SEMINÁRIO EM LINGUA INGLESA

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SEMINÁRIO EM LINGUA INGLESA: ESTUDOS LINGUÍSTICOS
AULA 1
The word Communication comes from the Latin word Communicare, which means ‘to share’, ‘to become common’.
In the Business Dictionary, we find the following definition of communication:
 “(A) Two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants not only exchange (encode-decode) information, news, ideas and feelings but also create and share meaning. In general, communication is a means of connecting people or places.”
Communication is an inherent human need, just like the need for food or shelter. It is through communication that humans are able to act and interact in their social world.
According to Whitaker,
“A comunicação humana,…, através da compreensão, põe ideias em comum. Seu grande objetivo é o entendimento entre os homens. Para que exista entendimento, é necessário que se compreendam mutuamente indivíduos que se comunicam.”
(Whitaker, 1997: 1)
So, we understand that communication is a comprehensive interchange of meaning between individuals, through symbols. 
But why did we use the word symbols, instead of words? 
Because human communication goes beyond the mere use of words and goes into the world of language, which is much more complex. Communication can be either verbal or non-verbal.
However, these two aspects usually operate together, so there must be harmony between them so that effective communication may take place. Let’s see what the characteristics of each one are.
Verbal Communication
VERBAL COMMUNICATION is a property which is exclusive to mankind. It makes use of the written or spoken language and is more complex than the non-verbal communication.
Non - Verbal Communication
It’s also known as body language and it’s the sending of messages through facial expressions, gestures and body movements.
Public Speaking
“All the world’s a stage / And all the men and women merely players; / They have their exits and their entrances: And one man in his time plays many parts / As you like it.”
Shakespeare
It’s perfectly normal to feel uneasy and insecure when we have to speak in public. People are usually not so much afraid of speaking in public as they are afraid of making mistakes in public. There’s only one thing we can do about it: we need to plan our presentation very carefully and in advance. In fact, you should never count on the fact that you will have a surge of inspiration during a presentation. It takes time, effort and a lot of research to be an effective speaker.
Effective communication in a presentation includes issues such as clear speech, adequate tone of voice, breathing and vocabulary which is appropriate to the audience you are addressing. In addition, you need to pay careful attention to your appearance, gestures and posture, since they all say a lot about you.
Most part of our understanding comes from visual and auditive messages. In other words, we form a mental picture of other people from what we see (the way they walk, their gestures, their posture etc.) and from what we hear (their tone of voice, rhythm, intonation etc.)
Nóbrega (2009) suggests that in order to leave a good impression in a presentation it’s important to use all the resources available in your language effectively. In other words, you should be able to pronounce words well, not speak too fast, use gestures adequately, look at your audience, and move around, among other things. We’ll consider all of them, next.
Speech, Voice and Breathing
In order to make yourself understood and to cause a good impression on your audience during a presentation, you should pronounce all the words in a sentence and all the syllables in a word well, especially their final ones.
You should also pay special attention to your tone of voice since it can reveal your emotions, feelings and intentions. In order to sound relaxed and natural, you need to breathe correctly and project your voice well. It should be neither too loud nor too low. Also, avoid speaking too fast or too slow.
It’s important to vary the rhythm, speed, volume and the tone of your voice during the presentation. These changes will make your presentation more dynamic and keep the audience interested. On the other hand, if your tone of voice is monotonous, the audience might become totally uninterested in what you have to say. Don’t forget to stress important ideas, so that your speech sounds more natural and you can close the distance between you and your audience.
Vocabulary and Audience
Before beginning any presentation, it´s important to know some things about the audience you are addressing. According to Nóbrega (2009), ignoring the audience is the same as wasting an extremely rich aspect of oral production: the interchange between speaker and listener.A speaker needs his/her audience; therefore he/she needs to respect it at all times. 
So, there are some things you need to know in advance about your audience:
• How much do they know about the subject you are going to talk about? 
• Why do they want to attend your presentation? 
• What are the most relevant topics for them? 
• What’s their average age, and their social, cultural and moral background?
Besides, you should also have information about the place where the presentation is going to take place.
 • What’s the size of the room?
• What resources are available to you?
• How much time do you have?
 Moreover, it’s also a good idea to check such things as: seat arrangement, air conditioning, illumination, and sound.
Language
However, you should note that there isn’t a radical division between formal and informal speech, but a continuum of formality. (GUIMARÃES, 2012)
For your information…
What can you do in order to improve your vocabulary?
Read as much as you can;
Whenever you come across new words, look their meaning up in a good dictionary and try to include them in your repertoire.
It’s also always a good idea to train before the presentation. You can do that in front of a mirror or you can also record yourself “giving” the presentation at home. When people record themselves, they sometimes get really surprised at what they see and/or hear. Sometimes they say or do things they have no idea they do. So, by doing this, you will be able to know exactly what you need to improve.
According to Nóbrega (2009):
“Só há um caminho para quem quer sair-se bem ao falar em público: treinar, pois a apresentação oral é uma atividade que não pode ser terceirizada, ela deve ser realizada pela própria pessoa.”
(Nóbrega, 2009:8)
Therefore make use of all opportunities you have to train, including volunteering for all kinds of public presentations. Remember that the more you do it, the better you get at doing it.
Posture and Gestures
Things to Do:
When addressing an audience, it’s a good idea to look confident and avoid excessive gestures that might attract people’s attention in a negative way. Try to address your whole audience and avoid staring at one person only. Move around slowly and naturally as you speak. Smile.
Things to Avoid:
Don’t put your hands in your pockets while giving a presentation;
Don’t put your hands on your back;
Don’t stand still for a long time;
Don’t cross your arms on your chest;
Don’t lean on any piece of furniture or on one of your legs.
Nóbrega (2009) advises that:
 
“Dependendo da postura física do orador, o público interpreta-o como uma pessoa fraca ou forte, animada ou desanimada, confiável ou não. Dessa avaliação não verbal, ele fica disposto a ouvir com respeito ou negligência. Portanto, o palestrante conhecedor do peso da linguagem corporal permanece atento às mensagens dos recursos não verbais.”
Nóbrega, 2009: 113
 Therefore, special attention should be paid to body language if you want to leave a good impression on your audience.
Appearance
As with your speech, you should dress according to the event and according to your audience. The way you dress together with your posture, verbal language and gestures influence the way otherpeople see you. In general, clean, respectable clothes and shoes and good hygiene habits might be enough to guarantee a good reception on the part of your listeners.
It’s a good idea to avoid flashy clothing, sports clothing, lots of makeup, shorts, miniskirts, flip-flops, caps and the like. For both men and women, clothes should be comfortable, discreet, clean, and adequate to the occasion.
How to End a Presentation
After developing the theme of the presentation and when you feel you have accomplished your objectives, it’s polite to thank the audience for having attended it. You don’t need to announce the end of the presentation formally, just conclude the topic and end it politely.
Last but not least, always arrive early for a presentation or a class so that you can check if everything you need is there and organize the last details. When you arrive early you also have some time to calm down and relax before you start.
AULA 2
The word seminar comes from the Latin word seminarium, which means nursery. On the other hand, the word seminarium, comes from the also Latin word semen which means seed. This might suggest that the presentation of a seminar is an occasion in which ideas could be ‘planted’ into other people’s minds or their germination could be favored. Indeed this meaning tells us a lot about the creative power of the seminar.
Dolz et al (2004) define the seminar as: 
 “... um gênero textual público, relativamente formal e específico, no qual o expositor especialista dirige-se a um auditório, de maneira estruturada (explicitamente), para lhe transmitir informações, descrever-lhe ou explicar alguma coisa (2004:218).”
The seminar might be a powerful tool in the construction of knowledge and scientific findings. It demands discipline, rigor and sistematicity from the student, in order to be a productive academic activity.
Main Objective of a Seminar Presentation
The main purpose of a seminar is to present a systematic and detailed study about a specific topic to an audience. According to Francisco Oliver (1997):
 “... um Seminário é a reunião do professor e seus alunos com o objetivo de fazer investigações próprias sobre pontos concretos da ciência a que se dedicam. Não porque todos os que passam pelo Seminário vão ser cientistas, mas, pelo menos, o que já é muito, ficarão com espírito científico. (1997:83)”.
Elaboration Steps
The preparation for a seminar presentation begins a long time before the day of the presentation itself. The seminar might be presented by a group of people or by one person only. In both situations there are advantages and disadvantages.
ADVANTAGES:
 The advantage of presenting a seminar individually is that you will be the only person responsible for the entire presentation and you will not have to worry about your partners’ performance. On the other hand, the advantage of presenting a seminar with a group is that there’s going to be a lot of exchange between all the group members and it might lead you to think about things you might not have thought and have ideas you might not have had if you were working by yourself.
DISADVANTAGES:
 The disadvantage of presenting a seminar individually is that it can be very tiring for one person to present the whole topic by him/herself. However, when it’s a group seminar, the presentation might be quite inconsistent, especially if the group members did not meet before and have not agreed upon what each person has to do and in what order. 
Group Presentation
1 – First meeting / 2 – Individual work / 3 – Second meeting / 4 – Individual work / 5 – Third meeting / 6 – Last meeting before the presentation
The first step in a group presentation is to call a meeting where all the group members analyze the bibliographical list and decide on the chronogram. The group also arranges to meet again in a few days.
After deciding on the bibliographical list, group members read the texts individually over the time agreed upon and record the most important parts of each one.
On the second meeting, group members discuss the texts they have read over the past days and the most important parts recorded. This is a good time for members to ask for clarification of the part(s) of the text(s) they didn’t understand well. 
On this meeting, group members also decide what each one of them is going to talk about on the day of the presentation, that is, the roles of the participants and the order of each one’s presentation are decided on this meeting.
Students have already read the same texts and discussed them. Now they are going to go deeper on the part that was assigned to them. In order to do that they must follow six steps:
• do some research about the author and the topic of the main text;
• look up new words in a dictionary;
• locate the geographical and historical data;
• find new texts that might help the understanding of parts of the main text which are not clear;
• make a general scheme of the main text (make a list of the author’s main ideas);
• reflect about and make comments on the most important parts.
On the third meeting, students present the result of their research to the other group members. This is a good time to help each other by making relevant comments on what to include or not to include in the presentation. If the research done by one of the members was not good enough, this is the time to help him/her improve it or tell him/her how to do it.
 If everything’s fine about the content of the presentation, it’s time to decide on what resources you are going to use on the day of the seminar and who will be in charge of producing whatever materials or finding the images you need.
This is when the group members test whatever equipment they are going to take to the presentation (if there’s any) and make the final adjustments.
Individual Presentation
If you are going to present a seminar on your own, the steps are basically the same. The only difference is that you won’t have all the group meetings and you will do all the preparation on your own. This can be a little bit tiring, but it’s also very rewarding. 
 In case you have any questions about the content of the seminar or needs a hand with the seminar preparations, it’s a good idea to talk to someone who can assist you before the ‘big day’.
The Stages of the Presentation
Whether you are giving a presentation individually or in a group, the stages to be followed are the same. It’s important to follow them all to avoid the risk of not knowing what to do next during the seminar. According to Gonçalves & Bernardes (2013) the stages that are most likely to guarantee that your presentation is successful are:
“a) A fase de abertura: o aluno-expositor tomará contato com o seu público, saudando-o e legitimando sua fala; b) Introdução ao tema: apresentação e delimitação do conteúdo referencial a ser veiculado durante o seminário; c) Apresentação do plano da exposição: o aluno-expositor explicitará à plateia quais são as enumerações das ideias e os subtemas, esclarecendo, “ao mesmo tempo, sobre o produto (um texto planejado) e sobre o planejamento” (DOLZ, SCHNEUWLY e de PIETRO, 2004, p. 221);
E, por fim, (iii) As características linguísticas – a coesão temática, que amarra as diferentes partes do texto exposto, a sinalização que distingue as ideias principais das secundárias, a introdução, os exemplos e as reformulações prováveis de conceitos novos ou difíceis.”
AULA 3
Applied Linguistics
Applied linguistics is a term that seems to have originated in the USA in the 1940s. It refers to an interdisciplinary field of study which aims at investigating issues in the real world in which language is implicated. In other words, applied linguists set out to investigate both educational and social problems, and make decisions about the best course of action to take in dealing with them.
Brumfit (2001: 169) defines applied linguistics as:
The theoretical and empirical investigation of real-world problems in which language is a central issue.
Accordingto Cook (2010), there are a number of situations in which decisions language need to be made. The following topics will give you an idea of some of the situations about which applied linguists must reflect upon and find solutions to:
“-What language skills should children attain beyond basic literacy? (And what is basic literacy anyway? Reading and writing, or something more?)
Should children speaking a dialect be encouraged to maintain it or steered towards the standard form of language? (And if so, how is that standard form decided and by whom?)
In communities with more than one language which ones should be used in schools? (And does every child have a right to be educated in the language they use at home?)
Should deaf children learn a sign language, or a combination of lip reading and speaking? (And are the sign languages as complex as spoken ones?)
Should everyone learn foreign languages and, if so, which one or ones? (And what is the best way to
teach them?)
Should every child study literature? (And, if so, should it be established works or more modern ones? And should they study just their own national literature or that of other countries?)”
In order to find the right answers to the language problems posed, applied linguists cannot rely solely on their intuition and common sense, mainly because the decisions which have to be made reflect social structures and influence the lives of many people.
By following the steps aforementioned, applied linguists are able to discuss all possibilities in an open and independent way. In fact, Cook (op cit:169) argues that “It is these processes of study, reflection, investigation and action which constitute applied linguistics as an academic discipline”.
In order to avoid misjudgments and serious mistakes, applied linguists need to follow some steps that will ensure these professionals will come up with solutions in a way as informed and rational as possible. These are:
• Set out to investigate and understand the facts of language use;
• Organize and formalize what is known;
• Subject their knowledge to rational consideration and critical analysis.
The Scope of Applied Linguistics
The scope of applied linguistics is very wide and vague due to the fact that language is implicated not only in educational matters, but in much of our daily lives. Actually, there are a great number of important daily activities that depend on our language ability to be performed, and the others that do not, are often developed and enhanced through it.
Cook (op cit), in an attempt to delimit the scope of applied linguistics, presents the following areas as the main areas of concern for applied linguists:
• language and education;
• language, work and law;
• language information and effect.
According to Davies (1999), since language is everywhere, this delimitation protects applied linguistics from being regarded as “the science of everything”. The British Association for Applied Linguistics (BAAL) claims the following areas as their main concern:
• language acquisition;
• language teaching;
• language disabilities;
• language varieties;
• language in literature;
• language policies;
• languages in social services;
• translation;
• Interpretation.
Linguistics and Applied Linguistics
Linguistics – the academic discipline concerned with the scientific study of language in general – plays an important role in applied linguistics, as the name in the latter suggests. However, applied linguistics must not be confused with linguistics applied. According to Widdowson (1989) linguistics applied would be the following:
Linguists knew about language, applied linguists made this knowledge available to English language teachers; the consequence was that language learning was improved.
This transmissive approach, much criticized by Widdowson, was seen as one-way and unproblematic. However, due to the nature of the problems that must be dealt with, linguistics alone is not sufficiently equipped to provide all the answers required.
In order to account for all language-related problems in the world, applied linguistics must draw on several other disciplines, such as psychology, sociology, education, measurement theory, among others, and, of course, develop its own theories as well. Thus, Cook (op cit) argues that:
“The methodology of applied linguistics must therefore be complex. It must refer to the findings and theories of linguistics, choosing among the different schools and approaches, and making these theories relevant to the problems at hand. At the same time, it must investigate and take into account the experience and needs of the people involved in the problem itself…And it must undertake investigation and theorizing of its own.”
“Also, according to Brumfit (2001), in some traditions, linguistics has moved away from language located in the world. In fact, in these traditions, linguistic research is totally “concerned with idealizations which remove language from any systematic relationship with users or their purposes” (BRUMFIT, op cit: 8).
Applied linguistics, on the other hand, works in the opposite way and attempts at balancing experience and expertise and at establishing a reciprocal relationship between professional concerns with language problems and linguistics. This means that applied linguistics has its own independent purposes and a sophisticated technology of its own.
Thus, due to the fact that applied linguistics is an autonomous discipline in its own right and has its own theories, it can contribute to linguistic studies as well, rather than merely deriving from their body of knowledge.
Applied Linguistics and English Language Teaching
Cook (2003) argues that:
The spread of English […], and the related expansion of its use and learning, have generated intense interest in how and whether it is possible to improve the results of English teaching, and consequently in the study of language pedagogy and of Second Language Acquisition (SLA)
 Applied linguistics started to develop in the 1990s, both in Brazil and around the world, especially in the area of language teaching. Regarding English language teaching in Brazil, several applied linguists have been concerned about both teachers’ and students’ attitudes towards this language.
On the other hand, the author argues that the same is not true when it comes to students’ attitudes. In general, students have different reasons for studying English and do not reveal any kind of worship attitude towards that language. Sometimes, they might even show some kind of fear or feel uncomfortable when learning the language. 
Moita Lopes (1996), for instance, notes the existence of a certain worship-of-foreign-culture attitude by some English teachers. He explains that this attitude reflects a current social model of growing appreciation for what is foreign and the absorption of certain foreign cultural models by these professionals.
Therefore, the author criticizes those practitioners who totally absorb the foreign language culture, because their practice might not reflect what is in their students’ best interest. This is particularly true in public schools. Lopes states that it would be much better for students if their teachers focused on developing their reading abilities only, and not on developing the four skills, which is too much for that setting.
Other applied linguists have been focusing on teachers’ development and reflexive teaching. They claim that teachers are thinking beings and their teaching is influenced by their beliefs. According to Nunan (1998):
os eventos da sala de aula não podem ser propriamente compreendidos a menos que a perspectiva do professor seja considerada, haja vista que professores possuem estilos pessoais, conhecimentos, crenças e competências distintas em relação ao processo de ensino/aprendizagem de língua estrangeira (LE).
Esses aspectos estão presentes no seu desempenho enquanto aprendizes em cursos de formação de professores e, posteriormente, nasua prática de sala de aula, e, portanto, necessitam ser investigados. (OLIVEIRA, 2004: 45)
From this citation, we learn that the complete formation of a teacher does not happen only during his/her graduation course, but it’s a continuous learning process.
Critical Applied Linguistics (Calx)
CALx is a separate development of applied linguistics which has developed its own autonomous research communities. According to Cook (2003):
 In Critical Applied Linguistics (CALx), applied linguistics abandons its apparently neutral stance and aligns itself more explicitly with political action. It becomes intrinsically ‘critical’ in the sense of being politically committed and challenging. The proponents of CALx argue that the discipline does not cease to be rational or factual; on the contrary, it becomes more rational by acknowledging the inevitable.
APPLICATION: Critical applied linguists are engaged with social change, fighting injustice, combating inequality and eliminating prejudice. In order to accomplish this, these professionals need to incorporate critical political theory into applied linguistics. Besides, they should be self-critical, that is, they should constantly question and reassess their field.
One of the exponents of CALx in Brazil is Moita Lopes. In 2006, he organized a book entitled “Por uma Linguística Aplicada Indisciplinar” in which he and many other critical applied linguists set the ground for their discipline. They claim that their political perspective is particularly necessary if the investigation in applied linguistics intends to be relevant to our contemporary world.
AULA 4
Research
When doing research, we consider phenomena that happen in our daily lives and think them over. We move away from them so that it is easier to reflect about and to get to know them beyond their mere appearances. However, doing research is not a simple process because it involves systematic and scientific approach and the application of specialist knowledge and skills.
According to Brumfit (2001), research may be defined as a systematic process of inquiry that consists of three components:
• A question, problem or hypothesis;
• data;
• analysis or interpretation of data.
He explains that the term research has been used indiscriminately lately, but clarifies that it should not be so. Indeed, not any enquiry should be referred to as research. In order to avoid confusion, the author presents some features that distinguish serious, competent research, conducted by professionals aiming at providing better explanation of phenomena, from other types of enquiries, such as the simple search for information. These are:
1 - Careful formulation of the questions to be investigated;
2 - careful exploration of the best means of investigation for the particular question being addressed;
3 - consideration of the major previous attempts to explore the same and closely related questions;
4 - explicit accounts of the process of question formulation, the criteria for selection of the research techniques, and the reasons for the questions being felt to be important in the first place;
5 - full documentation of the procedures used, the means by which information has been gathered, and the methods of interpretation and analysis which have been adopted;
6 - explicit acknowledgement of all previous work which has contributed to the research;
7 - specific interpretation of the data collected, to assess its usefulness in relation to the initial research questions;
8 - evaluation of the extent to which the project has achieved its aims, together with an account of the ways in which the process of research has led to changes in the initial formulations of the questions;
9 - a willingness to publicize the research. (BRUMFIT, 2001, p. 145, 146)
Ways of Doing Research
Research can be carried out in many different ways; however there are two main approaches:
Qualitative research: It is a subjective method of enquiry concerned with gathering understanding of human behavior from the actor’s own frame of reference. It investigates naturalistically and uncontrolled data and focuses more on the ‘why’ and ‘how’ instead of only on the ‘what’, ‘where’ and ‘when’. Process is oriented.
Quantitative research: It is an objective method of enquiry concerned with the systematic empirical investigation of social phenomena via statistical, mathematical or computational techniques. Outcome is oriented.
In other words, we can say that the purpose of qualitative research is to understand and interpret social interactions, while the purpose of quantitative research is to test hypotheses, look at cause and effect, and make predictions. Other differences between these two approaches are:
Even though there are certainly many differences between them, if we consider them carefully, we will see that they cannot really be opposed to each other. In fact, according to Brumfit (2001):
“If we are examining something that can be objectively described (either numerically, or by explicit and economical records of other kinds), there is no sense in not making use of such data. On the other hand, if the questions we are interested in cannot be quantified simply, we should not avoid them solely on those grounds… As long as objectivity is achieved where that is possible, the research will be valuable.”
Also, depending on the type of research that is being carried out, qualitative and quantity research can be combined. The advantages of combining these two approaches might include:
• Research development;
• confirmation of results;
• complementarities.
In fact for some authors like Nunan (2007), the distinction between qualitative and quantitative research is simplistic and naïve because he believes they are indistinguishable in many respects.
Doing research and teaching are two very different things. Doing research involves contemplation, while teaching involves action. Even though it is not easy to combine both practices, it is certainly very rewarding for those who do. When the teacher is able to distance him/herself from the classroom experience in order to reflect upon and understand the teaching / learning process, what it is to be a teacher, etc. s/he becomes a more mature professional and will be able to improve his/her teaching environment.
Brumfit (2001) suggests some major options in language classroom research. These are:
 • Studies of language learning based on the observed performance of individuals in typical classes;
• comparisons of learners’ language experiences inside and outside the classroom setting;
• analyses of the relationship between theoretical ideas, teaching materials and syllabuses, and classroom practices;
• analyses of different teaching styles, relating to factors such as materials used, types of learner, size of class, etc.;
• analyses of the beliefs of teachers about their practices and needs, related to actual classroom practice;
• analyses of the beliefs of learners about their practices and needs, related to their degree of success;
• case studies of classrooms in particular contexts, attempting to draw upon and synthesize elements of all the above. (BRUMFIT, 2001, p. 151, 152)
Language teachers can benefit a lot from doing research. The main advantage of being a teacher and a researcher is that it allows the practitioner to work responsibly and professionally. This is due to the fact that serious and competent research conducted in the language classroom might make genuine contributions to the understanding of the teaching / learning process and, thus, help the practitioner make better choices in order to improve it.
Why Should Research Interest Language Teachers?
Language teachers might also benefit from the research of others. However, they should seek relevant data carefully. Nunan (2007) suggests that,
“If teachers are to benefit from the research of others, and if they are to contextualize research outcomes against the reality of their own classrooms, they need to be ableto read the research reports of others in an informed and critical way. Unfortunately, published research is all too often presented in neat, unproblematic packages, and critical skills are needed to get beneath the surface and evaluate the reliability and validity of research outcomes.”
Reliability concerns the consistency and replicability of research. Internal reliability concerns the consistency of data collection, analysis, and interpretation. External reliability concerns the extent to which other researchers can reproduce the study and obtain similar results.
Validity is an indication of how solid your claims are. If your findings really represent the phenomenon you are studying, we can say that your claims are valid. Internal validity concerns the interpretability of research. External validity concerns the extent to which results can be generalized.
Doing Research
This initial step is the one most likely to cause more trouble, especially to those people who are new at doing research. This is due to the fact that not all questions are researchable. According to Nunan (2007), we need to ask the right kind of questions. In order to find out if the questions are right, it is important to note whether they are:
• Worth asking in the first place;
• capable of being answered.
There are many questions and issues that can be investigated, but are not relevant. Usually, the questions which are the easiest to answer are not worth asking. On the other hand, there are many relevant questions which cannot really be answered in a practical sense. Therefore, there should be a balance between relevance and feasibility.
The literature review is an essential part of the project because it not only provides background information on the research question, but it also identifies what others have said about it. The literature review should be carried out systematically in order to acquaint you with previous work in the field.
Implementing the research question - In order to avoid threats to the reliability and validity of the research, practitioners should try to anticipate the practical problems likely to be encountered along the way, and also, potential solutions to them.
Presenting the research - Finally, it is time to make your work public. There are several ways of presenting the results of your work such as: presentations at conferences, theses, academic articles, or monographs, among others.
Writing up the results of a research might not be very easy in the beginning, but the process can be facilitated if you have a clear idea of who your audience is. You can also count on the help of a more experienced researcher in the beginning.
AULA 5
Significant changes have been taking place in our society lately, and these include family configuration and/or dynamics, labor market insertion, access to information and technology, and human relationships in general, just to name a few.
Due to these changes, the co-responsibility of the school and of the teachers in the full development of children and adolescents has increased, requiring these professionals to adjust their practices to these new social demands.
In order to adapt themselves and their practice to the needs of a changing society and to improve the quality of their teaching, teachers should rethink their role in the classroom. In fact, instead of merely transmitting knowledge which is produced in universities by researchers, teachers should be able to reflect upon the subject they teach, adapt it and their teaching to their students’ needs, as well as produce knowledge themselves.
However, according to Oliveri, Coutrim and Nunes (2010), teachers do not usually think of themselves as producers of knowledge, instead, they tend to rely solely on the knowledge produced by researchers. This is due to the fact that their primary concern is usually with the action of teaching.
Ellis (1998) explains that the social world of a teacher and of a researcher are usually very different. He argues that...
“Teachers operate in classrooms where they need to make instantaneous decisions regarding what and how to teach. Researchers, more often than not, work in universities, where a system of rewards prizes rigorous contributions to a theoretical understanding of issues. Teachers require and seek to develop practical knowledge; researchers endeavor to advance technical knowledge. This distinction, then, encapsulates the divide that often exists between the two.” (ELLIS, 1998:39)
Professional Development
In spite of that, Nunan (2001) suggests that teachers might benefit considerably from reflecting on and examining their own practice systematically. In fact, systematic collection of data from their own practice followed by its analysis and reflection upon the results might help teachers to make better choices in the future about their practice. In other words, the researcher teacher is more likely to accelerate and enhance his/her professional development.
Besides, the ability to distance oneself from the often complex, dynamic and confusing environment of the classroom to reflect upon it and come up with solutions, in order to improve, it is part of maturing as a teacher. It is definitely not an easy process, because it demands sensitivity and commitment on the part of the practitioner.
Nunan (2011) argues that it is extremely important that research in the classroom is not carried out exclusively by outsiders, but by teachers themselves. He explains that...
“Knowing how to teach, knowing as an outsider what teachers do, and knowing from experience the practice of teaching, are three different modes of understanding. By combining them, a fuller picture of the teaching process will be built up than by relying on one only. And exactly the same points can be made about knowing language learning processes. The risk for teachers is that research will come too much from outside the profession, so that the contingent and contradictory experiences actually encountered in schools and classrooms are neglected in the efforts of outside researchers to be tidy and concentrated.” (NUNAN, 2001: 153,154)
Types of Research
Focus on the Learner
Traditionally there had been a focus on what teachers did in the classroom, instead of on what students were learning. Students used to be seen as passive learners who were not supposed to take responsibility for their own learning. The teacher’s job was basically to lecture, design assignments and tests, and grade students. This approach to teaching was called teacher-centered teaching / instruction.
More recently there has been a change from this traditional approach to one that focuses more on what the student is learning, how s/he is doing it and under what conditions. In this approach the teacher still has the functions s/he had in the teacher-centered teaching, “but also provides students with opportunities to learn independently and from one another and coaches them in the skills they need to do so effectively” (FELDER, 1996). This approach has been called student-centered teaching / instruction.
Student-centered teaching should take into account the reason(s) why learners study a specific foreign language so that the syllabus meets these students’ needs. 
According to Nunan (1999) students’ needs can be of two kinds: objective or subjective.
Objective needs → these needs can be diagnosed through the analysis of the students’ personal information associated with information obtained about their linguistic proficiency. 
Subjective needs → these needs are the desire and expectations these students have.
In order to identify students’ needs and to learn which abilities and linguistic knowledge they need to be able to communicate in the foreign language, Nunan (1999) suggests that the questionnaire should be used.
Some authors believe that student-centered teaching is not appropriate to all and every situation, after all students have different learning styles and no approach could be optimal for everyone.However, a number of successful outcomes have been documented in the educational literature since this approach started being employed.
Felder and Brent (1996) point out that student-centered teaching:
“…increased motivation to learn, greater retention of knowledge, deeper understanding, and more positive attitudes toward the subject being taught."
Thus, it can be said that in a student-centered class the students are more involved in the learning process than in the more traditional approach. Besides, since their talking time in the classroom is maximized through pair work and group work, they truly have a chance to develop their speaking and listening skills. Also, student-centered activities are usually enjoyable and stimulating, thus they keep students motivated and interested.
AULA 6
Class no.1 - Academic Presentations
In our first lesson, we argued that communication is a comprehensive interchange of meaning between individuals, through symbols. We also saw that communication can be either verbal or non-verbal. Verbal communication is a property which is exclusive to mankind, while non-verbal communication is the sending of messages through facial expressions, gestures and body movements.
Class no.2 – The Seminar
In our second class we discussed how powerful tool the seminar might be in the construction of knowledge and scientific findings. We also saw that it demands discipline, rigor and sistematicity from the student, in order to be a productive academic activity.
We argued that the seminar might be presented by a group of people or by one person only and we considered the advantages and disadvantages of each.
After discussing the seminar as the presentation of a systematic and detailed study about a specific topic to an audience, we moved on to our next class where we talked about applied linguistics and the study of language practices.
Class no.3 – Applied Linguistics
In our third lesson, you were introduced to an interdisciplinary field of studies called applied linguistics and you learned that despite its name it should not be confused with linguistics. The main difference between them is that linguists are basically concerned with the scientific study of language in general while applied linguists are mainly concerned with the investigation of real-world problems in which language is a central issue.
According to Cook (2010) the main areas of concern for applied linguists are:
• language and education;
• language, work and law;
• language information and effect.
However, the British Association for Applied Linguistics (BAAL) claims the following areas as their main concern:
• language acquisition;
• language teaching;
• language disabilities;
• language varieties;
• language in literature;
• language policies;
• languages in social services;
• translation;
• interpretation.
We explained that due to the complexities of language-related problems in the real world, applied linguistics must draw on several other disciplines, such as psychology, sociology, education, measurement theory, among others, and, of course, develop its own theories as well.
Regarding English language teaching in Brazil, we saw that several applied linguists have been concerned about both teachers’ and students’ attitudes towards this language. While some authors, like Moita Lopes, have criticized those practitioners who totally absorb the foreign language culture, others have been focusing on teachers’ development and reflexive teaching. 
They defend that the complete formation of a teacher does not happen only during his/her graduation course, but it’s a continuous learning process.
We also talked about CALx – Critical Applied Linguistics, which is a separate development of applied linguistics. It has developed its own autonomous research communities. Critical applied linguists are engaged with social change and in order to accomplish this, these professionals need to incorporate work in critical political theory into applied linguistics.
Class no.4 – Research – Part I
In class no.4 we learned that research is a process of inquiry that involves systematic and scientific approach and the application of specialist knowledge and skills. We also learned that it consists of three components:
A question, problem or hypothesis; Data; Analysis or interpretation of data.
According to Brumfit (2006), serious, competent research that aims at providing better explanation of phenomena must be public, systematic and useful. 
We also talked about the two main approaches of conducting research:
Qualitative research - Aims at understanding and interpreting social interactions.
Quantitative research - Aims at testing hypotheses, looking at cause and effect, and making predictions.
Class no.5 – Research – Part II
In class no. 5 we saw that due to new social demands, teachers have been called upon to reflect on the subject they teach, adapt it and their teaching to their students’ needs, as well as produce knowledge themselves. However, since their primary concern is usually with the action of teaching, they do not usually think of themselves as producers of knowledge. Therefore, they tend to rely solely on the knowledge produced by researchers.
Nonetheless, the researcher teacher is more likely to accelerate and enhance his/her professional development and make better choices in the future about his/her practice. Also, when teachers conduct their own research they are able to transform knowledge through action, instead of simply acting on technical knowledge.
Also, the role of teacher in the classroom has been changing lately from a traditional approach, i.e. teacher-centered, to one that focuses more on what the student is learning, how s/he is doing it and under what conditions, i.e. learner-centered.
In a student-centered class the students seem to be more involved in the learning process than in the more traditional approach. In fact, a learner-centered class tends to keep students more motivated and interested.
AULA 7 
Doing Qualitative and Quantitative Research
The need to understand the environment and the nature of the phenomena that presents to our senses has always been present throughout human history. In their search for truth, people have made use of different means. These can be classified into three broad categories:
Experience
Reasoning
Research
“Far from being independent and mutually exclusive, however, these categories must be seen as complementary and overlapping, features most readily in evidence where solutions to complex modern problems are sought.”
(Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2007: 5)
In order to deal with daily problems and situations, laypeople tend to rely heavily on experience and authority.
However, when compared to the scientific-approach to problem-solving, it is clear to see that this common-sense knowing has severe limitations. 
This is mainly due to the fact that while experience deals with events that occur in a random and disorganized manner, research is systematic and controlled.
However, common-sense knowing and reasoning should not be discarded, since they might also contribute to our understanding of the world. Borg (1963) proposes that we combine different approaches in order to discover truth.
“Research is a combination of both experience and reasoning and must be regarded as the most successful approach to the discovery of truth, particularly as far as the natural sciences are concerned.” (Borg, 1963)
Since researchers set out deliberately to discover something about the world and to use this information in order to make claims, we conclude that the essential characteristic of research is that it is purposeful (Richards, 2003).
Educational Research
According to Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007), scientific research in education might benefit practitioners significantly in at least two different ways. First of all, it helps them develop a sound knowledge base about their profession. Secondly, it ensures the field of educationmaturity development and a sense of progression.
 In our class no. 4 we talked about the steps to be followed in planning and doing research. We also considered two types of research - namely, qualitative and quantitative research. In this class, we are going to consider them more thoroughly.
Qualitative Research
Qualitative inquiry is basically concerned with reaching a better understanding of some aspects of the lived world. Richards (2003) argues that despite the fact that it demands a good deal of rigor, precision, sistematicity and careful attention to detail on the part of the researcher, qualitative inquiry is sometimes accused by some researchers of being soft, speculative and concerned with data. Quantitative research, on the other hand, is seen by those same researchers as being scientific, serious, and concerned with facts.
However, Richards (2003) argues that this view of qualitative research is totally unfounded. In fact, he explains that even though quantitative research can definitely explain different sorts of phenomena and provide us with valuable information, it cannot account for all the complexities of our social world. He goes on to say that in some cases, the qualitative approach offers the best source of understanding. Particularly in the field of language teaching, this approach is very appropriate, since it is a person-centered enterprise.
“Human beings are wonderfully adept at confounding the sort of predictions that operate in the natural world, which is why a different sort of investigative approach is needed in the human sciences, one that will seek to understand the patterns and purpose in our behavior and provide insights that will enrich our understanding. As practicing teachers, we operate in a professional context which is at best only loosely predictable but where we can draw strength from our shared understandings and experiences.” (RICHARDS, 2003, p. 9)
Richards (2003), then, presents the essential characteristics of this inquiry. They reflect the richness and complexity of the qualitative field.
Seven Core Traditions in Qualitative Inquiry
Richards (2003) identifies seven core traditions in qualitative inquiry that are relevant to our field of language teaching. These are:
• Ethnography → focus on the social world (description and interpretation of group);
• Grounded theory → focus on the social world (development of theory);
• Phenomenology → focus on lived experience;
• Case study → focus on particular cases;
• Life history → focus on the person;
• Action research → focus on professional action;
• Conversation analysis → focus on social interaction.
Quantitative Research
According to Babbie (2010), the goal of quantitative research is to verify the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent or outcome variable in a specific population. In other words, it is basically concerned with classifying features, counting them, and constructing statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed.
There are two different types of quantitative research designs:
In a descriptive study, subjects are usually measured once. It establishes only associations between variables.
In an experimental study, subjects are measured before and after a treatment. It establishes causality.
Also, unlike the qualitative enquiry, quantitative enquiry deals with numbers, logic and the objective.
It focuses on logic, numbers, and unchanging static data. It is also concerned with detailed, convergent reasoning rather than divergent reasoning.
As we could see from studying the table, quantitative methods attempts to have an objective approach to studying problems, where data is controlled and measured, in order to address the accumulation of facts, and to determine the causes of behavior. Consequently, the results of quantitative research might be statistically significant but humanly insignificant.
 As we mentioned in class no. 4 qualitative and quantitative research should not be opposed to each other. In fact, depending on the type of research that is being carried out, qualitative and quantity research can and should be combined.
 
AULA 8