NARRATIVE AULA 4 TEXTO

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CONTEMPORARY NARRATIVES - 
LANGUAGE, CINEMA, AND 
LITERATURE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Profª Liane Von Mühlen 
AULA 4 
 
 
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MULTIPLE NARRATIVES IN CINEMA AND LITERATURE: NARRATIVE FEATURES 
Since narratology is an interdisciplinary area of studies and research, and as 
language or languaging permeates varied and several productions. In this lesson we 
are focusing on narratives in cinema and literature. Nevertheless, narratives related to 
these fields are also multiple. 
Concepts, theories, and discussions presented in this lesson aim to understand 
how languaging works in literature and cinema. Together with that, reflect on the key 
concepts of verbality and iconicity and analyze adaptation related to cinema and 
literature. What is more, we intend to revisit the essential elements that compose 
narratives as well as discuss genre as narrative feature. 
TOPIC 1 – THE LITERARY LANGUAGE AND CINEMATOGRAPHIC LANGUAGE 
Even though being two distinct works of art, literature and cinema are surely 
equally extraordinary, each of them in its own way. Tracing their popularity, we find out 
that, for instance, literature was such a popular form of expression along the 18th and 
19th centuries, while it happened to cinema from the 20th century on. 
On the one hand, it is undeniable that literature and cinema have their 
connections and even differences. On the other hand, their fundamental similarity is the 
power they do have to take readers and audiences to different worlds. 
While literature has been a way of expression for centuries, with writers telling 
tales about a variety of characters, such as gods, goddesses, heroes, and heroines, 
involved in battles, victories, epics, tragedies, incidents, and other episodes, cinema has 
brought all this to the screen recently. 
Strong and weak points apart, what cinema seems to have as of great impact is 
the visual aspect, which is lacked in literature. And more than ever, visual is what attracts 
and connects the audience to the story, since it shows the whole picture on the screen. 
Afterall, what is literature and what is cinema? One might say that they are forms 
of art. What else lays behind their concepts? We are then presenting a table with 
definitions of literature and cinema brought by different sources. 
 
 
 
 
 
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Table 1 – Definitions of literature and cinema 
Literature Cinema 
Merriam-Webster 
1 a. (1): writings in prose or verse. 
 (2): an example of such writings. 
 b. the body of writings on a particular 
subject. 
 c. the body of written works produced in 
a particular language, country, or age. 
 d. printed matter (such as leaflets or 
circulars). 
2: the production of literary work 
especially as an occupation. 
3: the aggregate of a usually specified 
type of musical compositions. 
1 a: MOTION PICTURE — usually used 
attributively. 
 b: a motion-picture theater. 
 
2 a: MOVIES especially: the film industry. 
 b: the art or technique of making motion 
pictures. 
 
 
 
 
Dictionary.com 
1 writings in which expression and form, in 
connection with ideas of permanent and 
universal interest, are characteristic or es-
sential features, as poetry, novels, history, 
biography, and essays. 
2 the entire body of writings of a specific 
language, period, people, etc. 
3 the writings dealing with a particular sub-
ject. 
4 the profession of a writer or author. 
5 literary work or production. 
6 any kind of printed material, as circulars, 
leaflets, or handbills. 
1 movies collectively, as an art. 
Britannica 
literature, a body of written works. The 
name has traditionally been applied to 
those imaginative works of poetry and 
1 a: the film industry. 
 b: the art or technique of making movies. 
 
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/motion%20picture
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/movies
 
 
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prose distinguished by the intentions of 
their authors and the perceived aes-
thetic excellence of their execution. Litera-
ture may be classified according to a vari-
ety of systems, including language, na-
tional origin, historical period, genre, and 
subject matter. 
Here we take literature as written works as brought first in the three definitions in 
Table 1 and cinema conceived as moviemaking, both as arts. 
The Encyclopedia Britannica informs that the word literature derives from the 
Latin littera, meaning “a letter of the alphabet”. What is more, it also points out that 
literature “is first and foremost humankind’s entire body of writing; after that it is the body 
of writing belonging to a given language or people; then it is individual pieces of writing” 
(Rexroth, 2020). 
In the sense of understanding how languaging works in literature and cinema we 
shall consider that both change from time to time. These changes have become more 
constant. In terms of literature, graphic novels are more popular than ever, while 
streaming represents the greatest change in cinema. What is considered a classic piece 
of literature or cinema nowadays? A question to make us think. 
Doloughan (2011) presents her view of language within the communication 
context in which mode and medium are significant: 
We often talk about language as a medium of communication, for 
example, in the sense of one of many means whereby communication 
can be effected. Language can be delivered in the spoken mode or the 
written mode and transmitted via audio or video, for example; language 
in the written mode can be presented in print or on screen, two different 
media which, as we will see, have the capacity to impact upon the 
organization and configuration of the written text, particularly in cases 
where many modes are employed to deliver the message, communicate 
ideas or construct a narrative. (Doloughan, 2011, p. 6) 
Besides that, in reference to language and narratives, the author exposes her 
view of the team by saying that “with the rise of English as a global language or lingua 
franca, seemingly at the expense of other major world languages, it is all the more 
important to recognize the potential of language and culture as a narrative resource” 
(p. 69). That aligns with our way of seeing it. Any so-called named language and culture 
as resources to write, tell and show stories about individuals, communities, peoples, 
civilizations and so on. 
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aesthetic
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aesthetic
https://www.britannica.com/topic/language
https://www.britannica.com/art/genre-literature
 
 
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Scholes (1980) brings his view of narrative as being “a place where sequence 
and language, among other things, intersect to form a discursive code” (p. 204). The 
author also explains why considering the nature of language in narratives is of such 
relevance. For him, 
We must consider the nature of language because many of the problems 
and confusions in our thought about narrative stem from what seem to 
me to be a set of misconceptions about language itself” (p. 204). Once 
again, the way language is seen and thought makes the difference. 
Having the notion of language as discourse and social practice, beyond 
any code, is what might create possibilities of reading, not only texts, but 
also the world and act through language, or as Maturana would say, 
languaging. 
Gualda (2010) draws a table, in which she represents and contrasts, in what she 
calls “confrontation” of literary language and cinematographic language. 
Table 2 – The literary language and cinematographic language 
Literary language Cinematographic language 
Representations of images Reproduction of images 
Linking of basic ideas (images) Sequence of mental images towards sound and 
not sound images. 
It starts from the word to the visible 
image (Calvino, 1990: 98). 
It starts from the visible image to reach verbalexpression (Calvino, 1990: 98). 
Idea of imagination as communication 
with the soul of the world (Calvino, 
1990: 103) and of "imagination as a 
repertoire of potential, hypothetical, of 
what is not, nor was it and maybe not, 
but it could have been" (Ibid: 106). 
Communication from images with the potential 
implied. "Around each image lurk other, they 
form a field of analogies, symmetries and 
oppositions (Calvino, 1990: 104). 
Privileges "the direct observation of 
the real world, the ghostly and 
dreamlike transfiguration, the world 
figurative (...) and a process of 
abstraction, condensation 
internalization of sense experience" 
(Calvino, 1990: 110). 
Privileges immediate reception, ready and 
linear. 
 
 
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Conceptual and of media effects - 
space seems to be “temporalized" 
(Brito 2006: 146). 
Actualizing show, made present - time seems 
"spatialized" (Brito 2006: 146). 
It is necessary a creative 
collaboration, subjective and 
emotional (illusion of ownership of 
what was thought). 
Simple and easy understanding, "the viewer is 
more frivolous, more committed to 
entertainment, to have fun, to thrill or not" 
(Lopes, 2004). 
Source: Gualda (2010, p. 209). 
Not only does the author present the confrontation of the literature language and 
the cinematographic language, but she also draws on reading the word and reading the 
photo. 
Table 3 – The reading of the word and the reading of the photo 
The Word The photo(gram) 
Evokes, refers to an object or idea. Show, refers to a series of objects. 
Makes sense only in the relationship it 
establishes with other words in context. 
Closes an idea in itself, does not depend 
on another to create meaning. 
1st level: complex reading, because we do 
two simultaneous activities - mental 
representation and elaboration of 
meaning. 
1st level: simple reading, because it 
captures only the following of facts. 
2nd level: reflective reading – enables 
returning to capture the other senses, or 
understand certain times of the text. 
2nd level: reflective reading – reception + 
construction of meaning. 
 
Source: Gualda (2010, p. 210). 
Through times, what changed is not only the way public used to see and consume 
literature and cinema, but also the way it was thought, conceptualized, and produced. 
Then once again language plays an important (if not essential) role in the whole process, 
since language is never neutral. On the contrary, it is always intended and purposeful. 
Literature and cinema make use of varied kinds of language: sometimes similar, other 
times, completely different. 
 
 
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TOPIC 2 – LITERATURE VERBALITY AND CINEMA ICONICITY 
Before moving on with the theme of literature and cinema narratives, we are 
reflecting on stories told in the late twenty and early twenty-first centuries. Doloughan 
(2011), in the preface of her book, mentions trends and issues in four points: a) 
increasing interest in the possibilities and limitations of the visual mode for contemporary 
storytelling, b) concern with finding a language (or languages) which adequately 
represent/s and ‘translate/s’ aspects of existence today, c) renewed interest in adapting 
storylines across modes and media and concern with the consequences of such 
processes of adaptation, d) the need to be able to negotiate different language and 
literacy practices. 
From the author’s point of view, these four key aspects are the main concerns of 
scholars, researchers, and authors. In terms of language, for instance, literature and 
cinema have their own specificities. However, without digging so deep into the 
specificities, we keep things in the bases that cinema has an iconic nature and literature 
has its verbality. This is so because what a film does is showing people the story (Image 
1), while the literature piece tells people the story (Image 2). In literature the main source 
of information is the text, which is played by the visual and sound in cinema. 
Image 1 – Watching the movie The Knights 
 
Source: Vladimir Wrangel/Shutterstock. 
 
 
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Image 2 – Reading the book Dom Quixote 
 
Source: ALEXEY GRIGOREV/Shutterstock. 
Reflecting on the concepts of verbality and iconicity is key to comprehend how 
narration works within them. Such concepts are intrinsically connected to the ways 
literature and cinema are conceived and produced. Not rarely researchers state that 
what silence produces in literature is what sound produces in cinema, since speech, 
music or noise in a film can tell a story itself. Even greater effect will it produce together 
with images. 
Gualda (2010) comments on the differences in terms of communication when it 
comes to literature and cinema: 
It is noteworthy that literature and cinema communicate differently and 
makes little sense to find exact parallels between the two means at the 
level of denotative communication. The film image is not like a word, more 
like a sentence or a serie of sentences. The expansion of the action is 
essential to the film, the novel also expands the action, through the 
experience of the characters and the description and analysis of the 
events narrated. (Gualda, 2010, p. 211) 
It is of agreement that literature and cinema have always be seen as similar 
somehow since both narrate stories. Nevertheless, we should keep in mind that there 
are differences. Cinema is visual art, so it may encompass other forms of art. In cinema, 
natural language is not the main feature, but in literature it is. Furthermore, space seems 
to be easier to specify in cinema than in literature. 
Essentially what distinguishes literature and cinema has to do with signifier and 
signified. While in literature the relationship between signifiers (sounds) and signified 
(meanings) plays the key role, in cinema it nearly does not exist. A shot (the image) is 
 
 
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incredibly close to the actual object, the iconic relationship between image and object. 
Another key feature which differentiates literature and cinema is that, whereas the first 
one moves from abstract to concrete, the latter does it the other way round. 
TOPIC 3 – CONCERNING ADAPTATION 
According to the dictionary, adaptation is a) the action or process of changing 
something, or of being changed, to suit a new purpose or situation; b) a film, television 
drama or play that is based on a particular book or play but has been changed to suit 
the new medium (Oxford, 2022). 
Our aim here is to analyze adaptation related to cinema and literature. To start 
with, we tend to agree that what happens is that while literature takes its readers on a 
journey of imagination, cinema makes the audience view the story through the 
imagination of the filmmakers or directors. If literature is an art developed through writing, 
cinema brings to life such writings through visuals, sound, music, and actors. However, 
the meanings hidden in literature are not always developed in a movie. That is why a 
movie based on a piece of literature requires loads of studies. 
Often, we ask ourselves what inspired or influenced what. It is well-established 
that literature instigated people to move on to cinema. Differences apart, we should 
agree that the contributions from one art to the other are remarkable. For instance, 
cinema got inspiration and developed movies based on world tales and stories. 
Gualda (2010) points out that “the issue of adapting a novel for the cinema has 
never been a peaceful activity. The writers argue the lack of fidelity to the original or the 
distance between the two languages semiotics” (p. 213). 
Rothwell (2019) writes about the success of book to film adaptations. In her article 
she presents evidence to support her arguments, such as the ones in Table 4. 
Table 2 – Book to film adaptations in numbers 
Films adapted from books are typically 
more successful than original screenplays 
as they generate 53% more revenue(£68m) than original screenplays worldwide 
(Frontier Economics). 
An incredible 70% of the world’s top 20 
grossing films are based on books (Frontier 
Economics). 
 
 
 
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The percentage of books adapted for film 
vary each year, sometimes substantially, as 
trends in popular culture must be followed. 
In 2005 66% of films released were based 
on books, this then dropped significantly to 
28% in 2011 and then rose to 65% in 2015. 
Source: Rothwell (2019). 
In terms of adaptation, Alqadi (2015) makes a point by stating that the issue is of 
no unanimity: 
Adaptation is the translation of a novel so that it fits a new destination, a 
new target or a new audience. Film adaptation was referred to by Belen 
Vidal Villasur as a memory-object of its source; herein literature. This 
supposed role of adaptation makes critics eager to continually discuss 
the degree to which a film is faithful to the literary work. Whereas in 
literature the reader fills in the blanks himself, imagining the space and 
the characters, cinema provides the audience with ready-made 
characters, in blood and flesh, and a definite outline of space. 
Adaptations may make the understanding of an already read novel easier. 
The characters are alive and tangible as well as the whole context. 
(Alqadi, 2015, p. 42). 
Besides bringing into the scene the role played by adaptation, the author also 
points out that “studies showed that adaptations do not make young people more 
interested in reading books. The opposite is more frequent. Young people are interested 
to watch adaptations of books already read” (p. 43). The question then is: what are the 
advantages of adapting a work of literature into cinema? 
According to Rothwell (2019) several reasons can explain that: 
a) Adaptations of a novel can guarantee an increase in income for the publishing 
industry. After the film is released there will be a significant rise in books sales. 
b) The books may also be given new cover designs and re-merchandised to include 
the films actors and actresses which will result in further sales. 
c) This increase in revenue benefits the world of books significantly as Publishers 
can now afford to increase their lists and are in a position to take more risks with 
books in the future. 
d) The author will receive a substantial amount from the success of the film meaning 
that they will be able to write and release more books and start the cycle again. 
From what is mentioned above, one might detach that adaptation is primarily of 
commercial interest. It is one way to see things. However, there are not only advantages. 
 
 
 
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Occasionally novels that have been adapted to film result in a negative 
effect for the book. Some films take altering a novel, so that it suits the 
medium, to extremes. There are cases where the book in which it is 
based off of has become unrecognisable as so many changes have been 
made. This can upset the novels original audience and it may also 
dissuade the films audience from reading the book as they prefer the 
films version of events. (Rothwell, 2019, p.1) 
That leads to the dilemma of adapting or not adapting. Filmmakers (or 
moviemakers) have always had to deal with the fidelity criteria when it comes to 
adaptation. Alquadi (2015) understands that “movies are an adaptation of a piece of 
work that, in a matter of fact, does not have to be that faithful to the original version of 
it” (p.43). Yet about the fidelity criteria, the author justifies his position: 
It is irrelevant to talk about fidelity since each reader perceives his 
readings from his own point of view. Two readers of the same novel may 
not see or capture the same things or feelings. Two viewers may have 
totally opposite opinions of a classic adaptation ranking from irrelevant to 
outstanding. The adaptation issue has been repeatedly evoked by 
several authors and critics. Some writers attempted to categorize 
adaptation in order to attenuate the eagerness towards the fidelity criteria. 
(Alqadi, 2015, p. 43) 
Beyond any criteria, the view of adaptation as intertextual and multimodal work 
seems to make more sense, after all, adaptation is what we call inter arts, since arts 
involved in the process are not interdependent, interconnected, but also interdisciplinary. 
TOPIC 4 – NARRATIVE ELEMENTS 
The objective in this section is to revisit the essential elements that compose 
narratives. At first, it might not seem that hard to answer the questions of what s involved 
in narratives, although trying to set the scene with one picture only could be risky. 
Herman (2009) comprehends narrative “is a basic human strategy for coming to 
terms with time, process, and change – a strategy that contrasts with, but is in no way 
inferior to, “scientific” modes of explanation that characterize phenomena as instances 
of general covering laws” (p. 2). 
Toolan (1998), in the preface of his book Narratives: a critical linguistic 
introduction, gives us an idea of his view of the theme. 
Narratives are everywhere. Or are potentially so. Everything we do, from 
making breakfast to making the bed to making love (and notice how those 
– in any order – make a multi-episode narrative) can be seen, cast, and 
recounted as a narrative – a narrative with a beginning, middle and end, 
characters, setting, drama (difficulties or conflicts resolved), suspense, 
enigma, ‘human interest’, and a moral. […] From such narratives, major 
or minor, we learn more about ourselves and the world around us. Making, 
 
 
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apprehending, and storing a narrative is a making-sense of things which 
may also help make sense of other things. (Toolan, 1998, np) 
As mentioned by the author, narratives are about us. So, an initial key point is 
that narratives involve humans, as brought by Scholes (1980), even if they are 
humanized through distinct linguistic resources: 
A narration involves a selection of events for the telling. They must offer 
sufficient continuity of subject matter to make their chronological 
sequence significant, and they must be presented as having happened 
already. When the telling provides this sequence with a certain level of 
human interest, we are in the presence not merely of narrative but of story. 
A story is narrative with a certain very specific syntactic shape (beginning-
middle-end or situation-transformation-situation) and with a subject 
matter which allows for or encourages the projection of human values 
upon this material. Virtually all stories are about human beings or 
humanoid creatures. Those that are not invariably humanize their 
material through metaphor and metonymy. (Scholes, 1980, p. 210) 
What the author presents as “having happened already” (p. 210) refers to the fact 
that narratives deal with the past, not with the present nor with the future. Scholes (1980) 
says that “to speak of the future is to prophesy or predict or speculate – never to narrate” 
(p. 210). That represents a more conservative point of view. Contemporary narratives 
deal quite often with narrations in the present. 
When it comes to how narrative is presented, Scholes (1980) states that there is 
a necessary sequence among the elements of story. In his view, with which we agree, 
“a narrative is always presented as if (italics in the original) the events came first, the 
text second, and the interpretation third, so that the interpretation, by striving toward a 
recreation of the events, in effect completes a semiotic circle” (p. 210). 
Interpretation, which recreates the events, is an individual act, since each person 
who reads a text, does it in their own way, by reading not only the text but also reading 
with their own perspectives and views of the world, not to mention their previous 
knowledge. 
In the process of 1) events, 2) text, 3) interpretation, Scholes (1980) adds that in 
doing so “the events themselves have become humanized – saturated with meaning 
and value– at the stage of contextualization and again at the stage of interpretation” 
(p. 211). 
Back to the issue of narrative elements, the structural ones are composed by plot, 
setting (time and space), characters, conflict, and theme. However, there are other 
characteristics which are thought and chosen by writers and/or producers and are 
considered narrative elements, such as style (mood or tone), point of view, and imagery 
or symbolism. 
 
 
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Barthes (1977) also presents characteristics of narrative, such as language 
aspects and elements: 
The general language [langue] of narrative is one (and clearly only one) 
of the idioms apt for consideration by the linguistics of discourse and it 
accordingly comes under the homological hypothesis. Structurally, 
narrative shares the characteristics of the sentence without ever being 
reducible to the simple sum of its sentences: a narrative is a long 
sentence, just as every constative sentence is in a way the rough outline 
of a short narrative. Although there provided with different signifiers (often 
extremely complex), one does find in narrative, expanded and 
transformed proportionately, the principal verbal categories: tenses, 
aspects, moods, persons. (Barthes, 1977, p. 84) 
There is not such a thing as a unique concept or understanding of narrative and 
the elements which compose it. It varies from author to author, and from time to time, 
according to the society which tells the stories. 
Bal (2017) explains his view of the composition of narratives and mentions 
elements expected in this kind of creation: 
Some aspects of the story are a consequence of a sort of “story logic.” 
Depending on how classical, realist, modernist, postmodernist or 
otherwise experimental a narrative is, readers expect certain 
consistencies in time, place, focalization; and they are annoyed when 
unexplained jumps occur. Other aspects seem random but may have a 
profound causality only discovered when the reader or viewer accepts 
that randomness is relative. (Bal, 2017, p. 66) 
The author mentions as aspects to be included and considered when it comes to 
narratives, in any form: temporality, sequential ordering, rhythm, characters, focalization. 
As we can see there is no agreement even in terms of the elements or aspects which 
compose narratives. 
TOPIC 5 – GENRE IN NARRATIVES 
Literature and cinema are classified in genres and types or styles. In the sense 
of avoiding repetition of terms we are using genre as an umbrella term for both arts. 
Therefore, what we are presenting here are extracts and points of views to discuss genre 
as narrative feature. 
Genre, according to the Cambridge Dictionary, is “a style, especially in the arts, 
that involves a particular set of characteristics” or “a particular subject or style of 
literature, art, or music” (Cup, 2022). 
Chamberlain and Thompson (2003) make it clear that “genre is not an easy 
matter to discuss” (p. 1). They also point out that “on the one hand the term is relatively 
 
 
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new for social scientists, while on the other it has a very long and at times confusing 
history in literature and the visual arts, which continues to yield many helpful insights on 
autobiography” (p. 1). 
Despite the complexity to define genre, a general trend indicates that narrative is 
one of the major genres, mainly in literature, due its vast production over times. It has 
always been of great importance for the world literature, and for cinema since 
innumerous pieces of literature have been adapted during the last decades. 
The narrative genre or, as also called, narrative may have its texts presented 
orally or written. The characters presence is one of the aspects of the narrative genre. 
Characters who bring to the story a point of view related to their thoughts, feelings, and 
emotions, and who take part in the course of the story. Furthermore, the narrative genre 
has subgenres, which are short stories, novels, legends, myths, tales, and fables. Some 
of which frequently gain adaptations to movies. 
Chamberlain and Thompson (2003), indicate that there has always been a 
problem in categorizing literature, mainly because of a certain level of precisionism. 
Even though sometimes such categorization can sound a little vague or even 
generalized. What’s more, the authors explain the difficulties involved in the definition of 
genre: 
A further impediment has been that in literature a genre can defined by 
form (such as drama, poetry, proverbs, letters), by mood (as comedy, 
tragedy) or by content (as history, memoirs, autobiography); even though 
certainly these are usually closed tied together. Genre may also refer 
either to a type of text, or to an element within that text. Because all these 
definitions cut across each other, it has been impossible to agree on any 
settled definitions of genres, or to group them convincingly as major and 
minor genres and subgenres. (Chamberlain; Thompson, 2003, p. 2) 
As referred to by authors, there seems to be divergence to a certain extent not 
only to what a genre is, but also the so-called subgenres. Undeniably, genres, as many 
other varied topics, are of interest of different fields, therefore being interdisciplinary. 
Barthes (1977) already advocated for the relevance of narrative as genre and the 
human aspect which involves it: 
The narratives of the world are numberless. Narrative is first and foremost 
a prodigious variety of genres, themselves distributed amongst different 
substances - as though any material were fit to receive man's stories. 
Able to be carried by articulated language, spoken or written, fixed or 
moving images, gestures, and the ordered mixture of all these 
substances; narrative is present in myth, legend, fable, tale, novella, epic, 
history, tragedy, drama, comedy, mime, painting (think of Carpaccio's 
Saint Ursula), stained glass windows, cinema, comics, news item, 
conversation. Moreover, under this almost infinite diversity of forms, 
 
 
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narrative is present in every age, in every place, in every society; it begins 
with the very history of mankind and there nowhere is nor has been a 
people without narrative. All classes, all human groups, have their 
narratives, enjoyment of which is very often shared by men with different, 
even opposing, cultural backgrounds. Caring nothing for the division 
between good and bad literature, narrative is international, transhistorical, 
transcultural: it is simply there, like life itself. (Barthes, 1977, p. 79) 
The diversity of forms of narrative, as well as the inter and trans features of 
narrative are presented once again. The author reinforces the human aspect as the key 
point for the existence of narratives. 
 
 
 
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