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AMERICAN WAR MACHINES 100 YEARS OF REVOLUTION, EVOLUTION & TRIUMPH McClatchy Entertainment Specials 0 29074 16370 1 Display Until 6/22/2026AMERICAN WAR MACHINESCONTENTS INTRODUCTION 6 CHAPTER I CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 3 QUEENS OF AMERICAN LIVING THE SEA UPSTART HISTORY Battleships established the How the U.S. developed a Ten of the most important foundation for protecting first-class Naval force in less American battleships-which America than 50 years can still be explored today 8 18 28 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 6 GROUND DOMINANCE IN THE FUTURE FORCES THE SKIES OF WAR Armored tanks forever American fighter jets have Innovations such as AI and changed the way that wars advanced-flying faster, higher electronic warfare are reshaping were won and smarter national defense and strategy 50 68 90 PHOTO CREDITS 98 5 AMERICAN WAR MACHINESAn F-117 Nighthawk takes its final Aircraft carrier USS Gerald R. flight as it heads to a secure hangar Ford (bottom) leaves Virginia in Nevada to be retired in 2008 (top). after being deployed in June 2025. The United States has always been at the forefront of pursuing-and advanc- ing-the evolution of the world's most effective war INTRODUCTION machines. And while that edge has helped the U.S. tri- umph during conflicts fought throughout history, it has also represented a way to min- imize bloodshed while still maintaining military might. PRIDE Today, the battlefield is defined by technology. Com- bat still relies on soldiers, but fighting has increasingly AND PATRIOTISM become a long-range affair, highlighted by missile attacks, drones and bombing runs AMERICA HAS LONG BEEN A guided by satellites in space and controlled from a dis- LEADER IN THE WAY tance away. WARS ARE FOUGHT, WON AND While modern weaponry is increasingly futuristic, its AVOIDED purpose remains unchanged: to optimize the nation's military effectiveness while also keeping soldiers as safe as possible. This has always been the goal. At the dawn of the modern age, the most powerful weapons to help achieve it were battleships. Then came tanks and the age of fighter jets. Today, Ameri- AS LONG AS mankind has waged war, ca's top military intelligence is driven by powerful comput- there has been a search for better weapons. ing. The path forward has not Whether it was spears instead of rocks, cannons always been smooth nor with- out sacrifice. But it has always instead of catapults, or machine guns and tanks been defined by bravery, instead of rifles, every nation has searched for an intelligence and an unrelent- ing drive. This is the story of advantage over the course of human history. America's war machines. 6HO 0CHAPTER I QUEENS The USS Texas was the first American battleship ever commissioned in 1895.OF THE SEA BATTLESHIPS ESTABLISHED THE FOUNDATION FOR PROTECTING AMERICAAMERICAN WAR MACHINESCHAPTER I Brazil's Riachuelo (top) The Aquidabã (bottom) tipped the balance of power was another British-built in the Western Hemisphere. Brazilian battleship. But as important as the bat- tleship became to U.S. military might, the country had been slow to adopt them into its Navy. For the better part of two decades following the Civil War, the U.S. Navy fell into a state of profound neglect, with the number of vessels in its fleet dwindling precipitously-while most of those that remained were obsolete, suitable at best for doing little more than protecting the nation's coastal waters. The country was more concerned with reconstruction and westward expansion than with entangling itself in affairs overseas. This began to change in 1883, when the Brazilian navy acquired a U.K.-built ironclad battleship that it dubbed the Riachuelo. The vessel suddenly made Brazil the preeminent maritime power in the Western Hemisphere-a fact that caused much concern in Washington, D.C. (The disparity between the U.S. and the Brazilian navies became even more pronounced two years later, with the launch- ing of another English-built Bra- zilian ironclad, the Aquidabã.) At the time, the battleship was BATTLESHIPS WERE ONCE a relatively recent innovation. Technological advancements in cornerstones of U.S. strategic power. More than artillery had led to the devel- that, they were the primary conduit for opment of guns and shells that proved devastating to wooden projecting that power around the world. They ships. The first ocean-going were the most fearsome weapons of their day, armored frigate was the French ship Gloire, which launched in capable of going anywhere and beating anyone. 1859. The vessel had a wooden 11CHAPTER I Work first began on the Maine The USS Texas at the Navy hull encased within iron plates (below, in 1890) at New York's Yard in Norfolk, Virginia, on that were more than four inches Brookyn Navy Yard in 1888. Aug. 24, 1896 (right). thick, and had sails in addition to a steam-powered screw propeller. The new ship was not perfect. No provisions had been made for the ventilation of steam and smoke, and she sat so low in the TOGETHER the Maine and the water that her gunports (arrayed along her hull as in wooden Texas patrolled East Coast waters, the ships) rose just two meters above Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico. the ocean surface. But for a time, she was invincible-none of the rounds fired at the Gloire during her sea trials had penetrated her hull. Great Britain launched its own armored warship, HMS Warrior (also a hybrid sail-steam frigate), in December 1861. The age of ironclads had begun. The U.S. had been slow to react to this naval arms race, and didn't get serious about upgrading its own Navy until the appearance of the Riachuelo. The chairman of the House Commit- tee on Naval Affairs, Alabama representative Hilary A. Herbert, said, "If all this old navy of ours were drawn up in battle array in mid-ocean and confronted by Riachuelo it is doubtful whether a single vessel bearing the Amer- ican flag would get into port." In 1883, Congress authorized the building of three steel cruis- ers and a gunboat, the first ships of the country's modern "New Navy." Three years later, Con- gress authorized construction of two larger ships-an "armored cruiser" and a battleship-that would eventually become the USS Maine and the USS Texas. Work began first on the Maine (which was eventually reclassi- fied as a second-class battleship), with its keel being laid down in New York's Brooklyn Navy Yard, on Oct. 17, 1888. She was launched in November 1890, but didn't receive her commission 12 AMERICAN WAR MACHINESGACHAPTER I Left, top: An 1898 illustration Left, bottom: A drawing Below: The twisted wreckage of the USS Texas, USS Cushing shows the 1898 blast that of the Maine in Havana and USS Indiana. sunk the Maine in Cuba. Harbor on Feb. 15, 1898. for five years, primarily because was sent to Havana, Cuba, to the Maine's ammunition may of construction delays. By that protect U.S. interests during the have been the cause.) time the ship was already out of Cuban War of Independence. By the time of the Maine's de- date, if not yet obsolete. While anchored in Havana mise, four more U.S. battleships The keel of the Texas was Harbor on the evening of Feb. had been commissioned, form- laid down on June 1, 1889, and 15, she was sunk by a massive ing the nucleus of the fleet that she was commissioned (like explosion, resulting in the loss would play an important part in the Maine) in 1895. She did not of 260 of her 350 officers and the nation's victory in the sub- have an auspicious early career, men. Following an investigation sequent Spanish-American War. running aground near Newport, and public outcry-epitomized There were several naval clashes Rhode Island, on Sept. 16, 1896. by the popular phrase, "Re- during the conflict-including Together with the Maine, the member the Maine, to hell with one in the Philippines-and the primary duties of the Texas Spain!"-the U.S. declared war U.S. gained new possessions in included patrolling the waters on Spain on April 21, 1898. (The the Caribbean and the Pacific. of the East Coast, the Caribbean reason for her sinking remains The victory marked the begin- and the Gulf of Mexico. unclear. Sabotage was blamed, ning of the nation's rapid rise as In January 1898, the Maine but an accidental explosion of a maritime superpower. 15 AMERICAN WAR MACHINESThe crew of the USS Maine, circa 1898, before the ship sunk that February.W HIL E anchored in Havana Harbor, the USS Maine was sunk by a massive explosion, leading to the loss of 260 men.CHAPTER 2 AMERICA An illustration of the U.S. Navy's "Great White Fleet" on its way to the Pacific in 1907.N UPSTART HOW THE U.S. DEVELOPED A FIRST-CLASS NAVAL FORCE IN LESS THAN 50 YEARSCHAPTER 2 The USS Constitution (here in 2012) is the world's oldest commissioned warship afloat. W Within four years, the metic- ulously researched tome was practically required reading in the Navy, with the service ordering a copy to be placed onboard every ship. Today, The Naval War of 1812 is considered a seminal resource on U.S. naval history, not only for its detailed analysis of both sides of the con- flict and intricate drawings of ship maneuvers, but also for its stance that American greatness depended on being a vigorous power at sea. Just a year after the publi- cation of Roosevelt's book, the Brazilian Navy acquired the battleship Riachuelo, igniting a naval arms race in the Western Hemisphere. The "New Navy" WHEN HE WAS a senior at Harvard, was still just a concept then, but it began to gain momentum in Theodore Roosevelt began work on a book about the second half of the decade. the role played by the U.S. Navy in the War of An ambitious naval buildup was begun during President Grover 1812, when the upstart Americans had won Cleveland's first term in office, from 1885 to '89. Cleveland was several dashing single-ship actions against the able to get Congress to approve Royal Navy-including the USS Constitution's the building of 33 warships, including the Maine and the stunning defeat of HMS Guerriere in the waters Texas, the country's first two off Halifax, Novia Scotia-then the preeminent battleships. The expansion of the Navy maritime power in the world. Published in 1882, continued. Between 1882 and the year the future president turned 24, The 1898, the U.S. spent $400 mil- lion on the service, increasing Naval War of 1812 was Roosevelt's first book. the size of its fleet, including the (Roosevelt came by his enthusiasm for naval addition of four new battleships, the Indiana, Massachusetts, history naturally-his mother's brothers had both Oregon and Iowa. been in the Confederate navy, and he'd always In April 1897, President William McKinley appointed the been fascinated by the tales of their exploits.) 38-year-old Roosevelt-then 21 AMERICAN WAR MACHINESCHAPTER 2 Below: The Iowa (top) entered Right: The Oregon (top) entered the the Navy in 1897, while the Indiana Navy in 1896 and the Massachusetts (bottom) entered in 1895. (bottom) entered in 1896. THE US Navy continued to expand, building four new battleships. the New York City police com- missioner-to be the assistant secretary of the Navy. The young Roosevelt wasted little time pushing for an even more am- bitious buildup of the service. Roosevelt saw war with Spain as inevitable-the country's colony of Cuba had been in open revolt since 1895, and the U.S. favored Cuban independence. Only a few days after taking office, Roosevelt-citing recent devel- opments in the Pacific and the Caribbean-ordered a review of war plans and a new strategy. Speaking at the Naval War College on June 2, Roosevelt said, "It has always been true, and in this age it is more than ever true, that it is too late to prepare for war when the time of peace has passed." Before the sinking of the Maine in February 1898, Roo- sevelt prepared for war at a robust pace. His efforts included ordering supplies and ammu- nition, pushing for weapons upgrades, getting Congress to recruit more sailors, inves- tigating the management of Navy yards, and ordering the North Atlantic Squadron on maneuvers. By the time the U.S. 22 AMERICAN WAR MACHINESAMERICAN WAR MACHINESCHAPTER 2 Theodore Roosevelt helped The USS Missouri (right) build the Navy that beat the passes through the Panama Spanish fleet in 1898 (below). Canal on July 16, 1915. declared war on Spain in April, commissioned during his time vigorous use of the country's the Navy was ready. In the less in office (though construction maritime forces was his deploy- than four months of hostilities was already underway on several ment of the "Great White Fleet," that followed-it was "a splen- when he was sworn in), and he 16 U.S. battleships-their hulls did little war" in the words of made the service the "big stick" painted a gleaming white-that John Hay, the U.S. ambassador in his foreign policy. In 1903, he circumnavigated the globe from to Great Britain-American dispatched warships to both the December 1907 to February maritime power was key to the Pacific and Atlantic sides of Pan- 1909. The expedition achieved country securing new territories ama to support the country in its the practical effect of testing the in the Philippines, Guam and efforts to become independent ships' combat readiness, while Puerto Rico. of Colombia-a development also demonstrating to the world As president from 1901 to that led directly to the construc- the reach of U.S. power. '09, Roosevelt continued to be tion of the Panama Canal, which It's not for nothing that The- an aggressive advocate for the was completed in 1914. odore Roosevelt is regarded as Navy. Fifteen battleships were The culmination of Roosevelt's the father of the modern Navy. 24Roosevelt's "Great White Fleet" circumnavigated the globe from 1907 to '09. I IS NOT for nothing that Theodore Roosevelt is regarded as the father of the modern Navy.LIVING HISTORY TEN OF THE MOST IMPORTANT AMERICAN BATTLESHIPS-WHICHCAN STILL BE EXPLORED TODAY 64CHAPTER 3 America's love of battleships runs deep-appropriate for vessels that helped cement the country's place in the world, thereby shaping the course of the 20th century. They are among the most consequential oceangoing craft in all of human history. But while they no longer cruise the world's waters, many are now in a different kind of service-as museums and memorials. These 10 battleships are open to visitors, ready to share the details of their service and their sacrifice. The USS Wisconsin returns to port in Norfolk, Virginia, in 1991.CHAPTER 3 "The Mighty A" (top) was the A view of the 16-inch/ carriers, including in the sixth Navy ship to be named 45-caliber guns on the Marianas, the Philippine Sea, for the state of Alabama. USS Alabama (bottom). Leyte and Guam. One of her first missions was supporting the U.S. Marines' invasion of the Japanese-held atoll of Tarawa. During the ship's time in the Pacific, its guns downed several Japanese planes, while it sustained no serious dam- age. On Christmas Eve 1944, the Alabama received orders USS to head to the U.S. West Coast for time in drydock. When it ALABAMA cruised into the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard in Bremerton, Washington, the ship had been on continuous duty for more LOCATION: Mobile, Alabama than two years. CLASS: South Dakota class The Mighty A was back in the Pacific by May 1945 to support CREW: 2,500 the Allied assault on Japan. Her ARMAMENT: first mission was a supporting 9 16-inch/45-caliber guns role in the Battle of Okinawa. It 20 5-inch/38-caliber guns was during this fight that the Al- 48 40-mm guns abama shot down two Japanese 52 20-mm guns kamikaze planes that had been CONSTRUCTION BEGUN: Feb. 1, 1940 attempting to strike at U.S. car- riers. On July 17, the ship fired COMMISSIONED: Aug. 16, 1942 some 1,500 tons of shells during DECOMMISSIONED: Jan. 9, 1947 a bombardment of an engi- neering works about 50 miles northeast of Tokyo. The Ala- bama was off the coast of Japan when word came down of the Japanese surrender. The ship spent two weeks in Tokyo Bay in September while her person- CLAIM TO FAME: The keel for "the Mighty A" was laid at the Norfolk nel assisted with the occupation Navy Yard in Portsmouth, Virginia, on Feb. 1, 1940. She was the sixth of the Yokosuka-Tokyo area. ship to be named the USS Alabama, going back to 1819. Her hull was World War II operations ended nearing completion when the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor, and she for all practical purposes for the was launched a little more than two months later, on Feb. 16, 1942. She Alabama when she arrived in received her commission six months after that. It was the beginning of San Francisco on Oct. 15. a three-year period of intense activity. After years of holding the The Alabama spent a chunk of 1943 in the North Atlantic attached ship in reserve, the Navy turned to the British Home Fleet, which she supported by protecting Lend- the Mighty A over to the state Lease supply convoys between Great Britain and the Soviet Union on a of Alabama in 1964. It is now a route known as "the Murmansk Run." As part of her duties, she had to museum ship in Mobile, Ala- regularly cruise past Nazi-occupied Norway. bama, where it remains one of In August 1943, the Alabama departed for the Pacific. She spent the most popular attractions more than a year there supporting assaults and escorting aircraft in the state. 30 AMERICAN WAR MACHINES60E9 1 7CHAPTER 3 The USS Missouri (top) heads A satellite image shows the devices went through the to Pearl Harbor to be used as Missouri and the Arizona armored deck near the ammu- a museum near the Arizona. memorials (bottom). nition magazines in the forward part of the ship, causing a mas- sive explosion that tore apart the Arizona's forward hull, sink- ing her, killing most of her crew and igniting fires that burned for two days. Her final death toll was 1,177, which was more than half of the lives lost in the fleet during the entire 90-minute attack. On a day of infamy, the USS sinking of the Arizona was the nation's greatest tragedy. ARIZONA Unlike other ships sunk at Pearl Harbor, the Arizona was not deemed to be salvageable, LOCATION: Pearl Harbor, Hawaii though some of her guns were retrieved and put to other CLASS: Pennsylvania class uses. Several were installed at coastal batteries on the island of CREW: 1,731 Oahu, while others, after being ARMAMENT: repaired, found a second life on 12 14-inch/45-caliber guns the battleship USS Nevada in 22 5-inch/51-caliber guns the fall of 1944. The Nevada later 4 3-inch/50-caliber guns fired these same guns against 2 21-inch torpedo tubes the Japanese on the islands of CONSTRUCTION BEGUN: March 16, 1914 Okinawa and Iwo Jima. The hull of the Arizona COMMISSIONED: Oct. 17, 1916 remains at the bottom of Pearl DECOMMISSIONED: Dec. 29, 1941 Harbor, a tomb for more than 900 men who remain within. In 1950, the Pacific Fleet began raising the U.S. flag over the wreck, and legislation later des- ignated it a national shrine. In 1962-with a help from an Elvis Presley benefit concert in Hono- lulu-a stately, white memorial CLAIM TO FAME: That the Arizona is the most famous battleship in U.S. structure was constructed over history has nothing to do with her combat record. In short, there is her amidships. The outline of none. For all of World War I she operated out of Norfolk, Virginia, and the ship is still visible below the served as a gunnery training vessel. The most notable moment of the water, and oil still leaks in drop- ship's service career had come when she'd been one of the 10 battle- lets from her hull. ships that had escorted President Woodrow Wilson to the Paris Peace Operated by the National Conference in December 1918. Park Service, the USS Arizona That all changed on the morning of Dec. 7, 1941. Just before 8 a.m., Memorial, is open to the public, a swarm of Japanese aircraft struck the Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor, a moving tribute to those who Hawaii. The Arizona was moored on "Battleship Row"-a grouping lost their lives in the attack on of seven U.S. battleships in the harbor-when she was hit by several Pearl Harbor-and in the Pacific bombs just minutes after the attack had begun. One of the explosive Theater of World War II. 33 AMERICAN WAR MACHINESCHAPTER 3 A modernized Iowa fires her Navy to expand its fleet, and 16-inch/50-caliber guns in Iowa was recommissioned on the Caribbean in 1984. Aug. 25, 1951. From April to October the following year she supported combat operations off the east coast of Korea, bom- barding enemy positions and targets. She returned to the U.S. in 1952 and took part in NATO training exercises until she was decommissioned on Feb. 24, USS 1958, at which point she joined the Atlantic Reserve Fleet at the IOWA Philadelphia Naval Shipyard. But in the midst of an arms race between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, the Iowa was up- LOCATION: Los Angeles, California graded and modernized before CLASS: Iowa class she was recommissioned for a third time, in April 1984. Gone CREW: 1,800 were her antiaircraft guns and several of her midsized naval ARMAMENT: 9 16-inch/50-caliber guns guns, replaced with the latest in 2 5-inch/38-caliber guns advanced maritime weaponry, 32 Tomahawk missile launchers including missile launchers and 16 Harpoon missile launchers Gatling gun systems for close-in 4 20-mm automated close-in guns defense against enemy antiship CONSTRUCTION BEGUN: June 27, 1940 missiles and aircraft. Tragedy struck the Iowa on COMMISSIONED: Feb. 22, 1943 April 19, 1989, when an explo- DECOMMISSIONED Oct. 26, 1990 sion in a gun turret killed 47 crew members. The incident remains the greatest peace- time loss of life in the history of the Navy. Two investigations produced different findings. The Navy said that the explosion was CLAIM TO FAME: The version of the Iowa now open to visitors as a likely the result of sabotage by a museum at the Port of Los Angeles is actually the third iteration of the suicidal crew member. The Gov- battleship. Her initial life was spent fighting in World War II, when she ernment Accountability Office was the first of four in a new class of vessel that represented the pinna- found that the blast had been cle of battleship design, merging heavy armor with speed. She first saw caused by the over-ramming action as a member of the Atlantic Fleet, carrying President Franklin of powder bags into the breach D. Roosevelt to and from Casablanca, Morocco, for the Tehran Confer- of one of the turret's guns. The ence in November 1943. Navy disagreed and concluded Iowa joined the Pacific Fleet in January 1944. Her speed (she could that the cause of the explosion reach 33 knots) and heavy armament made her well-suited to accom- could not be determined. pany and protect U.S. aircraft carriers. She participated in multiple The Iowa was decommis- actions in the region, from the Philippine Sea, to Leyte, all the way to sioned for the final time in 1990. Tokyo Bay. She was stricken from the Navy The ship was decommissioned for the first time on March 24, 1949, Record in 2006 and has been a but was recalled to duty two years later. The war in Korea forced the museum ship since 2012. 34 AMERICAN WAR MACHINES59 AMERICAN WAR MACHINESCHAPTER 3 The USS Massachusetts, late 1943 and '44, and the Hol- known as "Big Mamie," was landia invasion in April 1944. decommissioned in March 1947. In May 1944, the Massachu- setts sailed to Bremerton, Wash- ington, to be overhauled and for her crew to be given a chance to rest. She was back in Hawaii by Aug. 1, when she sailed from Pearl Harbor to resume combat operations. The ship took part in raids on Okinawa and Formosa USS in October, and then the Battle of Leyte Gulf. She also supported MASSACHUSETTS attacks on Japanese forces in the Philippines. In 1945, "Big Mamie" sup- ported the invasion of Luzon in LOCATION: Fall River, Massachusetts January, Iwo Jima in February CLASS: South Dakota class and Okinawa in March. She joined the Third Fleet off the CREW: 2,500 coast of Japan that July, and ARMAMENT: bombarded the Imperial Iron 9 16-inch/45-caliber guns and Steel Works at Kamaishi, 20 5-inch/38-caliber guns and an industrial complex at 24 40-mm guns Hamamatsu. On Aug. 9, the 35 20-mm guns Massachusetts again shelled CONSTRUCTION BEGUN: July 20, 1939 Kamaishi, where she fired what was probably the last 16-inch COMMISSIONED: May 12, 1942 shell of World War II. DECOMMISSIONED: March 27, 1947 The ship sailed for the U.S. on Sept. 1, and was eventually decommissioned on March 27, 1947, at which point she entered the Atlantic Reserve Fleet in Norfolk, Virginia. In 1962, the Massachusetts was stricken CLAIM TO FAME: A sister ship of the USS Alabama, the Massachusetts from the Naval Record. wasted no time entering the fight in World War II. The ship departed She might have been destined Casco Bay, Maine, in October 1942 to join the Western Naval Task for the scrap heap if not for Force for the invasion of North Africa. While off Casablanca, Morocco, the efforts of members of her on the morning of Nov. 8, she came under fire from the French battle- wartime crew. As the Massachu- ship Jean Bart. The Massachusetts returned fire-firing the first U.S. setts Memorial Committee, they 16-inch shells against the European Axis Powers-and within a few lobbied to save her, and with the minutes had disabled the French ship's main battery. She then turned assistance of donations from her guns on French destroyers, sinking two of them, while also bom- Massachusetts schoolchildren, barding shore batteries and destroying an ammunition dump. Four they raised enough money to days later, after the French had negotiated a ceasefire, she departed buy her from the Navy and bring North Africa for Boston to prepare for duty in the Pacific. Big Mamie to the Bay State in The Massachusetts arrived (by way of the Panama Canal) in Noumea, June 1965. Two months later, New Caledonia, on March 4, 1943, and spent the next several months she was anchored in Battleship protecting convoys and supporting operations in the Solomon Islands. Cove at Fall River, where she She participated in the invasions of the Gilbert and Marshall Islands in opened as a museum ship. 37 AMERICAN WAR MACHINESCHAPTER 3 The "Mighty Mo" glides planes. She then led the under the Brooklyn Bridge Third Fleet in strikes at the on Nov. 19, 1945. heart of Japan. After the war, the Missouri returned to the U.S. In March 1946, she went on a diplomatic mission to the Mediterranean, and for the rest of the decade operated extensively in the Atlantic. On Jan. 17, 1950, when USS she was the only U.S. battleship on active duty, the Missouri MISSOURI ran aground in the shoals off Hampton Roads, Virginia. It took more than two weeks for LOCATION: Pearl Harbor, Hawaii tug and pontoon boats-and the incoming tide-to refloat her, CLASS: Iowa class but she was quickly repaired CREW: 1,515 and returned to service. Following the outbreak of the ARMAMENT: Korean War in June 1950, the 9 16-inch/50-caliber guns Mighty Mo made two combat 12 5-inch/38-caliber guns 32 Tomahawk missile launchers deployments to the conflict and 16 Harpoon missile launchers saw extensive action. In Feb- 4 20-mm automated close-in guns ruary 1955, following several training cruises to Europe, she CONSTRUCTION BEGUN: Jan. 6, 1941 was decommissioned. The ship COMMISSIONED: June 11, 1944 spent the next three decades in reserve at Bremerton, Wash- DECOMMISSIONED: March 31, 1992 ington, where she became a popular tourist attraction. But with the Cold War raging, the modernized Missouri was recommissioned on May 10, CLAIM TO FAME: The "Mighty Mo" is best known for her role in end- 1986. On Sept. 10, she embarked ing the Second World War. On Sept. 2, 1945, while anchored in Tokyo on a cruise around the world, Bay, she hosted the ceremony at which Allied representatives and a the first by a U.S. battleship Japanese delegation signed the formal Instrument of Surrender. With- since the Great White Fleet out firing a shot, the Missouri became one of the most consequential circumnavigation of 1907-09. battleships in U.S. history. She also saw combat during the Not bad for a vessel that had only been in commission for a little Persian Gulf War in 1991, firing more than a year. Built in Brooklyn's New York Naval Shipyard, the at least 28 cruise missiles and Missouri departed for the Pacific on Nov. 11, 1944. Arriving in January several hundred 16-inch rounds 1945, she supported the invasion of Iwo Jima in February. She also pro- on Iraqi targets. vided protection and support to U.S. carriers attacking the Japanese The Mighty Mo was decom- home islands. During these operations, she helped shoot down several missioned in 1992 and was enemy planes. stricken from the Navy Register On April 11, a Japanese kamikaze pilot was able to penetrate the in 1995. Donated as a museum Missouri's defenses, crashing his plane into the ship just below her and memorial ship in May 1998, main deck level. The hit started a fire that was quickly brought under she was later transferred to control, but otherwise inflicted only superficial damage. During the Pearl Harbor where she rests Okinawa campaign that spring, the Missouri shot down five more near the Arizona Memorial. 38 AMERICAN WAR MACHINESAMERICAN WAR MACHINESCHAPTER 3 The USS New Jersey, devastating typhoon that sank commissioned in 1943, three destroyers, killed 790 sail- steams into Delaware Bay. ors, and swept dozens of aircraft overboard off their carriers. In 1945, the New Jersey sup- ported the invasions of Iwo Jima and the Ryukyus, and, in August, she again became flagship of the Fifth Fleet. After the Japanese surrender, she served as the flag- ship for Navy commanders in USS Japanese waters until January 1946. She sailed for the West NEWJERSEY Coast of the U.S. soon after that before heading to the Atlantic in the spring of 1947. She was de- commissioned in June 1948. LOCATION: Camden, New Jersey The Korean War compelled CLASS: Iowa class the Navy to recommission the New Jersey in November 1950. CREW: 1,921 Two combat tours (in 1951 ARMAMENT: and '53) were broken up by a 9 16-inch/50-caliber guns European cruise in the summer 12 5-inch/38-caliber guns of 1952. After returning home 32 Tomahawk missile launchers from Korea in late 1953, the New 16 Harpoon missile launchers 4 20-mm automated close-in guns Jersey operated in the Atlantic, and was deployed to the Medi- CONSTRUCTION BEGUN: terranean. In August 1957, she Sept. 16, 1940 was decommissioned again. COMMISSIONED: May 23, 1943 During the war in Vietnam, New Jersey was recommissioned DECOMMISSIONED: Feb. 8, 1991 in April 1968-the only battle- ship recalled to duty for the conflict. She arrived off South- east Asia in September and con- ducted frequent bombardments along the South Vietnamese coast until April 1969. She was CLAIM TO FAME: Like her sister ships the Iowa and the Missouri, the decommissioned in December. New Jersey is an Iowa-class battleship that has enjoyed multiple lives But she wasn't done. The since the end of World War II. Built at the Philadelphia Naval Ship- ship was recommissioned and yard, the New Jersey was launched on Dec. 7, 1942, and began her given a weapons upgrade in service in the Western Atlantic and the Caribbean. She departed for December 1982 as part of a U.S. the Pacific in January 1944, and later that month took part in her first military buildup. She fired her combat operations in support of the invasion of the Marshall Islands. guns during the crisis in Leba- New Jersey was the flagship of the Fifth Fleet during a February raid non in 1983-84, and deployed on the Japanese base at Truk, where her guns destroyed an enemy to the western Pacific in '86, trawler and helped to sink the cruiser Maikaze. For the rest of the year, and again in 1989-90. She was she supported raids of Japanese-held islands, the Marianas invasion, decommissioned for the final the Battle of the Philippine Sea, and the Battle of Leyte Gulf. From time in February '91. She is now August 1944 through the end of the year, she served as the flagship a museum ship on the Delaware of Adm. William F. Halsey's Third Fleet. In December she survived a River waterfront. 41 AMERICAN WAR MACHINESCHAPTER 3 The USS North Carolina is The North Carolina (bottom) November 1943, she helped launched in New York City on served in every major WWII capture enemy positions in the June 13, 1940 (top). naval offensive in the Pacific. Gilbert Islands. In each she performed the classic battle- ship functions-antiaircraft screening of carrier task forces, and use of her heavy guns to bombard Japanese-held islands-that made up most of her operational employment for the remainder of the war. USS In February 1945, the North Carolina participated NORTH in the invasion of Iwo Jima. Over the next two months the ship supported Allied forces in CAROLINA Okinawa, taking down three kamikaze planes on April 6. She also screened carriers LOCATION: Wilmington, North Carolina during attacks on the Japanese home islands. She was off Japan CLASS: North Carolina class in August, during the final weeks of the war, and tasked CREW: 1,800 with firing on major industrial ARMAMENT: plants near Tokyo. 9 16-inch/45-caliber guns After the Japanese surrender, 20 5-inch/38-caliber guns the battleship formed part of 16 28-mm guns 12 .50-caliber machine guns the occupational force in Tokyo. She left for the United States in CONSTRUCTION BEGUN: Oct. 27, 1937 September 1945, and anchored in Boston on Oct. 17. The North COMMISSIONED: April 9, 1941 Carolina operated in the Atlan- tic until she was inactivated in June 1946. She was stricken from the Navy List in 1960. She was saved from the scrap yard by a "Save Our Ship" campaign in North Carolina. CLAIM TO FAME: The most decorated U.S. battleship of World War II, Funds were raised in each the North Carolina served in every major naval offensive in the Pacific county, while schoolchildren Theater. She entered the region on June 10, 1942, and two months later were asked to donate dimes. took part in the Guadalcanal campaign. While protecting the carrier The drive was a success, and USS Enterprise on Aug. 24 during the Battle of the Eastern Solomons, on Sept. 6, 1961, the ship was the North Carolina shot down several Japanese aircraft. transferred from the Navy to On Sept. 15, a torpedo from a Japanese submarine struck her port the people of North Carolina. side 20 feet below the waterline. The blast tore a large hole in her hull She arrived at the mouth of the and five men were killed, but skillful damage control and her sturdy Cape Fear River on Oct. 1, and construction prevented disaster. The ship kept to her station, sailing was then towed for 30 miles up- with the carrier Hornet at 25 knots. She went for repairs at Pearl Har- river to Wilmington. The North bor but was back in the combat zone before the end of November. Carolina was dedicated as the The North Carolina screened for carriers, and also covered supply state's World War II Memorial and troop movements in the Solomons, for much of the next year. In in April 1962. 42 AMERICAN WAR MACHINESAMERICAN WAR MACHINESCHAPTER 3 The Texas crew (top) takes The Texas (bottom) is the the largest on any ship. Her first a photo as some sailors sit last surviving dreadnought operations were conducted off on the massive guns. battleship. the Mexican port city of Vera- cruz, during a time of height- ened tensions between the U.S. and Mexico. On March 10, 1919, while in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, Texas was the site of an experiment in naval aviation. A Sopwith Camel biplane was flown off a ramp that had been constructed atop one of her turrets, making Texas USS the first U.S. battleship to launch an aircraft. When WWII began in 1939, TEXAS Texas was assigned to the Neu- trality Patrol, escorting ships car- rying materiel across to England. LOCATION: Galveston, Texas Later, she provided heavy gunfire support during the invasion of CLASS: New York class North Africa in November 1942. CREW: 1,042 On June 6, 1944, she took part in the D-Day invasion of ARMAMENT: France, providing fire support 10 14-inch/45-caliber guns to the landing of Army Rang- 21 5-inch/51-caliber guns ers at Pointe du Hoc and the 4 3-pounder/40-caliber guns 2 1-pounder/37-mm guns U.S. invasion force on Omaha 4 21-inch torpedo tubes Beach. Later that summer, Texas steamed into the Mediterranean CONSTRUCTION BEGUN: to support the invasion of south- April 17, 1911 ern France. COMMISSIONED: March 12, 1914 After an overhaul, the ship was reassigned to the Pacific, DECOMMISSIONED: April 21, 1948 arriving late in 1944. She partic- ipated in the Battle of Iwo Jima in February 1945, and then from March to May she operated off Okinawa, bombarding Japanese positions and helping fight off kamikaze attacks. Texas was preparing for the invasion of Japan when the war ended. The ship was decommissioned CLAIM TO FAME: The second battleship named for the Lone Star State, on April 21, 1948, and turned the USS Texas is the last surviving dreadnought battleship. She was over to the state of Texas, where also the first battleship to become a permanent museum, having she remains to this day. Since served in that capacity since 1948. (The pre-dreadnought battleship August 2022, the ship has been Oregon, decommissioned in 1919, was moored in Portland as a museum in drydock while undergoing re- when World War II broke out. She was reclaimed by the Navy and pairs. Once those are completed, eventually sold for scrap in Japan in the 1950s.) her new home will be at Pier 20 When Texas was commissioned, her 14-inch/45-caliber guns were in Galveston. 45 AMERICAN WAR MACHINESCHAPTER 3 The Utah (top) was converted Sailors at work on the deck had been when she carried a full into a radio-controlled target of the battleship Utah, circa complement of 1,000. ship in 1931. 1910 (bottom). It was a far cry from the ship's early days, when she and sister ship, Florida, were the most modern dreadnaughts afloat. After her commissioning and an initial training cruise, Utah was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet in March 1912. Two years later, in April 1914, she landed troops at USS the Mexican port city of Vera- cruz in a show of U.S. force. UTAH After the U.S. entered World War I on April 6, 1917, Utah operated in the waters of the Chesapeake Bay as an engineer- LOCATION: Pearl Harbor, Hawaii ing and gunnery training ship until Aug. 30, 1918, when she CLASS: Florida class sailed for Bantry Bay, Ireland. CREW: 1,001 Until the end of the war, Utah operated from Bantry Bay, cov- ARMAMENT: ering Allied convoys approach- 10 12-inch/45-caliber guns 16 5-inch/51-caliber guns ing the British Isles. 4 6-pounder/57-mm guns After the war, the Utah re- 2 1-pounder/37-mm guns turned to the U.S. and cruised 2 21-inch torpedo tubes along the East Coast and into the Caribbean. In 1924, she CONSTRUCTION BEGUN: March 9, 1909 made a good-will visit to South America. A year later, the ship COMMISSIONED: Aug. 31, 1911 was extensively modernized. In late 1928, she carried Presi- Sept. 5, 1944 dent-elect Herbert Hoover on the final leg of his South Amer- ican tour. An attempt was made to right the Utah after her sinking at Pearl Harbor but was aban- doned after salvage operations CLAIM TO FAME: Of the nine battleships that the Japanese attacked at could do no more than raise Pearl Harbor on Dec. 7, 1941, only two were never salvaged. The one the edge of her starboard deck that most people know about is the USS Arizona, which sank after a above the waterline. She lays spectacular explosion that killed the majority of her crew. The other in this position today. In 1972, is the USS Utah, which was hit by torpedo in the first minutes of the a memorial off Ford Island was attack, and then rolled over to port and sank. Fifty-eight of her crew of constructed near the wreck. 519 officers and enlisted men were killed-and just as with the Arizo- The USS Utah Memorial is part na-many are still entombed in her wreck at the bottom of the harbor. of the Pearl Harbor National The caveat to this is that, at the time of the attack, the Utah was no Memorial in Hawaii. The Utah longer a battleship. She'd been converted to a radio-controlled target is only accessible to the public ship 10 years earlier, with additional duties as an antiaircraft gunnery through guided bus tours to training ship. She'd even been given a new official name, redesignated Ford Island, which sits in the by the Navy as AG-16. Her crew was also significantly smaller than it middle of the harbor. 46 AMERICAN WAR MACHINESCHAPTER 3 The USS Wisconsin (top) The Wisconsin fires a missile But the invasion of South Ko- shot down three enemy during Operation Desert Storm rea by North Korea in June 1950 planes during WWII. in the Persian Gulf (bottom). changed everything, and she was reactivated for the Korean War. She spent much of the conflict providing fire support against targets on the Korean coast. On the afternoon of March 15, 1952, Wisconsin took the first direct hit in her history-one of four shells from an enemy 155-mm USS gun battery struck the shield of one of the ship's starboard antiaircraft guns. Three men WISCONSIN were injured, but little damage had been inflicted. The Wis- consin proceeded to destroy LOCATION: Norfolk, Virginia the battery with fire from her CLASS: Iowa class 16-inch/50-caliber gun. She returned to the U.S. in CREW: 1,600 April 1952 and resumed her role as a training ship. She was de- ARMAMENT: commissioned again on March 9 16-inch/50-caliber guns 12 5-inch/38-caliber guns 8, 1958, and joined the "Moth- 32 Tomahawk missile launchers ball Fleet" in Bayonne, New 16 Harpoon missile launchers Jersey, leaving the Navy without 4 20-mm automated close-in guns an active battleship for the first CONSTRUCTION BEGUN: Jan. 25, 1941 time since 1895. The ship was subsequently transferred to the COMMISSIONED: April 16, 1944 Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, where she remained for nearly DECOMMISSIONED: Sept. 30, 1991 three decades. As part of a buildup of the U.S. military during the Cold War, the Wisconsin was upgraded and recommissioned on Oct. 22, 1988. After Iraq invaded Kuwait on Aug. 2, 1990, she deployed to CLAIM TO FAME: The Wisconsin was another of the Iowa-class battle- the Persian Gulf. She was among ships that served in multiple conflicts. She began her naval life in April the first ships to fire cruise 1944, and that fall joined the Pacific Fleet. In December she proved her missiles during the 1991 Persian seaworthiness by coming through a powerful typhoon unscathed. In Gulf War. Perhaps Wisconsin's 1945, she served at Iwo Jima and Okinawa, and participated in the final most memorable moment came bombardment of Japan. During her brief time in combat, the Wisconsin when a group of Iraqi soldiers shot down three enemy planes. surrendered to one of her un- After the Japanese surrender, the ship brought veterans back to the manned drones, which had been U.S. as part of Operation Magic Carpet. She arrived in San Francisco on spotting for her 16-inch/50-cal- Oct. 15, and headed for the East Coast (by way of the Panama Canal) iber guns. soon after Jan. 1, 1946. The Wisconsin spent much of the next year Later that year, Wisconsin was cruising in the Southern Hemisphere, and then spent 1947 as a training decommissioned for the last ship. She was decommissioned on July 1, 1948, and was assigned to the time. She is now docked as a mu- Atlantic Reserve Fleet in Norfolk, Virginia. seum ship in Norfolk, Virginia. 49 AMERICAN WAR MACHINESCHAPTER 4 GROUNDFORCES ARMORED TANKS CHANGED THE WAY WARS WERE WON Soldiers gather on an M26 Pershing tank, which debuted during WWII and was used again during the Korean War.CHAPTER 4 An illustration (top) shows Hannibal's tank rolls through razor-like army crossing the Rhone River with wire in Cambrai, France, during elephants on wooden rafts in 218 World War I, circa 1917 (bottom). Those goals were the concepts of the "tank" invented centuries later by Leonardo da Vinci, who in 1487 conceived of a mobile vehicle powered by men turn- ing a crank. It had a turtle-like shell made of wood and rein- forced with metal, designed to kill while deflecting enemy fire. These were the early beginnings of man's attempt to find more efficient ways to wage war. The rapid evolution of tanks followed the arc of the Indus- trial Revolution. As vehicles evolved, moving from steam en- gines to combustion engines, so did militaries' use of them. Tank technology began to improve, and during WWI-especially in England and France-tank development began to make big leaps out of necessity. The British and French gov- ernments were frustrated by the pace of the war, and the way it was being fought on the ground by men in trenches. Those were defensive positions by nature, making it difficult to rise and go on the attack. Tanks, covered in armor and loaded with heavy weapons, changed the entire philosophy of war. It started with "Little IN SOME WAYS, the concept of military Willie," which was little more than an armored box placed tanks dates back to 218 B.C., when Hannibal used upon tractor-type tracks. The elephants to help his army cross the Alps and vehicle couldn't climb well or go over wide trenches, and the into war. Mounted with soldiers and weapons the tracks often fell off. pachyderms terrified their enemies and moved By mid-1916, however, England had tanks that could well-protected armies over rough terrain. move at under six miles per 52 AMERICAN WAR MACHINESAMERICAN WAR MACHINESUSACHAPTER 4 British tanks and troops advance A French-built Renault FT-17 Soldiers stand around a Canadian toward the front lines during (left, bottom) rolls into battle, tank, modeled after a similar World War I (left, top). circa May 1918. British tank, used in World War I. hour-about the same as a marching soldier-carrying two or three heavy guns, depending WITHBOTH England and France on the design. The tanks weren't laboring on improvements, the advances an overwhelming success, and many of them broke down due came quickly. England worked on to mechanical issues. Also, the making thicker armored vehicles to offer conditions inside the tanks were often dangerous for soldiers, more protection. especially the heat and the noxious fumes. With both England and France laboring on improve- ments, though, the advances came quickly. England worked on making thicker armored ve- hicles to offer more protection. Meanwhile France, with the help of the car company Renault, focused on a more dynamic design. The Renault FT tanks were lighter, more maneu- verable and had a rotating gun turret. They were also easier to build and could be manufac- tured in greater numbers. The tanks were harder to hit too, making them more likely to survive. By 1917, the French had become leaders in tank devel- opment and production, far outpacing the British, who kept searching for better designs. Over the course of the war, England and France manufac- tured thousands of tanks, im- proving them every chance they could. Meanwhile their enemy, the Germans, fell farther behind in the tech race. By the end of WWI, the Germans had only de- ployed 18 tanks. They were more focused on developing anti-tank technology to stop the onslaught of England and France. 55 AMERICAN WAR MACHINESCHAPTER 4 The M3 Stuart (top) was used A German Panther and M4 can be during the Guadalcanal campaign seen as an M3 Stuart advances in the Solomon Islands in 1942. past in France in 1944 (bottom). M3 STUART *** THE FALL OF France in World War II was a blow to the Allies' military supplies, especially since the French were leaders in the production of tanks and other armored vehicles. The United States had fallen behind in development and production, but they realized that now had to change. The result was the M3, which the U.S. began to develop in 1940 and delivered to the British in 1941. It had a better design than their previous tanks and thicker DURING WORLD WAR II, tanks armor, even though the British were vital to helping the Allies win the conflict. soldiers didn't think the guns were enough. They loved the Many of those tanks were made in America, smoothness of the ride so much, another milestone in the U.S.'s rapid evolution though, they nicknamed the tank "Honey." The actual name as a military force on a global scale. Here are a was for the U.S. Confederate few American-made tanks of the era that left a general J.E.B. Stuart. The tanks debuted in combat in North mark on history. Africa in November 1941. 56 AMERICAN WAR MACHINESCHAPTER 4 An M5A1 Stuart light tank (below) Two M24 Chaffee light tanks An M24 Chaffee crew wait with drives over a line of swastika depart a vessel after crossing to their snow-camouflaged tank flags as it enters Laubach, the east bank of the Rhine River in Petit-Thier, Belgium, in Germany, on May 4, 1945. in Germany in 1945 (right, top). February 1945 (right, bottom). M24 CHAFFEE IT TOOK A few years and several failed attempts at a redesign for the United States to come up with the long-awaited upgrade to the Stuart tanks. But the M24 Chaffee, with advanced armor and-finally-some serious firepower arrived in Europe just in time to aid the Allies in the Battle of the Bulge. The most important improve- ment in the M24 Chaffee was in its weaponry. It featured a lightweight, 75-mm main gun and three powerful machine MS STUART guns to augment it. The armor was better too, and the engine and suspension were redesigned for an even smoother ride than the "Honey" tanks. The M24 was a late addition THE SUCCESSOR TO the M3 that made it even more comfort- to World War II, though, since Stuart, the M5 became the stan- able for the soldiers inside. production didn't start until dard light tank for the U.S. Army But it still had issues. Its guns 1944. But by midway through through most of World War II. were relatively small and its ar- 1945, nearly 5,000 of them Many of the improvements mor was generally vulnerable to had been produced. The tanks made were about the power German anti-tank munitions. It were used when Allied forces and drive. It had an automatic could move fast, though-about occupied Japan after the war, transmission, which made it 36 miles per hour-which made because the tanks were small much easier to use and to train it perfect for reconnaissance and light enough to maneuver operators. The new Cadillac V8 missions as well as troop sup- on Japanese roads. And they had engines were far more reliable, port roles from the flanks. a long life, becoming one of the and not as prone to catching fire Technically, the tank was the most exported tanks from the as previous models. It also was "M4," but the Army changed it U.S. military. They were sold and redesigned with a sloped front to M5 so it wouldn't be confused distributed widely throughout and a roomier, cooler interior with the M4 Sherman tank. the Cold War. 58 AMERICAN WAR MACHINES**CHAPTER 4 The M3 Lee medium tanks were produced as a stop-gap measure before work on the M4 Sherman tanks could be completed. Although the M3s had many design flaws, they did have large, 75-mm guns that the Allies needed. TANK PRODUCTION IN the generally too tall-hence the United States between World nickname "Iron Cathedral"- Wars I and II was not very good, making them inviting targets which left the country ill-pre- for the Germans. And they also pared on that front when war had a tendency to catch fire. But broke out in Europe once again they did have the big, 75-mm in 1939. There were generally guns that the Allies needed. few American tanks and most Two different designs were pro- of the vehicles were classified duced: The U.S. versions were as "light." called "Lee" after Confederate But as the Germans began general Robert E. Lee, while the their blitzkrieg across Europe British version-with a radio it became clear that the Allies placed in a different spot-was would need medium tanks to called "Grant" after Union gen- combat the German Panzers. eral Ulysses S. Grant. The U.S. had begun to work on The British used the M3 Lee Sherman tanks, but they would largely in North Africa. They not be ready in time. So they were also shipped to the Soviet rushed production on the M3 Union for use on the Eastern Lee as a stopgap measure. front, though the tanks were The tanks weren't great. They generally unpopular with the had design flaws. They were Russian soldiers. 61CHAPTER 4 The M4 Sherman (top) was the The M26 Pershing (bottom) was most well-known American tank of used mostly during the Western WWII, mostly because it was used Allied invasion of Germany, and widely throughout the war. again during the conflict in Korea. M4 M26 M6 SHERMAN PERSHING HEAVY TANK THIS TANK WAS arguably the AS WORLD WAR II went on, THE UNITED STATES' interest most famous American tank it became clear that the Allied in making a heavy tank actually from World War II, because it light and medium tanks were started in World War I. The first was also the most widely used becoming increasingly out- attempt was a joint effort with throughout the war. The suc- gunned by the Germans. They the British and the French-the cessor to the flawed M3 Lee, it were less effective over time and Mark VIII "Liberty Tank." The was built with better armor and reduced to more of a support- U.S. eventually took possession guns and initially outclassed the ing role. The Allies needed a of 100 of those. German tanks. "heavy" tank, but production But between the two World But it wasn't built just to do continually delayed. Wars, U.S. interest in the heavy that. It was built to be mass- Historians say it was because models waned. The military produced-which meant it of opposition from Gen. Lesley preferred light or medium tanks wasn't overly expensive. The M4 McNair, the head of ground for is if Sherman was also reliable, with forces for the U.S. Army. He they showed interest in armored standardized parts, making it believed tanks needed to be light vehicles at all. easier for troops to repair. As a and maneuverable and, some That began to change in 1940 result, more than 50,000 tanks say, he stalled the development when the Germans and their were built and distributed to the of the heavy models. tanks swept across Europe, and Allied powers between 1942 and Eventually, the need was the U.S. began again to think 1945 through the "Lend-Lease" clear. But the development took about heavy tanks. In May 1940, program with Great Britain and so long that the first U.S. ver- the U.S. commissioned devel- the Soviet Union. sion-the M26 Pershing-wasn't opment of a 50-ton tank-by far The tanks-named for U.S. available until the final months the heaviest model it would have Civil War Union Army general of WWII. Production only began ever produced. William Tecumseh Sherman- in November 1944. And while The M6 became the proto- were so reliable and effective 2,000 were produced, few saw type, but development wasn't that they were used in every combat. They were used mostly easy. There were design prob- theater of World War II, mostly during the Western Allied inva- lems, too. A tank of that size for infantry support. They were sion of Germany, though they needed an enormous power also easy to upgrade with bigger later were used again during the source, which meant outfitting it guns, especially later in the war Korean War. with aircraft engines. In the end, when the German technology the U.S. stayed focused on light- began to outpace that of the er models and the M6 program Allied forces. was shelved. In all, only about 40 of these tanks were made. 63 AMERICAN WARCHAPTER 4 The Howitzer Motor Carriage M8 Right: M10 tank destroyers (top and was built atop of the hull and chassis bottom) roll toward central Tunisia of the M5 Stuart light tank (below). and the battlefront against the German Afrika Korps during WWII. MIO TANK DESTROYER EVEN BEFORE THE U.S. en- tered into WWII, the military began studying armored warfare and decided that along with needing tanks, they also needed ways to destroy ones owned by enemies. In April 1941, the "Tank Destroyer Force" was born. Seven months later, the Army ordered a new vehicle that could do just that, with a fully rotating turret loaded with an anti-tank HOWITZER MOTOR gun. And so, the 3-inch Gun Mo- CARRIAGE M8 tor Carriage M10 was born. By April 1942, the M10s were being used to disrupt the German blitzkrieg attacks in Europe. The "doctrine" was to keep them behind the front lines ONE OF THE biggest challenges placed into an open-topped until they were needed. Then, for the Allied forces during turret. The M5 Stuart may when a German tank broke World War II was finding ways have been a weak-armored through, they could respond to move their heavy artillery as light tank, but it was incredibly with a quick, lethal, high-speed fast as they could move their mobile which allowed the SPH attack that, hopefully, would troops and tanks. They needed vehicle to keep up with the rest destroy the German tank-or their big guns to be nearby in of the troops. at least push it back. order to provide support for From September 1942 until Basically, any time a German any assault and to reinforce January 1944, the United States tank pushed through, an M10 defensive positions. produced 1,778 SPHs, which would come out of nowhere to That sparked the idea for were nicknamed the "General ambush it. the self-propelled Howitzer (or Scott" or simply the "M8 Scott." Unofficially called "Wolver- SPH). It was built atop the hull It eventually became a popular ine," the M10 was mostly used and chassis of the M5 Stuart weapon of the armies in South- by the U.S. and stayed in service light tank, with a 75-mm gun east Asia. throughout the war. 64 AMERICAN WAR MACHINES