma- nipulation than they did to the control treatment. The an- gles measured on the stress radiographs (coccygeal inci- dence, sacrococcygeal, and sagittal pelvic rotation) showed that coccyges that responded well were slightly straighter than those that showed a poor response (Table 3). Pain Intensity and Pain Impact The intensity and nature of the pain, and the impact of the pain on traveling in a car, did not have any predictive value (Table 4). Psychosocial Factors Some of these factors had a good predictive value: ma- nipulation worked best in patients with the lowest scores in the McGill Questionnaire (in particular, for the affec- tive items) and in the Depression and Interpersonal Re- lationships sections of the Dallas Pain Questionnaire (Table 4). Interestingly, the same pattern was observed in the Control group. Discussion Treatment Results Despite its limitations (see below), the current study broke new ground by comparing the outcomes, in chronic coccydynia, of intrarectal coccygeal manipula- tion versus those obtained with a noneffective control treatment. Under the study conditions, manipulation was more effective than the control treatment. Improve- ment was definite using questionnaire results (the pri- mary outcome measure), but only modest using the rate of good outcomes (the secondary outcome measure). The 6-month rate of good results was 22%, which compares favorably with the outcomes of 2 earlier, uncontrolled studies, but meant that the efficacy was modest. The ef- fectiveness observed appears to be less than that of intra- discal injections,15 or of coccygectomy, which is, how- ever, performed in unstable coccyges only.16 It is conceivable that the various treatment methods are spe- cific to different types of coccydynia, with manipulation particularly suited to patients who are not relieved by intradiscal injections (i.e., patients who do not have in- tradiscal inflammation). However, this hypothesis re- Table 3. Association of Some Clinical and Radiographic Factors With Outcome in the 2 Groups Patients With a God Outcome* Following Manipulation (n � 11) Patients With a Poor Outcome* Following Manipulation (n � 39) Patients With a Good Outcome* Following the Control Treatment (n � 7) Patients With a Poor Outcome* Following the Control Treatment (n � 43) Clinical factors Median time to treatment (mo) 5 18 19.8 16.2 Etiologic trauma (%) 55 28 0 46.5 Pain on getting up from sitting (%) 73 64 43 58 Diminished pelvic muscle tone (%) 45 44 NA NA BMI (mean) 23.4 24.6 23.4 24.5 Radiographic factors Stable coccyx 8 (73%) 18 (46.2%) 3 (43%) 19 (44.2%) Coccygeal incidence angle (°) 38.8 22.9 20 24 Pelvic sagittal rotation angle (°) 35.7 39.8 33 37 Sacrococcygeal angle (°) 147 138.7 136 130 NA � not applicable (not measured in this group); BMI � body mass index. *A good outcome was defined as at least 50% improvement at 1 month, and at least 60% improvement at 6 months. E624 Spine • Volume 31 • Number 18 • 2006 mains to be tested. It is also possible that the efficacy of manipulation could be increased if more sessions were provided. Thiele used up to 11 treatments and recom- mended up to 6 treatments.2 In light of our results, it would be desirable to add 2 or 3 manipulation sessions after the first month in an attempt to preserve the bene- ficial effects obtained during the first month. It should be noted that there were no adverse events. Limitations of the Study To our knowledge, this is the first randomized controlled study published on this topic. However, our study still had several limitations. First, it was, by definition, an open study. Therefore, the validity of questionnaires is a critical aspect. Among the 3 questionnaires used in the study, only the Paris questionnaire had not been formally validated. How- ever, its results were seen to vary in the same way as those of the Dallas and the McGill questionnaires. These 2 questionnaires are commonly used in pain studies. They assess the sensoryand affective components of the pain (McGill) and the extent to which chronic pain affects daily and work activities, leisure activities, anxiety- depression, and social interest (Dallas). Whereas the McGill questionnaire may be used for any pain of verte- bral origin, the Dallas questionnaire had to be modified, by the elimination of the items relating to low back pain, to make it suitable for use in patients with chronic coc- cydynia. The Paris Questionnaire was specifically de- Table 4. Association of Baseline Pain Intensity and Pain Impact, and Psychosocial Factors, With Outcome in the 2 Groups Patients With a Good Outcome* Following Manipulation (n � 11) Patients With a Poor Outcome Following Manipulation (n � 39) Patients With a Good Outcome Following the Control Treatment (n � 7) Patients With a Poor Outcome Following the Control Treatment (n � 43) Pain intensity and pain impact VAS (median) 50 62 66 71 Paris Questionnaire (median) 50 50 50 50 DPQ Section IX: How much does pain interfere with traveling in a car? 60 70 60 65 DPQ Section X: How much does pain interfere with your job? (median) 50 50 70 55 Psychosocial factors MPQ affective items (max 28 points) (median) 2 12 9 12 DPQ Section VIII: How much does pain interfere with your social life? (median) 43 54 60 50 DPQ Section XI: How much control do you feel you have over demands made on you? (median) 30 30 25 40 DPQ Section XII: How much control do you feel you have over your emotions? (median) 18 24 31.5 40 DPQ Section XIII: How depressed have you been since the onset of pain? (median) 10 23 23 35 DPQ Section XIV: How much do you think your pain has changed your relationship with others? (median) 7 16.5 10 14 DPQ Section XV: How much support do you need from others to help you? (median) 7 8.5 8.5 10 DPQ Section XVI: How much do you think others express irritation, frustration, or anger toward you because of your pain? (median) 4.5 7 8.5 10 VAS � visual analog scale; DPQ � (modified) Dallas Pain Questionnaire; MPQ � (modified) McGill Pain Questionnaire; max �maximum score (Unless otherwise indicated, the maximum score that could be obtained in any one test was 100 points). *A good outcome was defined as at least 50% improvement at 1 month, and at least 60% improvement at 6 months. E625Treatment of Chronic Coccydynia • Maigne et al signed for coccydynia. It covers, specifically, the func- tional aspects of the pain, which are not assessed by the other two questionnaires. It explores the pain when sit- ting (and differs, in this respect, from the VAS, which only measures the intensity of the pain), when passing from sitting to standing (very specific of coccydynia with radiologic findings8), when walking and at night (pain on these occasions is frequent in severe coccydynia), and when traveling (the most sensitive detector of coccygeal pain). This set of three questionnaires offers a correct representation of the pain impact in chronic coccydynia. With the 4 scales (VAS and the questionnaires), we ob- tained differences between the 2 groups (P ranging from 0.09 to 0.02). This fact is explained by the interrelation- ship between the scales. However, it adds value to our study: the difference due to the intervention was greater than the variability due to random error. Second, the control treatment (lowest-power short waves, applied to the sacrum) was not strictly speaking a placebo. However, the control group’s success rate at 6 months was only 12%, which suggests that the effective- ness of the control treatment may be considered to have been very slight to nonexistent. Finally, the patients were not followed up beyond 6 months; however, in a pilot study, good results had been seen to be maintained in the period between 6 months and 24 months.9 Subgroup Comparison These analyses were performed post hoc and should therefore be interpreted with caution. Some factors were predictive of a good outcome of manipulation. Manipu- lation patients with a stable coccyx did better than those with an unstable coccyx; whereas in the control group, stability was not a factor of good prognosis. This would appear to derive from the mechanism of action of ma- nipulation. The technique can make the coccyx more supple and, in particular, relieve the painful tension of the pelvic muscles. We think that for this relief to be durable, the causative coccygeal disc lesion must be min- imal or healing. In that case, the painful muscle tension may be assumed to be purely reflex and to lend itself to treatment with manipulation.9 Timing The procedure should be performed as early as possible: In patients with coccydynia of more than 1 year’s stand- ing, the results of manipulation were markedly poorer. In cases with etiologic trauma, the rate of good results was twice that in non–trauma-related cases. These 2 ob- servations suggest that a minimal coccygeal disc lesion (especially if caused by trauma) will heal spontaneously. If there is still pain after 1 year, the cause should be sought elsewhere. The culprits may, for instance, be in- tradiscal inflammation or psychosocial factors. The cur- rent study demonstrated the role of psychosocial factors and appears, indeed, to be the first study to show the importance of these factors in chronic coccydynia. Mechanisms of Action of Coccygeal Manipulation Our results suggest that manipulation works only if the coccyx is stable. With an unstable coccyx, the pain is likely to be due to the abnormality (hypermobility or luxation) of the affected coccygeal motion segment, and manipulation will not relieve the pain. With a stable coc- cyx, the pain may (in some cases) be due to painful ten- sion of the pericoccygeal muscles (the levator ani and the coccygeus), and manipulation may afford relief. With a stiff coccyx, manipulation may render the coccyx more supple and thus ensure that the subcutaneous tissues are not subjected to excessive bony pressure when the sub- ject is in the sitting position. To test this hypothesis, postmanipulation dynamic radiographs would have been required. Conclusion In light of the current study, coccygeal manipulation may be recommended in the treatment of chronic coccydynia. However, it should be borne in mind that its effectiveness is mild. Manipulation appears to work best where the coccy- dynia is posttraumatic, of recent onset, and not associated with coccygeal instability or adverse psychosocial factors. Key Points ● In chronic coccydynia, intrarectal manual treat- ment was better than the control treatment (22% vs. 12%, at 6 months). ● The effectiveness observed was mild. ● Manipulation was more effective in post- traumatic coccydynia of recent onset and not asso- ciated with instability of the coccyx. ● Psychosocial factors had an adverse effect on the effectiveness of the treatment. References 1. Sugar O. Coccyx, the bone named for a bird. Spine 1995;20:379–83. 2. Thiele GH. Coccydynia and pain in the superior gluteal region and down the back of the thigh: causation by tonic spasm of the levator ani, coccygeus and piriformis muscles and relief by massage of these muscles. JAMA 1937;109: 1271–5. 3. Mennell JB. The Science and Art of Joint Manipulation. London: Churchill, 1949. 4. Howorth B. The painful coccyx. Clin Orthop 1959;14:145–61. 5. Maigne R. Les manipulations verte´brales, 3rd ed. Paris: Expansion Scienti- fique Francaise, 1961:180. 6. Maigne R. Diagnosis and Treatment of Pain of Vertebral Origin: AManual Medicine Approach. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1996:339–40. 7. Maigne JY, Guedj S, Straus C. Idiopathic coccygodynia: lateral roentgeno- grams in the sitting position and coccygeal discography. Spine 1994;19: 930–4. 8. Maigne JY, Doursounian L, Chatellier G. Causes and mechanisms of com-mon coccydynia: role of body mass index and coccygeal trauma. Spine 2000;25:3072–9. 9. Maigne JY, Chatellier G. Comparison of three manual coccydynia treat- ments: a pilot study. Spine 2001;26:E479–83; discussion E484. 10. Maigne JY, Vautravers P. Mechanism of action of spinal manipulative therapy. Joint Bone Spine 2003;70:336–41. 11. Wray CC, Easom S, Hoskinson J. Coccydynia: aetiology, treatment. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1991;73:335–8. 12. Maigne JY, Tamalet B. Standardized radiologic protocol for the study of common coccygodynia and characteristics of the lesions observed in the E626 Spine • Volume 31 • Number 18 • 2006 sitting position: clinical elements differentiating luxation, hypermobility, and normal mobility. Spine 1996;21:2588–93. 13. Boureau F, Luu M, Doubre`re JF. Comparative study of the validity of four French McGill Pain Questionnaire (MPQ) versions. Pain 1992;50:59–65. 14. Marty M, Blotman F, Avouac B, et al. Validation of the French version of the Dallas Pain Questionnaire in chronic low back pain patients. Rev Rhum Engl Ed 1998;65:126–34. 15. Rouhier B. Re´sultats des injections coccygiennes dans le traitement de la coccygodynie chronique [Dissertation]. Paris: University of Paris V, 2003. 16. Maigne JY, Lagauche D, Doursounian L. Instability of the coccyx in coccy- dynia. J Bone Joint Surg Br 2000;82:1038–41. Appendix Annex 1. The Paris (functional coccydynia impact) Questionnaire Circle the number which best describes your response. To ensure that your questionnaire will count, please an- swer all 5 questions. 1) When I am sitting: I have no pain (0) I have slight discomfort (1) I can only sit in certain positions (2) Sitting is virtually impossible for me (3) 2) When standing up from sitting: I do not feel any worse than when I am sitting (0) Standing up from sitting is painful Standing up from sitting is extremely painful (2) 3) Standing still or walking: I have no pain (0) I am in pain (1) 4) Traveling (by car, train, bus, coach): Traveling is not uncomfortable (0) Traveling is slightly uncomfortable (1) Traveling is extremely uncomfortable (2) 5) At night: I have no pain during the night (0) I sometimes have pain during the night (1) I regularly get woken by pain during the night (2) Total � 10 � final score (out of maximum of 100 points) E627Treatment of Chronic Coccydynia • Maigne et al
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