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Língua Inglesa – Estrutura Básica
Aula 001
Teaching in the 21st century - what makes a great teacher? First, you must enjoy what you do. If you don’t, you’ll find it hard to be a teacher. Secondly, you must know your students; you must know who they are and their background. Finally, you have to know almost all about the subject you are teaching. Update is needed all the time nowadays. 
If teachers only provide content, facts, dates and formulas, their role is obsolete. Information changes all the time and so does the language. Providing information from a book only, makes us useless for society. Nowadays, information can be found everywhere: Google, Facebook, Wikipedia, etc. Teachers are no longer the main source of information, so how can we teach students to handle these resources? Teachers face difficult tasks when teaching and our role must fit each one of these tasks – we must adapt. It is necessary to build skills. It’s important to:
Stimulate students to learn;
Help them overcome difficulties;
Give them opportunities do express themselves in the context of what is being taught. 
What role will the teacher play in society? – Answers are personal. It depends on the paths each one tend to follow. However, there are some points that can bring some light to our journeys. Have you ever thought of what it means to be a teacher? Do you know that your conception of language has to do with the role you are going to play as a teacher? If you believe language is just for communication, this will guide your lesson. If you think language is for expressing opinions, this will be the focus of your lesson. 
New technologies – teaching hasn’t changed, but there are more resources nowadays. 
‘Teach’ definitions – ‘teach’ means to transmit knowledge of a specific subject or to show what is right or wrong. It’s a general world for helping a person or a group of people. You can train a person or group up to a specific level of knowledge. You can coach a person our group outside the educational system and often for a particular examination. 
The teacher is then the facilitator of learning, the manager of the classroom, a consultant, an advisor and co-communicator. 
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Introduction to Morphology
	
Morph = form / Logy = study. 
It’s the study of how words are formed. It’s also the study of word formation (inflections, derivation, compounding) in language. It’s the system of word-forming elements and processes in a language. In general it is the study of form. 
It’s the identification, analysis and description of structure of morphemes in different idioms and linguistics units like words, affixes (parts united to the word: suffix, prefix), parts of speech. It’s the study of the meaning of words in sentences and clauses. Knowledge of morphology in Portuguese may help in the English language. 
Morpheme - a meaningful morphological unit of a language that cannot be further divided. The most basic elements that have meaning. It can be a word or part of word that carry meaning.
Tenth – ‘ten’ is a root morpheme and ‘th’ is a suffix that means it is ordinal.
Dog’s – ‘dog’ is a root and ‘’s’ indicates possession.
They can’t combine in arbitrary ways – there are patterns for adding morphemes to polymorphemic words. The number, order and type of morpheme used to build a word are called structure. 
Morphemes can be free or bound:
Free – able to appear as the world itself - roots
Bound – (“presos”) – can only appear as part of another polymorphemic word. – affixes
Suffix – after the root
Prefix – before the root
infixes – between two roots (speech-o-meter) 
Bound morphemes can be derivational or inflectional:
Derivational – create new words. Ex. Unhappy, preview. 
Inflectional – indicate gender, number and other grammar changes. Do not change the meaning of the root morpheme. There are 8 of them:
S – walk/walks
‘s – Julia/Julia’s
Er – cool/cooler
En – awake/awaken 
Ed – travel/traveled
Ing – go/going
Est – cool/coolest
Morphemes can also be classified in Content morpheme or Function morpheme:
Content – carry semantic content and not grammatical function.
Function – they have grammatical meaning. 
Word – can be made up of several morphemes and may include several other words. It’s the smallest free form that can be pronounced. It has semantic or pragmatic meaning. 
It may be formed by one morpheme as ‘red’ and ‘quick’ or several ones like ‘redness’ and ‘quickly’. 
 
Phrase – A phrase is a false cognate – it’s not “frase”. It means “sintagma”. It is any group of words or one word. Phrases do not have subject and verb. It may be a noun phrase or verb phrase:
Noun – “sintagma nominal” – noun or pronoun and the modifiers which distinguish it. 
Beatiful dog
Nice weather
Between ignorance and intelligence
Verb – “sintagma verbal” - the portion of a sentence that contains both the verb and an object.
Leaving behind the dog
Broken into pieces
In none of the examples the noun is functioning as a subject. 
Clause – A collection of words where there is a subject and a verb. The noun functions as the subject and is actively doing a verb. It’s a “oração”:
I despise individual of low character. 
They laugh at different people.
If a clause makes a complete sentence, it’s an independent clause:
I went to the cinema. 
Dependent clauses have a subject doing a verb, but they have a subordinate conjunction placed in front of the clause. They don’t make sense alone, so there’s always a second clause with them:
Because she smiled at him…??
We looked on top of the refrigerator, where Jenny will hide a bag of chocolate chip cookies.
Sentence – It’s a complete written expression of a complete thought. It may have one or more clauses. The number of clauses is counted by the number of verbs. Sentences must:
begin in a capital letter and have a full stop at the end;
have a subject that is doing something
a verb that indicates the action
a predicate
Example: Some students like to study in the morning and others like to study at night. 2 clauses, 1 sentence
Basic sentences in English have a subject, something the statement is about and a predicate. To talk about that, we must understand verb transitivity.
A verb can be transitive or intransitive:
Transitive – a verb requires both a direct subject and one or more objects.
We like him. 
Intransitive – there’s no need to complete the verb in order to make sense. Is an action verb and doesn’t have a direct object receiving the action:
My father cried. 
Some verbs can be both transitive and intransitive:
Brad Pity breaks my heart.
When I hear my voice, my heart breaks.
Some verbs are ditransitive because they receive two complements: direct and indirect object:
We sent him the letter. (1 – him / 2 – the letter)
Aula 003
Concepts of Linguistics
The part of linguistics which is related to the structure of language is divided in subfields:
Phonetics – studies the speech sound in their physical aspects, in minimal sounds
Phonology – studies the speech sounds in their cognitive aspects, the variations of sounds and how it affects meanings
Morphology - the study of the formation of words
Syntax – the study of the formation of sentences
Semantics – the study of meanings
Pragmatics – the study of language in use
Linguistics – studies the nature and structure of Language. It traditionally encompasses semantics, syntax and phonology.
There are two kinds of Linguistics in relation to time:
Synchronic Linguistics – describe languages as they exist at a given, specific time
Diachronic Linguistics – trace the historical development of a language
Syntax
Study of the arrangement of words in sentences, clauses and phrases, their formation and the relationship between their components. By structure, we mean word order. The meaning of a sentence depends on the order in which words occur in a sentence. Example:
I sing because I am happy.
I am happy because I sing. 
These sentences have thesame amount of words and in the same category, but in different structure. 
Syntactic Category
A set of words or phrases that share significant number of common characteristics. Groups in which words are divided. They include:
Parts of speech: determiner (article, pronouns), adjective, noun, pronoun, prepositions, adverbs, auxiliary, verbs, etc. 
Phrase structure grammar (estrutura do sintagma):
Nouns Phrase (NP)
Adjective Phrase (AdjP)
Verb Phrase (VP)
Adverb Phrase (AdvP)
Preposition Phrase (PP)
The Syntactic Categories Tree (Sistema arbóreo) 
They are illustrated in a tree called phrase structure tree, by supplying the name of category of each word grouping. These name are often referred as syntactic labels. 
Phrase
It is a sequence of words or a group of words organized in a grammatical construction and works as a unit in a sentence. 
Noun Phrase (Sintagma Nominal) – built upon a noun which functions as the headword of the phrase:
The young man threw the old dog a bone. 3 noun phrases
Adjective Phrase – modifies a noun, built upon an adjective which functions as the headword of the phrase:
Mary seemed extremely pleasant. 1 adjective phrase
Verb Phrase – composed by at least one verb and its dependents:
He has been singing. 1 verb phrase
Adverb Phrase – refers toa phrase that plays the role of telling us when, why or how. The adverb is the headword:
He will run quickly next year. 2 adverb phrases
Preposition phrase – most important part is the preposition
Do you know the man with the scar? 1 prep. phrase
The Phrase Structure Tree
It is linear and hierarchical with phrases nested in phrases (combination of phrases).
Basic Phrase structure Rules – pg. 35 in book
Sentence 	NP 	VP
NP 		[det] 	[Adj] 	N 	[PP]
VP 		V [NP] 	[PP] 	[Adv]
PP 		P 	NP
Word Order
Switching the order of words in a sentence changes the meaning or make a sentence meaningless. 
They are organized in subject + verb + complement (object). All sentences in English must have a subject. 
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Portuguese and English share some comparable aspects and concepts of subject and predicate. 
Logical linear sequence of sentences: phrases – clause – sentences
Subject
It is the part of the sentence of clause about which something is being said. It is usually the doer of the action. It’s a noun or pronoun. 
	Subject pronouns – I, you, he, she, it, they, we
Predicate
It is the part of a sentence which says something about the subject. It expresses something about the sentence or the condition of the subject. 
Objects 
They complement the meaning of the verb. 
Direct Object
It is a noun or pronoun that receives the action of the verb or shows the result of the action. It answers the questions WHAT or WHOM. It is placed after and action verb. The action verb with a direct object are called transitive verbs.
	John received a letter. received is a transitive verb / a letter is a direct object
	State verbs aren’t followed by Direct Object!
	I’m a hot air balloon. Be is a state verb. A hot air balloon is not an object. 
Indirect Object
It precedes the direct object and tells us TO WHOM or FOR WHOM the action was done. It indicates who is receiving the direct object.
They are usually used with verbs of giving or communicating: give, bring, say, tell, show, etc. 
It is always a noun or a pronoun which is not part of a prepositional phrase. 
	Mary game me the report. me is the indirect object
Head of Sentence
Phrases can be classified according to the tendency expresses within a structure. 
Phrases can be arranged in a way that the meaning depends on a word or a key word, also known as head of sentence. 
Verb Phrases
It composed by at least one verb and its dependents. There are two main types:
Finite VPs: happens with a finite verb (verbs with tense). Finite verbs have a definite relation with the subject or noun. They are usually the main verb and can be modified according to the noun. They can be in the present or past, indicate passive and active, and also indicate number.
She walks home. walk is the main verb and it is changed because of the third person
Non-finite VPs: happens with a non-finite verb (verbs with no tense). Non-finite verbs cannot be the main verb. They do not talk about the action being performed by the subject. They do not indicate any tense, mood or gender. They are used as nouns, adverbs and adjectives. They are also used to make non-finite clauses, which are dependent clauses. 
The loves camping in the woods. love is the main verb. Camping is being used as a noun and is the non-finite verb.
I need to sleep. need is the main verb. To sleep is non-finite. 
Phrase - structure and head
The central element in a phrase is the head of the phrase:
	The children children is the most important part
	The title of the newspaper title is the most important part
The structure has 3 parts:
The endangered animals in the wild
Pre-head string: the endangered
Head: animals
Post-head string: in the wild 
For each kind of phrase, there is a different head:
ATIVIDADE 004
Simple sentences one verb
	Felines hunt at night.
Complex sentences two or more verbs
	Children must be respected. 
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Time vs. Tense
The tense does not always refer to the same time. 
Ex.:
I hope it rains tomorrow.
‘Rains’ is being used in the present tense, but refers to a future time.
If I had money, I’d buy a car.
‘Had’ is in the past tense, but it refers to present time.
Time is chronological and tense is related to grammar. 
Tense – the forms a verb takes by inflection (flexão de verbo) or by adding auxiliary verb words, to indicate the time of an action or event signified. 
Time – Can be understood as points specifically located in a timeline. 
Simple vs. Complex verb phrases
Simple verb phrase – only one verb
Complex verb phrase – two or more verbs
The principal verb is usually called the head (núcleo) because it provides the primary communicative content (also known as full verbs or lexical verbs), while all other verbs are premodifying auxiliary verbs. 
Simple verb phrases
Ex. The ninja’s head exploded.
‘Exploded’ is the head. 
The full verb in this case may be in the present, past or imperative form.
Complex verb phrases
Ex. I could have been there, but I was sleeping. 
In a complex verb phrase there are verbs that are actually responsible for the ongoing action while others complement their meaning indicating tense or mood. They are called auxiliary verbs and when inserted in the structure of a phrase and sentence follow a strict order. There is a name for each of the kinds of these auxiliary verbs:
Modal – can, must, will, would, etc. + full infinitive
Perfect – have, has, had + participle form
Progressive – be + gerund
Passive – be + participle form
There are lexical verbs and auxiliary verbs. 
Auxiliary – precedes the main verbs in a verb phrase. They’re also known as helping verbs.
Lexical verbs – the main verbs, since they are responsible for the meaning in a verb phrase. 
Tense and Aspect: present and past
Tense – it is the grammaticalized expression of location in the time, usually with reference to the moment something occurs and not its duration. The duration is given by the verb inflection (conjugação). 
Tenses have consistent relational values:
Anteriority
Posteriority
Simultaneity
They are usually referred as present, past or future. 
There are TWO tenses in English. Only TWO. present and past
English does not have future tense. To talk about the future, English requires a modal verb Will or the present progressive. 
For each grammatical tense there are subcategories called aspects. They refer to the duration of an event in a particular tense. It allows us to describe or understand how an event unfolds (happens) over time. English has four aspects:
Simple
Progressive
Perfect
Perfect Progressive
Present tensePresent Simple
Present progressive
Present perfect
Present perfect continuous
Past tense
Past Simple
Past progressive
Past perfect
Past perfect continuous
Noun and noun phrases
Words make up phrases which behave as a unit. 
A phrase can consist of either one word or more.
Phrases can be identified by substitutions and movement tests.
Differences in phrases structure show up in differences of meaning.
Phrases can be embedded. 
Ex. [My boss][demands][a report everyday]. 
 [He][demands][something][when].
According to their functions, they can be classified by taking into consideration the following factors:
Form/structure: related to the word class of the head of the phrase
Synthetic Role: according to the function it performs
Meaning: the semantic nature of the sentence which conveys meaning. 
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Noun Phrase
Noun phrases can be preceded by determiners (a, the, her, quantifiers) and modifiers (adjectives, adverbs).
Determiners
They are word used with nouns to clarify them. They can:
Define something or someone
State the amount of things, people or other nouns
State possessives
State someone or something that is not specific
State how things or people are distributed
State difference between nouns
Types of determiners:
Quantifiers a lot of houses
Articles a house
Possessive her house
Demonstratives that house
Ordinals the second house
Numbers three houses
They are all determiners related to the head. The head in the noun phrase may be countable and uncountable. 
Countable – thing we can count. They usually have singular and plural. 
Uncountable – things that we can’t count. They don’t have plural. They are often names for abstract ideas or qualities. They are used with singular verbs and we can’t use a/an with these nouns. To express quantity of one of these nouns, we can use words like:
Some
A lot of
A piece of
A great deal of
A bit of
Any
A little
Much
Some nouns are countable in other languages but uncountable in English. Some of them are:
Accommodation
Advice
Baggage
Furniture
Information
News
Progress 
Traffic
Trouble
Weather
Work
Gerunds
It is a verb that ends in ‘ing’ and may function as a noun, such as read in:
I like reading.
In the case above, ‘reading’ is an activity, not a verb. Therefore, it is a noun in this case. 
Gerunds may replace nouns and pronouns as subjects, objects or complements. ‘Not’ is used before them to make them negative. 
Gerunds can be used as:
Subjects – Traveling is always a pleasure.
Direct object – They don’t appreciate my singing.
Subject complement (predicativo do sujeito) – My cat’s favorite activity is sleeping. 
After prepositions – She is good at speaking English. 
against, at, by, on, without, etc.
After certain verbs – I need to stop drinking.
discuss, like, admit, celebrate, confess, etc.
Negative gerunds – People complain about not getting accurate news.
Possessive – Regina’s reporting is normally very accurate. 
Genitive Case
It is used mostly for showing possession. It is made by adding ‘s to the word or by preceding it with ‘of’:
Mary’s haircut
The edge of the table
Dog’s bone
Of vs. ‘s
We use ‘s for people and animals. It can also be used for organizations and companies which represent a group of people. It can be used to talk about places too. It’s not common to use ‘s with non-living things (the edge of the table).
Rules:
Singular nouns or plural not ending in s – add ‘s my mother’s house / Jason’s car / children’s toy
Plural nouns – add ‘ only My friends’ bags / the plumbers’ tools
Names ending in s – add ‘s James’s house
Classical or religious names – add ‘ only Jesus’ disciples 
Sometimes more than one word is a possessive. The rules above are still valid:
The King of Sparta’s wife was called Hellen. 
In case of two owners, add ‘s to the last name:
	Rick and Steve’s car. 
If each owner has a different object, both receive ‘s:
	Rick’s and Steve’s cars. 
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Functions of the Noun Phrases
Nouns are traditionally used to name people, places, things and ideas. Pronouns are subcategories of nouns. Noun phrases are formed by noun, pronoun, modifiers, complements and determiners. 
Nouns and Noun Phrases, as well as pronouns can perform ten main grammatical functions in the English Language.
Subject - ‘The baby cried loudly’. 
Predicate Nominative (predicado nominal) – the noun following a linking verb that informs something about the subject. They follow the verb and the direct object. They can be an adjective phrase, a noun phrase or a prepositional phrase.
There are two major types:
2.1) Subject Predicative – an information about the subject – ‘My grandfather is a farmer’.
2.2) Object Predicative
Direct Object – it receives the action of a verb or shows the result of the action. – ‘The girl ate the cookies.’
Object complement – nouns, pronouns, noun phrases, adjectives and adjective phrases. They modify the direct object – ‘We consider our puppy our baby’.
Indirect Object – precedes the direct object and tells to whom or for whom the action was made – ‘He sent his girlfriend flowers’. 
Prepositional Complement – they follow a preposition and complete their meaning – ‘I never go out with my parents’ ou ‘Because of you we missed the movie’.
Noun Phrase Modifier – nouns can be modified. There are two modifiers:
Pre modifiers – ‘the beautiful girl’
Post modifiers – ‘the girl in the red dress’
Noun phrases can be modified too, by noun, adjective, verb and prepositional phrases and also adjective clauses. – ‘The man in the yellow hat owns a pet monkey’.
Possessive modifiers or determinative – a noun or pronoun added to the noun to denote possession – ‘Everyone’s report was well written.’
An appositive (aposto) – noun or pronoun placed near other nouns or pronouns. It’s common to see them between commas and adding details to clauses. – ‘My brother, a good soccer player, was born in China’.
Adverbial – adverbs are used to modify verbs and adjectives. They position in the sentence can change its meaning. Adverbs are used to show time, purpose, frequency and others. – ‘It was a really boring movie’.
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Adjectives
They are a class of word which attributes notions of quality and state to nouns they relate. When adjectives are describing a noun, they are modifying it. They have some characteristics:
Attributive function – they personify nouns between a determiner and the head of a noun phrase – ‘a big house’, ‘this nice room’. 
Predicative function – they can work as a subject complement or object complement. They are NOT part of the noun phrase. – ‘The painting is ugly’ or ‘The disaster left the people fearful’ or ‘Our puppy made me very happy’. 
Can be Intensified – adjectives may be intensified - ‘the children are very happy’. 
Can take on Comparative and Superlative forms – related to the degree of adjectives. Then can be made through inflections (flexões) or by adding the pre-modifiers words ‘more’ and ‘most’ – ‘happier’, ‘more expensive’, ‘wettest’, ‘most dangerous’. 
Some characteristics are typical of adjectives, although some escape this pattern. Central adjectives present all four characteristics above. Other adjectives are called peripheral adjectives.
Morphological aspects of adjectives - Central adjectives are both Attributive and Predicative and can be inflected to show Comparative and Superlative.
Syntactic aspects of adjectives - Central adjectives may be Attributive and Predicative.
Semantic aspects of adjectives - Central adjectives are descriptive and gradable.
Adjective Order
There is a logical way to think and place adjectives, according to their type. 
From the book - Opinion – size – shape – condition/quality/character – age – color – origin/material – purpose - ‘a beautiful big round old brick living white New Zealander house.’
From the internet - Opinion – size – quality/character – age – shape –color – participles – origin – material– type – purpose
Comparative and Superlative – they modify the degree of adjectives. 
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Adjectives
They have 4 main characteristics: they may be attributive or predicative; they may be intensified and may suffer inflections to become comparative and superlative. In the Attributive form, it appears in noun phrases. In the Predicative form, they aren’t used in noun phrases. 
Comparative and Superlative
One-syllable adjectives tall – taller – tallest / big – bigger – biggest
Two or more syllable adjectives more expensive – most expensive / more pleasant – most pleasant
Adjectives in ‘y’ friendly – friendlier – friendliest
Adjectives ending in ‘er’, ‘le’ or ‘ow’ narrower – narrowest / gentler – gentlest
Adjectives that follow the two rules: gentle – gentler or more gentle - gentlest or most gentle / clever, friendly
Comparatives in the same degree – I’m as tall as John. 
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Adjectives
Adjectives ending in –ed and –ing
Ending in –ed - they describe emotions and tell us how people feel – ‘Tom is bored in the lesson’ ou ‘I felt depressed’. 
Ending in –ing – they describe the emotion something causes, the characteristics of something or someone – ‘Tom is boring’ or ‘I’m depressing’. 
Many adjectives can be seen in both forms. 
Impressions, Feelings and reactions
Some adjectives can describe tone, feelings and emotions. Sometimes, one adjective and describe all of them
Tone (Impressions) – is an overall sense that you get from some sort o event or situations.
	Fresh, bold, happy, supportive, devoted, sarcastic, sardonic, hurtful 
Emotions – tend to refer to what is no tangible
	Joyful, liking, proud, serene, tearful, annoyed, guilty, sick
Feelings – tend to be more tangible
	Happy, well, beautiful, attracted, moody, sad, angry
Adjective Phrases
If the first word is an adverb or a preposition, there is a good chance that the phrase is an adjective phrase. 
This is the end of a very long road.
Did you see the man leaving the shop?
In both cases there are adjective phrases, because adjectives are present. Another way to be sure, is to make the questions ‘what is this phrase modifying?’ and ‘is it describing a noun?’ If the word is in fact modifying the noun or subject, then the phrase is an adjective phrase. 
Adjective phrases that modifies noun may be attributive (before a noun) and predicative (used after a linking verb). However, not all adjectives can be used as predicative. They are formed of either an intensifier and an adjective or more than one adjective in a row. They have adjectives as the head and optional intensifiers used after or before then. Modifiers generally answer a question about the degree of the quality. 
	I’m so lucky.
	He’s not good enough. 
Complements
Complements answer the question ‘in what way is the adjectival quality to be interpreted?’:
Guilty of a serious crime
Adjective phrases may be very similar to a noun phrase. The difference is that the adjective occur before the word it qualifies. 
	It was cold weather. 
	He is an incredibly looking man. 
Four forms can appear within an adjective phrase: adverb phrase, prepositional phrase, verb phrase and noun clauses. 
The most important role of adjective phrases is as modifiers and subject predicative. As a modifier, it is an attributive adjective:
	She is a generous woman. 
As a subjective predicative, it often follows the verb to be, but may follow other linking verbs:
She is generous.